LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. % 



If,,. DO |o W r isM 1 
^ f££i> # 

! UNITED STATES OP AMERICA, f 



Chestnut Street. 
1866. 



THE 



BIBLE HAND-BOOK 



AN INTRODUCTION 



TO 



JOSEPH ANGUS, D.D., 



REVISED EDITION WITH ILLUSTRATIONS. 



PHILADELPHIA: A 
JAMES S. OLAXTON, 

SUCCESSOR TO WM. S. & ALFRED MARTIEN, 
GOG Chestnut Street. 
1866. 



.A* 



Stereotyped and Printed by 
Alfred Martien. 



PREFACE. 



The following pages are intended as an introduction to the 
study of Scripture, and are written with the view of being 
used by all classes of intelligent readers. On a first perusal 
by younger readers, it is suggested that the sections marked 
( a ) in the table of contents, be omitted, together with sunk 
paragraphs as may be thought too abstruse. The attempt to 
adapt the work to both young and advanced students, renders 
such a selection at the outset desirable ; and the whole has 
been written so as to make the portions read, in the first in- 
stance, easily intelligible and complete in themselves. On 
the other hand, any who wish to consult the book on particular 
subjects — as on the study of the Greek Testament, or on the 
proof of particular doctrines — can easily do so by the help of 
the index. 

If any wish to connect the study of these pages with the 
study of Theological Science generally, he will find the fol- 
lowing classification important. 

Theology is Exegetical, Historical/ Systematic, and Pas- 
toral : — 

Under the head of Exegetical Theology are placed — 

Philology, or the study of the languages of Scripture, with their 
cognate dialects, see ch. i. sees. 2, 4; ch. iv. sec. 5. 

Criticism, which aims first to establish a correct text, and secondly, 
to explain the peculiarities of the style, etc., of the several 
books, see ch. i. sees. 1, 3, 5, 6; ch. vi. sec. 1, and Introductions 
to Pent., Gospels, Epistles, etc. 

Hermeneutics, or the theory and practice of interpretation, ch. i. 
sec. 6; ch. iv., and ch. vi. 

(iii) 



PREFACE. 



Under the head of Historical Theology are placed— 
Archaeology, with its two divisions : Biblical Archaeology, which 
treats of ancient customs, etc., see. eh. iv. sec. 6, and Ecclesiastical , 
which treats of the opinions of early Jewish and Christian sects 
and writers, see ch. iv. sec. 6 ; Part ii. ch. iv. sec. 2 ; ch. vi. sec. 
1 ; ch. vii. sec. 1. 
History op Doctrine, of which this volume does not treat. 

Under the head of Systematic Theology are placed— * 
1 Dogmatic Theology, which treats of matters of faith, etc. 
Practical Theology, which treats of practice. 

See chaps, iii., v., vii., and Introduction to Cor., Romans, etc. 

Under the head of Pastoral Theology are placed — 
Homiletics, of which this volume treats but indirectly, see 
ch. vii. 

The Pastoral Care and Ecclesiastical Law, of which nothing 
is said here. 

The Evidence oe Christianity, and the External 
History of the Church of Christ, are distinct branches of 
inquiry. Of the first, the following pages treat at some lengthy 
chap. i. sec. 1 ; chap. ii. sec. 1-4, etc. 

To some of the subjects enumerated in this list, this volume 
is only an introduction intended to guide the advanced reader 
to larger works; but on most, it will be found sufficiently full 
to enable earnest-minded inquirers to study and master the 
evidences, facts, and doctrines of Scripture for themselves. 
Its aim is to teach men to understand and appreciate The 
Bible, and, at the same time, to give such information on 
ancient literature and history as may aid the work of general 
education among all classes. 



CONTENTS. 



Page. 

Preface 3 



PART I. 

Introductory 11 

CHAPTER I. 

On the Genuineness of Scripture : or the Bible as Inspired 

Men wrote it . . . . . . .15 

Sec. 1. Genuineness defined and proved, g 6-24. 

Sec. 2. a The original languages of Scripture. Hebrew and the 

Shemitish languages generally ; Hellenistic or Hebrew 

Greek of the New Testament" and LXX, \ 25-41. 
Sec. 3. a The manuscripts of Scripture, \ 42-64. 
Sec. 4. a The ancient versions of Scripture, \ 65-74. 
Sec. 5. a The various readings of Scripture: rules for determining 

the text, I 75-112. 
Sec. 6. The English version on the whole identical with the 

original text, \ 113-134. 



CHAPTER II. 

On the Authenticity and Authority of Scripture . . 83 
Sec. 1. Scripture claims to be regarded as an inspired teacher, 

and as the only inspired teacher, \ 135-145. 
Sec. 2. Inspiration, §.146-150. 
Sec. 3. The canon, £ 151-166. 
Sec. 4. Scripture evidences, I 167-213. 

1* (v) 



vi 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER III. 

Pa m 

Peculiarities of the Bible as a Revelation from God . . 1-11 
Sec. 1. A revelation of God, of Christ, and of human nature, 
I 214-218. 

Sec. 2. A revelation of spiritual religious truth, \ 219-227. 
Sec. 3. A gradual and progressive revelation, \ 228-238. 
Sec. 4. The unity of the Bible, \ 239-245. 

Sec. 5. Not a revelation of systematic truth or specific rules, 
I 246-253. 

CHAPTER IV 

On the Interpretation of Scripture 167 

Sec. 1. Of the necessity for care in the study of Scripture, 
I 254-269. 

Sec. 2. Of the spirit in which the Bible should be studied, 
I 270-273. 

Sec. 3. Of rules of interpretation, \ 274-309. 
Sec. 4. Of the utility and application of rules in interpretation, 
I 310, 311. 

Sec. 5. a Of the application of these rules to the study of the 
original Scriptures, $ 312-338. 

Sec. 6. Of the use of external helps in interpretation ; Jewish 
and heathen opinions; history, profane and ecclesi- 
astical ; chronology ; natural history ; manners and cus- 
toms ; geography, historical and physical, \ 339-404. 

Sec. 7. Of the application of these rules to the interpretation of 
allegories, parables, types, and symbols, \ 405-433. 

Sec. 8. a Of the interpretation of prophecy, \ 434-454. 

CHAPTER V. 

On the Systematic and Inferential Study of the Scrip- 
tures 352 

Sec. 1. Of the study of the doctrines of Scripture, \ 455-464. 
Sec. 2. Of the study of the precepts of Scripture, \ 465-472. 
Sec. 3. Of the study of the promises of Scripture, $ 473-480. 
Sec. 4. Of the study of the examples of Scripture, \ 481-487. 



CONTENTS. 



vii 



CHAPTER VI. 

Page. 

Principles and Rules illustrated in the Quotations of the 
New Testament from the Old, and applied to the So- 
lution of Scripture Difficulties .... 378 
Sec. l. a Quotations classified and examined with reference to the 
state of the text, the truths and evidences of Scripture, 
and principles of interpretation, \ 489-500. 
Sec. 2. Scripture difficulties, § 501-523. 

CHAPTER VII. 

On the Inferential and Practical Reading of the Bible . 408 

PART It 

THE BOOKS OF THE BIBLE. 
Introductory • 423 

CHAPTER I. 

The Pentateuch and the Book of Job 428 

Sec. 1. Genuineness and authenticity of the Pentateuch, \ 7-13. 

Sec. 2. The Book of Job, \ 14-17. 

Sec. 3. Of Hebrew poetry and the Poetical Books, $ 18. 

Sec. 4. The Books of the Pentateuch, arranged and epitomized 

with occasional helps, $ 19-24. 
Sec. 5. The design of the Law ; summary of its religious institu- 
tions, \ 25-31. 

CHAPTER II.' 

Historical and Poetical Books to the Death oi Solomon . 473 
Sec. 1. The Historical Books of Scripture generally, \ 32-35. 
Sec. 2. Brief Outline of these Historical Books, g 36. 
Sec, 3. The Books of Joshua, Judges, and Ruth, \ 37-42. 
Sec. 4. The Books of Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles, g 43-51 
Sec. 5. The Poetical Books— Psalms, Song of Solomon, Proverbs, 
and Ecclesiastes, \ 52-62. 



viii 



CONTENTS. 



Page. 

Sec. 6. The whole arranged and epitomized, with occasional 
helps, I 63-68. 



CHAPTER III. 

Historical Books prom the Death of Solomon to the Close 

or the Old Testament Canon . . . . 523 

Sec. 1. Brief historical view of this period; the Prophets in con- 
nection with history, \ 69-73. 
Sec. 2. The nature of Prophecy during this period ; Predictions 
arranged according to time and according to subjects, 
I 74-76. 

Sec. 3. The Books of Jonah, Joel, Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, Micah, 

Nahum, § 77-87. 
Sec. 4. The Books of Zephaniah, Jeremiah, Habakknk, Daniel, 

Ezekiel, and Obadiah. The Captivity, \ 88-94. 
Sec. 5. The Books of Ezra, Haggai, Zechariah, Esther, Nehemiah^ 

and Malachi, \ 95-102. 
Sec. 6. The whole arranged and epitomized, g 103-106. 
Sec. 7. Chronology of Scripture and early profane history from 

the Deluge to the close of the Canon, \ 107. 



CHAPTER IV. 



Civil and Moral History of the Jews from Malachi to John 

the Baptist . 599 

Sec. 1. Sketch of the Civil History of the Jews between the two 

Testaments g 108-115. 
Sec. 2. Sketch of the Moral and Religious History of the Jews 
between the two Testaments, g 116-128. 



CHAPTER V. 

The Gospels .613 
Introductory, \ 129-134. 

Sec. 1. The Gospels in their mutual relations, § 135, 136. 

Sec. 2. The genuineness of the Gospels, \ 137. 

Sec. 3. Introduction to Matthew, Mark, Luke, John, \ 138-141. 

Sec. 4. The Chronology of the Gospels, \ 142. 

Sec. 5. The Gospels Harmonized, \ 143-150. 



CONTENTS* 



Page. 

Sec. 6. Topics to be noticed in reading the Gospels. Lessons to 
be gathered from a comparison of passageSj § 151-152. 

CHAPTER VI. 

The Book op Acts 636 

Sec. 1. The Gospel and the Gentiles, \ 153-161. 

Sec. 2. Introduction to the Book of Acts, \ 162, 163. 

Sec. 3. Chronology of the Acts and Epistles arranged, \ 164-166. 

CHAPTER VII. 

The Epistles ahd the Book oe Revelation .... 647 

Sec. 1. On the study of the Epistles, \ 167-169. 

Sec. 2. On the genuineness of the Epistles, \ 170. 

Sec. 3. Helps to study of 1 and 2 Thessalonians, Galatians, 1 and 
2 Corinthians, Romans, James, Epbesians, Colossians, 
Philemon, Philippians, Hebrews, 1 Peter, 1 Timothy, 
Titus, 2 Peter, 2 Timothy, Jude, and precepts given 
in each, with epitome of Doctrinea, \ 171-195. 

Sec. 4. Helps to the study of 1, 2, and 3 John, and to the Book 
of Revelation, \ 196-204. 



THE BIBLE HAND-BOOK. 



PART I. 




The Sestertius of Vespasian: A. D. 69. Actual Size. 
It commemorates the conquest of Judsea. The country is represented by the Palm 
Tree, beneath which is a sitting figure, the " captive daughter of Zion," in an 
attitude of dejection. The emperor stands by, holding a lance, and with his foot 
on a helmet. Judiea capta (Judsea taken): S. C. (by decree of the Senate). 

INTRODUCTORY. 

" I use the Scriptures not as an arsenal to be resorted to only for armg 
and weapons . . .but as a matchless temple, where I delight to contem- 
plate the beauty, the symmetry, and the magnificence of the structure ; 
and to increase my awe and excite my devotion to the Deity there 
preached and adored." — Boyle : On the Style of Scripture, 3d obj. 8. 

"Scarcely can we fix our eyes upon a single passage in this wonderful 
book which has not afforded comfort or instruction to thousands, and 
been met with tears of penitential sorrow or grateful joy drawn from 
eyes that will weep no more." — Paysoh : The Bible above all Price. 

"This lamp, from off the everlasting throne, 
Mercy took down, and in the night of time 
Stood, casting on the dark her gracious bow, 
And evermore beseeching men with tears 
And earnest sighs, to hear, believe, and live." — Pollok. 

1. Even as a literary composition, the sacred Scriptures 
form the most remarkable book the world has ever rri 

The Bible: 

seen. They are of all writings the most ancient. its claims, 



12 



THE BIBLE— HOW TO BE STUDIED. 



They contain a record of events of the deepest interest. The 
history of their influence is the history of civilization and 
happiness. The wisest and best of mankind have borne wit- 
ness to their power as an instrument of enlightenment and of 
holiness ; and having been prepared by " men of God who 
spake as they were moved by the Holy Ghost, " a to reveal " the 
only true God and Jesus Christ whom he has sent," b they 
have on this ground the strongest claims- upon our attentive 
and reverential regard. 

The use of a hand-book of Scripture requires one or two 
cautions, which both writers and readers need to keep before 
them. 

2. First. We are not to contemplate this glorious fabric of 
To be stud- Divine truth as spectators only. It is not our busi- 
fofthand iness to stand before Scripture and admire it ; but 
obedience. -j- s tand within, that we may believe and obey it. 
In the way of inward communion and obedience only shall 
we see the beauty of its treasures. It yields them to none 
but the loving and the humble. We must enter and unite 
ourselves with that which we would know, before we can 
know it more than in name. 

3.. Secondly. Nor must the study of a help to Scripture be 
ah helps of confounded with the study of Scripture itself. Such 

value onlyas J x 

they lead to helps may teach us to look at truth so as to see its 

the Bible 7 . , 

itself. position and proportions, but it is the entrance of 
truth alone which gives light. The road we are about to 
travel may prove attractive and pleasing, but its great atti ac- 
tion is its end. It leads to the "wells of salvation." To 
suppose that the journey, or the sight of the living water — 
perhaps, even of the place whence it springs — will quench 
our thirst, is to betray most mournful self-deceit or the pro- 
foundest ignorance. Our aim — " the sabbath and port of our 
labors" — is to make more clear and impressive the Book oi 
God, " the god of books, " d as one calls it, the Bible itself. 
a 2 Pot. i. 21. bj ] 1G xv ii. 3. p s . xiy 

cprov. ii. 2-5: John vii. 17. d The Synagogue, No. xiv. 



THE BIBLE — ITS TITLES. 



13 



4. The names by which this volume is distinguished are 
not wanting in significance. It is called the Bible, Itsnames 
or the booh, from the Greek word /3i#Ao?, book, a The Bible - 
name given originally (like liber in Latin) to the inner bark 
of the linden, or teil-tree, and afterwards to the bark of the 
papyrus, the materials of which early books were sometimes 
made. 

It is called the Old and New Testament (that is, covenant 
or appointment), the term by which God was pleased 01dandNew 
to indicate the relation or settled arrangement be- Testament, 
tween himself and his people. The term was first applied to 
the relation itself, a and afterwards to the books in which the 
records of the relation are contained. 

Among the Jews, the Old Testament was called "The Law, 
the Prophets, and the Writings." Sometimes the TheLaw 
writings, or (as the Greek name is) the Hagiographa et^ndSoiy 
were called, from the first book under the division, Writings, 
the Psalms." 

What books were included in these divisions we gather 
from ancient Jewish authorities. Josephus reckons two-and- 
twenty canonical books of the Old Testament, and the whole 
may be thus divided :— 

The five books of Moses [rhifi], Torah. The Law. 

The Prophets [b^ps], Nebiim. 

The historical division t^a^. Nebiim Rishonim . 

namely — 

1. Joshua. 6. Daniel. 

2. Judges and Ruth, 7. Ezra and Nehemiah. 

3. Samuel, 1 and 2. 8. Esther. 

4. Kings, 1 and 2. 9. Job. 

5. Chronicles, 1 and 2. 

*Ex. xxiv. 7: 2 Kings xxiii. 2: 2 Cor. iii. 6-14. in classic 

Greek is disposition, or a will ; in Hellenistic Greek, it is often equiva- 
lent to crwBmv, a covenant. Gen. xxi. 27-32: xxvi. 28: xxxi. 44, 

b Luke xxiv. 44. a (s<+ ^ jjfc 



24 THE BIBLE — ITS TITLES. 

The Prophets, properly so called, s^rina t^&OnS.. Nebiim 
Acharonim*. 

10. Isaiah., 11. Jeremiah and Lamentations. 

12. Ezekiel. 13. The twelve minor Prophets. 
And the Hagiographa, tran> Cethnbim, namely — 
The Psalms, the Proverbs, the Song of Solomon, and 
Ecclesiastes. 

In modern copies the following are also placed among the 
Hagiographia : — ■ 

Job, Euth, Lamentations, Esther, Daniel, Ezra, Nehe- 
miah and Chronicles. 
And this is the arrangement now in use in the Hebrew Scrip- 
tures. 

The terms, "the Scripture," 3 "the Scriptures," b and "the 
word of God," c are also applied in the Bible itself to 

Other ' rjr - . 

names. the sacred books; as is the expression, "the oracles 
of God;" d though this last is sometimes used to indicate the 
place where, under the old dispensation, the will of God was 
revealed. 6 "The Law" f and "the Prophets" 8 are each em- 
ployed, and sometimes unitedly h by a common figure of speech, 
to designate the whole of the Old Testament. 

The sacred writings were sometimes called the canon of 
Canon of Scripture, from a Greek word signifying a straight 
Scripture. roc | ) anc | hence a rule or law, Gal. vi. 16 : Phil. iii. 16. 
This term was employed in the early age of Christianity with 
some indefiniteness, though generally denoting a standard of 
opinion and practice. From the time of Origen, however, it 
has been applied to the books which are regarded by Chris- 
tians as of Divine authority. The Bible, therefore, is the canon 
that is, the authoritative standard of religion and morality. 

5. Of all these titles, the "word of God" is perhaps the most 

1 John x. 35 : Jas. iv. 5. b Luke xxiv. 27. 

c Luke xi. 28 : Prov. xxx. 5. * Acts vii. 38 : Eom. iii. 2 : Heb. v. 12. 
e 1 Kings viii. 6 : 2 Chron iv. 20 : Ps. xxviii. 2. 
'Mat. v. IS: John x. 34: 1 Cor. xiv. 21. 

« Mat. xxvi. 56 : Acts iii. 18-21 : xxviii. 23. * Mat. xi. 13 : xxii. 40, 



THE BIBLE — ITS GENUINENESS. 



15 



impressive and complete. It is sufficient to justify Theword 
the faith of the feeblest Christian, and it gathers up of God - 
all that the most earnest search can unfold. W e may say 
more at large what this title involves, but more than this we 
cannot say. It teaches us to regard the Bible as the utterance 
-of Divine wisdom and love. 




The Jewish Shekel. Actual Size— Silver. 
The earliest Jewish coined money (B. C. 125). ■ On one side is "Aaron's rod that 
budded," on the other the "pot of manna." The inscription, in Samaritan char- 
acters, is "Shekel of Israel," and "Jerusalem the Holy." The date (the "second 
year," L e. of Simon) is written over the pot of manna, 



CHAPTER I. 

ON THE GENUINENESS OF SCRIPTURE : OR THE BIBLE, AS 
INSPIRED MEN WROTE IT. 

" The integrity of the records of the Christian faith is substantiated 
by evidence, in a tenfold proportion, more various, copious and con- 
clusive than that which can be adduced in support of any other ancient 
writings." — Isaac Taylor. 

Sec. 1. — Genuineness Defined And Proved. 

6. If a MS. of each book of the Bible in the author's hand- 
writing were still extant, and if the fact of its being A genuine 
such could be proved, every copy that agreed with Ms - what - 
the MS. would be perfectly genuine. There are now, how- 



18 



GENUINENESS — PRINTED COPIES. 



ever, no such autographs of any ancient books ; and yet there 
are circumstances attending the preservation and transmission 
of the MSS. of the Scriptures, which prove their genuineness 
with nearly as much certainty as if the first copies were still 
in existence. 

7. ■ A book is said to be genuine if it be as it was written by 
Genuine- ^e au thor whose name it bears : if the present text 
ness denned. f th a t book varies from the text he wrote, it is said 
to be corrupt, and if the book was not written by the pre- 
tended author, it is said to be forged or spurious. 

8. The question of the genuineness of Scripture is much 
p . t . simplified by the invention of printing. That art 
shortens an fixes the dates of books, and by multiplying copies 
inquiry. editions secures the text from corruption. As 
printed books cannot be altered by the pen, any material 
change of the text becomes impossible or nugatory. The 
MSS. of printed books are now committed therefore without 
fear of falsification "to the immortal custody of the press." 

9. There are still extant, for example, printed copies of the 
p . t d Old Testament in Hebrew, dated Soncino, A. D. 
copies of 1488, and Brixise, A. D. 1494. A copy of the year 
tures, a.'d. 1488 is in the library of Exeter College, Oxford, and 

in the Royal Library at Berlin is the identical copy 
(dated 1494) from which Luther made his German translation. 
There are extant also copies of the New Testament in Greek, 
dated Basil, 1516, edited by Erasmus, and in Greek and Latin, 
dated Alcala or Complutum (in Spain), 1514. On being com- 
pared with each other, and with modern editions, these copies 
are found to agree in the main. They, therefore, prove by a 
single step, the existence of the Scriptures in the 15th cen- 
tury. They prove, also, that the text of modern editions has 
• not been materially impaired during the last 350 years. 

10. These two editions of the New Testament which are 
TcxtuH founded upon a very partial examination of MSS. 
Receptus. f orm t j ie basis of the Received Text. The first 
edition of that text was printed in 1624, by Elzevir. Besides 



GENUINENESS — MANUSCEIPTS. 



1? 



tlie two editions just named, lie had the advantage of consulting 
the editions of Stephens (Paris, 1546), and of Beza(Gen. 1565), 
but did not introduce from them many important readings. 

11. At the time these volumes were printed, there were 
MS. copies of the Scriptures in most of the public 

... . 1 ■ _ _L . . _ \ . MSS.of the 

libraries of Europe. They form, with the writings Scripture^, 
of the Fathers, or of other ecclesiastical authors of 1457 to the 
the middle ages, the bulk of most library catalogues 4t 1 century " 
of the 15th century. Dr. Kennicott collated 630 of these MSS. 
for his critical edition of the Hebrew Bible. De Rossi collated 
734 more. And upwards of 600 MSS. have been examined 
for recent editions of the Greek Testament. 

12. In the case of the Greek and Roman classics, twenty, or 
ten MSS. are deemed amply sufficient to form an Compared 
accurate text : fifteen MSS. of Herodotus are known as to num- 

.. . n bers with 

to critics, of which the most ancient belongs to the mss. of 
10th century: and this is a fair average of the an- 
cient MSS. of classic authors. It is obvious, therefore, that 
the advantage in this respect is greatly on the side of the 
Scriptures. The number of MSS. has afforded ample pro- 
vision for restoring the text to its original purity, and sfc 
the same time gives absolute security against extensive cor- 
ruptions. 

13. The MSS. of the Hebrew Scriptures, now extant, were 
most of them written between the years A. D. 1000 

if -Ago of Heb. 

and A. D. 1457. Some, however, belong to the 8th mss. and of 
and 9th centuries, among which are two of the MSS. 
(Nos. 634, 503), lately in the possession of M. de Rossi, by 
whom the various readings they contain were published. 
The MSS. of the New Testament, and of the Septuagint, or 
Greek translation of the Old, are earlier still. The Alexan- 
drian MS. (Godex Alexandrinus, called A by Wetstein, Gries- 
bach, and other critics), now in the British Museum, compris- 
ing, in four volumes, small folio, both Old and New Testaments, 
must have been written before the close of the 5th century. 
The Vatican MS. (called B), preserved in the library of the 
2* 



18 



GENUINENESS — QUOTATIONS. 



Vatican, at Eome, belongs to the '4th, as does probably the 
Codex Gottonianus (I), the remains of which are now in the 
British Museum, the various readings of the whole being pre- 
served in the works of Archbishop Usher. The Codex Eegius, 
or Ephremi (C), so called from the author Avhose works were 
written over it, the parchment being vvhat is called a rescript 
(or "twice-written," in Greek palimpsest, or "rubbed again,") 
belongs to the 6th century. The Codex Bezse (D), given by 
the reformer Beza to the University of Cambridge, belongs 
(in the opinion of "Wetstein) to the 5th century ; critics who 
give it least antiquity assigning it to the 6th or 7th. 

14. A Virgil in the Vatican claims an antiquity as high as 
, the 4th century; but generally the MSS. of the clas- 

Compared . J ° J 

with mss. sics belong;. to periods between the 10th and the 15th 

of Classics. . 

centuries. In antiquity, therefore, as m numbers, 
they are greatly inferior to the MSS. of Scriptures. ' 

15. As we reach the time of the earliest MSS. of the Scrip- 

tures, another kind of evidence presents itself no 

Quotations . ± . , 

from Scrip- less impressive : namely, the quotations of Scripture, 

ture in ec- - £ . "I . A . . 

ciesiasticai and references to it, which are found m the writings 

Their ' of the early Fathers, and in the Rabbinical para- 
nature. 

phrases. The references of classic authors one to 
another, though sufficient to establish the antiquity of the 
works quoted from, form a very inadequate provision for cor- 
recting the text of each. They are generally in the way of 
allusion ODiy to some fact or passage. Even when the refer- 
ences are more pointed, they are generally so loosely made 
as to be of little critical value. In quotations from the Scrip- 
tures the case is entirely different. They are generally made 
with the utmost care, the very words of the Sacred writers 
being introduced, and forming the subject of lengthened dis- 
cussion, or of important practical teaching. 

16. Looking first at quotations from the New Testament, we 
n L have in the 5th century the writings of Theodoret 

Quotations J 

in Cent. of Cyprus, in Syria, on the Epistles of Paul, and on 
most of the Old Testament. Still earlier, Cyril of 



GENUINENESS — VERSIONS. 



19 



Alexandria wrote on the Prophets, and on John. In the 4th 
century, Chrysostom wrote commentaries on the whole of the 
New Testament. To the same century belongs also the writ- 
ings of Gregory of Nyssa. In the 2d and 3d centuries, we 
have the writings of Origen and Theophilus, of Antioch: 
fragments of each remain (though the Seconal, in Latin only), 
and are often quoted by later writers. In the 2d century, we 
have the writings also of Irenseus, and of Clement of Alexan- 
dria! Not less important are the writings of Jerome, who 
wrote commentaries on Scripture in the 4th century. To the 
same century belong also the voluminous writings of Augus- 
tine. For a complete list, see page^. |07 

These are a few only of the authors of the early age of the 
Christian Church. In not less than one hundred N Um berof 
and eighty ecclesiastical writers (whose works are c i U0tatl0ns - 
still extant), are quotations from the New Testament intro- 
duced; and so numerous are they, that from the works of 
those who flourished before the 7th century, the whole text 
of the New Testament (it has been justly said) might have 
been recovered, even if the originals had since perished. The 
experiment was tried by Dr. Bentley, and he confirms this 
statement. 

17. A similar process of investigation into the Hebrew text 
carries us to the era of our Lord. The Targum, or Targums- 
interpretation of Onkelos, translates the Pentateuch into Chal- 
daic Hebrew (though of the purest order), and was written, 
about sixty years before Christ. The Targum of Jonathan orf 
the Prophets and historical books was written about the com- 
mencement of the Christian era. In the 4th century, Joseph 
the Blind wrote a Targum on the Hagiographa ; and a little 
later, various similar versions of other parts of Scripture were 
published. These Targuins, ten in all, are of great value in 
determining the text of Scripture, being, for, the most part, 
very literal paraphrases of the original Hebrew. 

18. To corroborate this evidence of the correctness of the 
New Testament, and to carry still further back the evidence 



20 



GENUINENESS — VEESIONS. 



on the old, we have the ancient versions of the Scriptures". 
Versions In the 9th century, a version of the Bible into the 
9th™enuiry Slavonic, or old Russian language (of great critical 
to the 1st. va [ ne ) )Was perished. In the 6th century was com- 
pleted a version of the whole Bible into Georgian. In the 
5th, a version into Armenian, under the care of Miesrob, the 
inventor of the Armenian alphabet : and- also into Gothic, 
under Ulphilas. In the 3d and 4th centuries, all "the New 
Testament, and parts of the Old, were translated into Coptic 
(or Memphitic), the language of Lower Egypt, the Copts 
being Egyptian Christians : and also into Sahidic (or The- 
baic), the language of Upper Egypt. In the 4th century a 
translation was made into Ethiopic, the language spoken in 
Ethiopia, the country of Candace and the modern Abyssinia. 
Several of these versions were made from the Septuagint, 
some from the Syriac, and a few from the Latin Vulgate. 

The Peshito (or literal) Syriac version of the Hebrew and 
Peshito. Greek Scriptures belongs probably to the 1st century. 
It was in general use among the Syrian churches in the year 
378, and is then quoted by Ephrem the Syrian as the version 
generally received, and so ancient as to require frequent ex- 
planation. The true Philoxenian, or New Syrian, belongs to 
the 6th century, and the Haraclean (commonly called the 
Philoxenian) to the 7th. Both versions take their name from 
the persons under whose sanction they were made. The 
Peshito being, as its name implies, very literal, is of great 
value in determining the original text. t 

Nor for this purpose is the Vulgate itself o^ small import- 
Vulgate, ance. The text it contains was made by Jerome 
about the year 385. Part of it, including the New Testa- 
ment, he took from an older Latin version, called the old 
Italic, which is quoted by Tertullian in the year 220; but the 
greater part he himself translated from the original of the 
Old Testament. This version was gradually adopted by the 
Latin Church, and was the first book ever printed. The pre- 
sent text is very corrupt.( YvvfVr-e- «J 



GENUINENESS VERSIONS. 



21 



Still more ancient than most of these are the versions of 
the Old Testament by Symmachus, Aqnila, Theo- Gree k 
dotion, and the Seventy. The whole were in the versions - 
hands of Origen in the year 228 A.D., and were used by him 
in revising the text of the Septuagint. He afterwards pub- 
lished them all, with the Hebrew text in Hebrew and Greek 
letters, in what was hence called his Hexapla, or six-columned 
Bible. The version of Aquila was made about the year 160 
for the use of Hellenistic J ews, and is quoted by Justin Martyr 
(A. D. 160) and IrenaBus (A.D. 176). It is extremely literal, 
and was read by the Jews in their synagogues. The version 
of Theodotion appeared about the same time, and is quoted 
by the same authors. The version of Symmachus is of later 
date, and is expressed in plain, elegant language, without 
being a literal translation. These three texts are how lost, 
but thdir important variations are preserved in the Hexa- 
plarian text of the Seventy, published by Montfaucon at 
Paris, 1713. 

The version of the Seventy (so called, perhaps, from the num- 
ber of translators supposed to have been engaged Septuagint. 
in making it) is the most ancient of all. It has generally 
been received by both Jews and Christians, is more frequently 
quoted in the New Testament than the Hebrew, and was in 
common use both in the Synagogues and in the early Chris- 
tian churches. The first reference to it is by Aristobulus, who 
lived in the 2d century before Christ. The most probable 
date of the completion of the translation is about the year 285 
B. C, when Ptolemy Lagus and Ptolemy Philadelphus were 
kings of Egypt/ 1 t^yJJUA<^ r% ISQJ&r 0* 

19. Such is a sample of the evidence by which it is proved 
that in the 1st century of the Christian era .(and in Result. 

a Hody (on the authority of Clement and Eusebius), Usher, "Walton, 
*]ichhorn, and others, do not materially differ in the date they assign 
to it. Some (De Wette and others) suppose that it was written by 
different authors and at different times ; though it is agreed that the 
whole was extant in the time of the son of Sirach, B.C. 130. 



« 



22 



GENUINENESS — SUMMARY. 



the case of the Old Testament, two centuries earlier), there 
existed and were known throughout the Roman world books 
called the Sacred Scriptures, written by inspired men, and 
that the present text of the Bible is identical with the text 
which these books contained. 

2G These remarks apply without exception to the books 
of the Old Testament, and to twenty out of the 
goumeua. twenty-seven of the New. These twenty are the 
Antiie^o- four Gospels, the Acts, the Epistles of Paul (except 
that to the Hebrews), and the first Epistles of John 
and Peter. These twenty books were universally received as 
genuine, and were therefore called Homologoumena (i. e. 
acknowledged). The other seven books were disputed for a 
time by particular churches, and were therefore styled Anti- 
legomena (or disputed). After a deliberate examination, 
however, they were at last received as genuine, the very 
delay proving the closeness of the scrutiny which their claims 
had undergone. 

21. Decisive as these facts are, they give a very inadequate 
idea of the amount of proof of which the genuineness 
decisive of the Scriptures is susceptible. The MSS. are in- 
numerable. They belong to all ages ; and many of 
them are very ancient. They have been kept for centuries in 
distant parts of the world, under the custody of opposing sects, 
and in circumstances that made extensive or important altera- 
tions impossible. The possessors of these MSS. deemed them 
of the highest value, and professed to live under the influence 
of the truths contained in them. Copyists preserved them with 
the utmost reverence, counting every letter of every book, 
and registering the very tittles of the law. How remarkable, 
how decisive as an evidence of Divine care, that while all the 
libraries of Europe and of the world containing copies of the 
Sacred Scriptures have been examined, all ancient versions 
extant compared, the MSS. of all countries from the 3d to the 
16th century collated, the commentaries of all the Fathers 
again and again investigated, nothing has been discovered, 



GENUINENESS — VARIOUS READINGS. 



23 



not even a single general reading which, can set aside any im- 
portant passage hitherto received as genuine. This negative 
conclusion, that our Bible does not essentially differ from the 
Bible of the Primitive Church is indeed an ample recompense 
for all the labor and time which have been devoted to these 
pursuits. 

22. To give the reader a just conception of the expression 
that our Bible does not differ essentially from the Effect of 
Bible of the Primitive Church, we may notice what readings, 
the various readings of the New Testament involve. 

In the Epistle to the Eomans, for example, which contains 
433. verses, there are at most four passages, the mean- Epigt]e to 
ing of which is modified bv readings which Griesbach Romans, 
deems of weight: — 

In ch. vii. 6, for " that being dead in which we were held," he reads 
"We being dead to that in which Ave were held:" a difference in tha 
original between o and e. So some editions of the tex. rec. 

In ch. xi. 6, he omits the latter half of the verse. 

In ch xii. 11, he reads "time" for "Lord;" aip for vpi. 

In ch. xvi. 5, he reads the first fruits of Asia for Achaia. 

These are the only corrections that affect the sense, and they 
are all unimportant. To' make them he examined all the prin- 
cipal MSS. already named, 110 others, and 30 from Mount 
Athos collated by Matthaai, who travelled over a great part of 
Russia and Asia for this purpose. 

In Galatians the important corrections are three Epistle to 

Only : Galatians. 

In ch. iv. 17, for you in the second clause he reads us: a change in 
the original of one letter. 

In ch. iv. 26, he omits the word " all." 

In ch. v. 19, he omits the word "adultery." 

Corrections which make no difference in the sense. 

In the 7959 verses of the New Testament there are not more 
than ten or twelve various readings of great impor- N 
tance, and these affect not the doctrines of Scripture, Testament. 



24 



GENUINENESS — VARIOUS READINGS. 



but only the number of proof passages in which the doctrines 

are revealed. 

The important various readings sanctioned by Griesbach are 
the following : — 

In Acts viii. 37, he omits the verse. 

In Acts ix. 6. lie omits the first part of the verse. 

In Acts xx. 28, for "the church of God" he reads "the church of 
the Lord," a change depending on one letter K for 0. 

In Phil. iv. 13, for "through Christ" he reads "through Him." 

In 1 Tim. iii. 16, for " God manifest," he reads "who was:" a differ- 
ence arising from the supposed omission of a mark in one of the two 
letters of the word — O for 0. 

In Jas. ii. 18, for 11 by thy works," he reads "without thy works/' as 
do many copies of the English version. 

In 1 John v. 7, 8, he omits from "in heaven" to "in earth." 

In Jude iv. he omits " God." 

In Kev. viii. 13, for "angel," he reads "eagle." 

These corrections are all sanctioned, except Acts xx. 28, and 
1 Tim. iii. 16, by Scholz and Halm. In these two passages 
ooth writers agree with the common text, as they do much more 
frequently than Griesbach in other unimportant readings. 

Several of the readings of Griesbach, though not theologically 
important, removed difficulties from the present text. 

23. Of the Old Testament, a careful examiner has noted 

1314 various readings of value. Of these, 566 are 

Old ... 

Testament, adopted in the English version ; 147 of the whole 
affect the sense, but none can be regarded as theologically im- 
portant : generally they correct a date or complete the sense. 
See Hamilton's Codex Criticus, Lond. 1821. 

24. The writings of Terence (six pieces only) contain 30,000 
Result variations, and they have been copied many times 

less frequently than the New Testament. We may 
well acquiesce, therefore, in the language of Bengel, who, after 
laborious research into these topics, wrote to his scholar, Renss, 
"Eat the Scripture bread in simplicity, just as you have it,' and 
do not be disturbed if here and there you find a grain of sand 
which the mill-stone may have suffered to pass. If the Holy 



LANGUAGE OF THE BIBLE — HEBREW. 



25 



Scriptures, which have "been so often copied, were absolutely 
without variations, this would be so great a miracle that faith 
in them would be no longer faith. I am astonished, on the 
contrary, that from all these transcriptions there has not resulted 
a greater number of various readings. " a 

But many expressions have already been employed which 
need to be explained. If their meaning be clear, yet is there 
much to be said in relation to them before the reader is thor- 
oughly prepared to understand all they involve. The general 
conclusion that our Bible is, on the whole, as inspired writers 
left it, is undoubted ; but the Bible-student often requires ma- 
terials for closer inquiry. We proceed, therefore, to give a 
brief account of the original languages of the sacred volume — 
Hebrew and Hellenistic Greek — of the manuscripts, versions, 
and various readings of the sacred text. 



b SEC 2. — The Original Languages of Scripture. — He- 
brew AND THE SHEMITISH LANGUAGES GENERALLY. 

25. The Hebrew language, in which nearly all the Old Tes- 
tament is written, was the language of the Hebrews 

t t i i * • 1 1 mi Hebiew. 

or Israelites during their independence. I he people 
themselves were known among other nations by the name of 
Hebrews and Jews, not by the name of Israelites. 
The epithet of Hebrew, however, was not applied to 
their language till the days of the son of Sirach, (B. 0. 130.) 
It occurs first in the Apocrypha, where it means, not the old 
Hebrew, but the Aramaean, or Syro-Aramsean. This is also the 
meaning of the term in the New Testament. Josephus seems 
to have been the first who applied the name Hebrew language 
(TXuia-a-a. ruv "Ep°a.wv) to the old Hebrew, and this is the uniform 
meaning of the phrase in his writings. The Targums call the 
Hebrew "the holy tongue," and in the Old Testament it is 



a Quoted by Gaussen in his " Theopneustia." b See Prefaca, 



26 



LANGUAGE OF THE BIBLE— HEBREW. 



called' the language of Canaan, or the Jews' language/ Xsa. 
xix. 18: xxxvi. 13. 

26. That the Hebrew language was the .common tongue of 
Really Canaan and Phoenicia is generally admitted ; a con- 
Phcenician. elusion supported by several facts. 

(1.) The Canaanitish names of persons and places mentioned in Scrip- 
ture are genuine Hebrew, as Abimelech, Melchizedek, Salem, &c. 

(2.) Fragments of the Phoenician and Carthaginian tongues which 
still remain on coins and in inscriptions preserved in Roman and Greek 
Writers, are Hebrew. Augustine and Jerome both testify, moreover, 
that the Carthaginian spoken in their time was made up chiefly of 
Hebrew words, while there is evidence that Carthage was founded by 
Phoenicians, who left Canaan before the Jews could have resided long 
in their country. 

(3.) The silence of Scripture respecting any difference between the 
language of Canaanites and Hebrews is also remarkable. They both 
dwelt in the land, and yet no difference of speech is noticed, though the 
difference between the language of Hebrew and Egyptian (Psa. lxxxi. 
5: cxiv. 1) is noticed, and even between the Hebrew and cognate lan- 
guages, as in the case of the Aramaean used by the Assyrians (Isa. 
xxxvi. 11); and of the Eastern Aramaean used by the Chaldees (Jer. v. 
15). It may be added that the Hebrew of Abraham's day was probably 
closely allied to the original tongue, if it were not itself identical with 
it. This conclusion is based chiefly on the proper names of the early 
chapters of Genesis. These names are all significant in Hebrew, and the 
meaning in that tongue always explains the reasons why they were 
given. See Havernick's Introduction to the Old Testament, p. 134 : see 
also Gesenius's Monum. Phoenicia. 

27. The Hebrew, or modern Phoenician, as we may call it, 
belongs to the Shemitish family of languages, and is most 
closely connected with the other members of that family, both 
in matter and in form. The other members are the following. 

28. The Aramaean. Of the old Aramaean, as spoken while 
Aramaean Hebrew was a living tongue, we have no remains. 

But there have been discovered, near Palmyra, some 
inscriptions in this language, which were written about the 
commencement of the Christian era. The language was spoken 
in Syria and Mesopotamia. See Gen. xxxi. 47, and Jer. x. 11 ? 



LANGUAGE OF THE BIBLE — DIALECTS. 



27 



29. From this common root sprang the Chaldee or Eastern 
Aramaean, spoken in Chaldea and Babylon, and the Chaldeeand 
Syriac, or Western Aramaean, spoken in Northern Syriac. 
Mesopotamia and Syria, and perhaps the Hebrew itself. The 
Chaldee is known only from Jewish memorials — the Scriptures 
and the Targums. The purer style of Onkelos is called the 
Babylonian dialect, to distinguish it from the language of the 
later Targums, which has been called the J erusalem or Pales- 
tine dialect, and which is really a mixture of Hebrew and 
Aramaean or Syriac. What is now called Syriac is new Ara- 
msean, as formed or spoken by the Christians of Emessa and 
its neighborhood. This tongue early produced a literature rich 
in ecclesiastical history and theology, and is still the ecclesi- 
astical language of Syrian Christians. Chaldee is the language 
of part of Ezra and Daniel* as Syriac was the language of the 
Jews in the days of our Lord. 

30. The Samaritan is a mixture of the Hebrew and Western 
Aramaean. All the ecclesiastical matter in this tongue 

. ° Samaritan. 

is m the Samaritan Pentateuch, and m some poems 

edited by Gesenius (Leipsic, 1824), from MSS. in the British 

Museum. b 

31. Of all the languages yet named, the Arabic has by far the 
richest modern literature : and next to the Hebrew it 

_ . . .. Arabic. 

is the most important of the Shemitish tongues. It 

is still spoken in a large portion of Asia, and in part of Africa. 

The two chief dialects of it are the Himyaritic, for- 

, . Himyaritic. 

merly spoken m Y emen, and now extinct, and the Co- i 

reitic spoken in the north-west of Arabia, and especially at 

Mecca. This was a spoken language long before the 

time of Mahomet, and is still the popular dialect. 

The old Arabic differs from this language in its forms, which 

are more various, and in its matter, which is more copious. 

»Ezraiv. 8: vi. 18: vii. 12-26: Dan. ii. 4~vii. 28.' Jvr. X.fh 

b At Oxford there is a Liturgia Damascena in Samaritan : whence 

Gesenius has given a complete view of Samaritan theology. De Sam, 

TheoL, Halle, 1822. 



28 



HEBREW — ITS PROGRESS. 



32. A colony of Arabians, speaking the Himyaritic, early 

settled on the opposite side of the Red Sea in Ethi- 

JEthiopic. . rr 

opia, and introduced their language into that country. 
This language, modified by time and circumstances, is the ancient 
Ethiopic, which is closely related to the Arabic. The district 
where it was spoken, is the modern Abyssinia, and Amharic, or 
Geez, is the present language of the people. 

33. All these languages are of value in guiding the student 
utility of °^ ^ e Testament, to an accurate knowledge of 
these dia- the oiioinal tongue, and no Hebrew lexicon can be 

lects m m- D . 

terpretation regarded as a satisfactory authority, unless compiled 
with a constant reference to the meaning of the roots of Hebrew 
words in the cognate tongues. It is upon the knowledge and 
use of these tongues that the superiority of modern lexicogra- 
phers chiefly depends. 

The history of the Hebrew language may be be divided into 
History of three periods, each of which has its peculiarities of 

the Hebrew. , t t • t 

style and idiom. 

34. (1.) The first includes the language as spoken in the days 
T - , of Moses, and as used in the Pentateuch. In those 

In the days ' 

of Moses, books are forms of construction and phraseology not 
found elsewhere. Words are introduced, which seem soon 
afterwards to have become obsolete ; or they are used in senses 
which early became unintelligible. Sometimes a knowledge of 
this peculiar usage is important only as supplying evidence of 
the antiquity of the books : sometimes it affords access to the 
meaning of particular passages. 

(2.) In the post-Mosaic period there is a marked change. 
The olden ~^ ew words are introduced ; old ones seem forgotten, 
period. New forms of expression become common, and some 
found in the Pentateuch are gradually discontinued ; a process 
which goes on till the days of David, who writes the language 
in great purity and elegance. To this period belong the writ- 
ings of Solomon and the books of Judges, of Samuel, and of 
Ruth. The older prophets, Jonah, Amos, Hosea, write in' a 



HEBREW — ITS PROGRESS. 



29 



style of simplicity and harshness not found in their immediate 
successors : but still their language is pure. Isaiah, Micah, 
Nahum, Habakkuk, and Obadiah are remarkable for the beauty 
of their style ; and the Hebrew is generally pure, though in 
some of them, as in Micah and in part of Isaiah, there are 
forms of speech (chiefly Aramaean), that bespeak the admixture 
of a foreign element. All these writers belong, however, to 
the golden period of the Hebrew tongue. 

(3. ) Zephaniah (the contemporary of Josiah) Jeremiah, Daniel, 
and Ezekiel belong to the third period, and all exhibit . . 

° r . The period 

the influence of intercourse with foreigners, as do the of the de- 
writings that appeared during or immediately after the 
exile — Ezra, Esther, and Nehemiah : all these writers employ 
words and phrases, which in the early purer state of the He- 
brew were not known. The later prophets, Haggai, Zechariah, 
and Malachi, again write in purer idiom, chiefly in consequence 
of the Hebrew having become, during the captivity, a written, 
rather than a spoken tongue. As they wrote their predictions, 
it was less necessary to use forms of expression which were 
familiar chiefly in conversation. Their predictions it was 
probably the part of the prophets to explain. 8 



a A few examples will explain these statements : 

" To be added to his people" is a phrase peculiar to the Pentateuch, 
meaning " to die." " To sleep with his fathers" is the common phrase 
in later books. The word "people" is always applied in the Pentateuch 
to the Jews. In the prophets the meaning is more extended, Hos. ix. 1 ; 
Isa. xi. 10. The expression " Arise, Lord," was at first used in lifting 
up and carrying the ark as a prayer, soliciting the Divine presence. In 
the Psalms it often means, Assist and help. 

In the Pentateuch there are many words and forms peculiar, which, 
however, are translated as ordinary words — p^j for species, ^Sp for 
to curse, for property, ejej fine -linen, for y^, the later word, 
Ex. xxvi. 1: 1 Chron. xv. 27. See also Gen. xv. 9: Deut. xxxii. 11 
(btia f° r ya), Ex. ii. 20, &c. Of such phrases Jahn has reckoned in the 
Pentateuch upwards of two hundred. Foreign words are all Egyptian, 
Gen. xli. 2-s^jife-(^ n ^)^ 41, 45, where Joseph is called " Sayi >ur of the 



30 



LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 



35. Of the Hebrew of all these periods, it may be remarked 

Peculiarity ^&t ^ ^ as ^ ew r00 ^ s > so t ,na ^ words have often sec- 
Few roots, ondary or analogical meanings. Many phrases, there- 
fore, sound strange to our ears, and some are susceptible of 
fanciful interpretations. 

36. These facts give evidence of the antiquity, and of the 

successive composition of different parts of Scripture. 
oft^se 1106 They also illustrate the importance of ascertaining 

the meaning attached to words at the time when each 
writer used them, before investigating their meaning, as em- 
ployed in later or earlier times. 

Hellenistic, or Hebrew-Greek of the New Testament, 
and LXX. 

37. The 16th century witnessed a singular discussion. Eras- 
New Testa- mus an( ^- Valla, happening to affirm that the Greek 
ment-Greek f the New Testament was corrupted with Hebra- 

— Contro- _ x 

yersy on its isms, both of words and idioms, were opposed by H. 

true eharae- 

ter. Stephens with great vehemence. In his preface to 

the New Testament (A. D. 1576), he undertook to prove that 
the Greek of the inspired writers was pure and idiomatic. A 

world" (Jerome). See Jablonski Opera i. 45, 374 ; ii. 160, and Kosen- 
muller's Scholia on Old Testament, i. 30-32. 

So in other books. Job has several grammatical and other peculiari- 
ties, iii. 2 (p. pual nihj) iv. 12; 26., 14 (whisper), iv. 18 (hearer), v. 26; 
xxx. 2 (age), v. 2; xvii. 7 (indignation). Jerome observed, and Schul- 
tens proved, that the language of Job is peculiarly rich in Syraic ex- 
pressions, and also in Aram^isms, iv. 2 ; xxxix. 9 ; xvi. 19. 

For words and phrases peculiar to later writers, see 1 Chron. xxi. 23 
to^Tlto): 1 Chron. ii. 13 (^tovt)'- Esther iv. 11 (t}*^©) 1 1 Chron. xviii. 
5, 6 ; 1 Chron. x. 12 (n^S for n^lp); 2 Chron. xi. 21 (nd» fc*EJ5 f° r ftp))* 
Gen iv. 19). For Persian words see Nahum iii. 17, captain, or satrap. 
Esther iii. 9: Ezra v. 17, treasures — gaz, hence Gaza. For Assyrian 
words, see proper names, Nebu — planet Mercury; Merodach — planet 
Mars. Chaldaisms need not be enumerated. 

See Havernick's Introduction, \\ 31-35. 



LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 



31 



long controversy springing out of these assertions, the respect- 
ive parties were called Purists and Hellenists, or Hebraists. 
The topic was deemed important on several grounds : 

1. It involved questions of theology ; for, if the writers of the Bible 
"be inspired, ought they not to write, it was asked, in pure Greek? 
Could inspired men do anything, as such, that was imperfect? 

2. On the other side it was deemed important as a question of evi- 
dence ; for if the Greek of the New Testament is Hebraistic, this fact is 
a proof that it was written by Jews, and probably in Judea. 

3. By all it is admitted to involve an important canon of interpreta- 
tion ; for if the dialect of the New Testament is peculiar, the study of the 
common tongue (» koivh) is not sufficient for the interpretation of Scrip- 
ture. The Greek of the New Testament and of the LXX. is likely, it 
was held, to have rules and principles of its own. 

38. Both parties seem to have forgotten, in the heat of con- 
troversy, that the question was purely one of facts, and was 
not to be settled, in the first instance, by any such considera- 
tions. The truth is, that the Greek of the New Testament is 
Hellenistic ; a truth, which once ascertained, suggests Rea]]y Hel . 
important lessons. The perfection of inspired com- lenistlc - 
position is clearly not so much classic purity as intelligibleness 
and adaptation to its proper end. The Greek of Scripture 
was evidently written by Hellenists, i.e., by Jews who spoke 
Greek, and whose modes of thought were formed on Hebrew 
originals. Hence, important evidence of the truth of their 
record. Hence, also, an instructive rule of interpretation. The^ 1 
prime source of biblical interpretation is clearly the Bible itself f 
and we must gather thence, as far as possible, the meaning and 
illustrations of its terms. These are all important lessons, but 
the fact on which they are founded must first be established, 
before we can safely apply them ; least of all can they be taken 
as proof of the fact itself. 

39, The Greek tongue is itself a mixture of dialects. The 
Hellenians, or Greeks, consisted originally of several ^ lass ^ c >tg 
tribes, of whom two, the Dorians and Ionians, were elements, 
chief. 



32 



GREEK — -ITS DIALECTS. 



The Doric dialect is first in time and in influence : it is 
D . rough and broad-sounding. Among its chief writers 

are Pindar, Sappho, Theocritus, and Bion. 
The Ionic is second in time. It is soft and smooth ; was 
ionic spoken at first in Attica, and then, as the Ionians 
migrated to Asia Minor, in that district. Among 
its authors are Herodotus and Anacreon. 

The Attic was formed after the Ionians left Attica, and oc- 
Att<c cupies, in quality, a middle place between the Ionic 
and Doric. The chief Greek authors wrote in this 
dialect: Thucidydes, Plato, Xenpphon, Demosthenes, iEschy- 
lus, Sophocles, Euripides, and Aristophanes. 

After the freedom of Greece was destroyed by Philip of 
Hellenic, or Macedon, these dialects were blended, and the Hel- 
» wjtuL ■ lenic or common dialect was formed, of which the 
base was Attic. 

On the death of Alexander, the people of Macedon and 
Alexandria occupied the first place in literature, as in power, 
Aiexan- an( l from their influence, Macedonian and Alexan- 
drian, drian idioms became common in Greece, and especi- 
ally in Egypt and the East. 

At Alexandria many Jews resided. There the Septuagint 
was written ; and as the writers were Jews, the Alexandrian 
Greek which they spoke was modified so as to embody the 
thoughts and idioms of the Hebrew. And this is 
the language of the New Testament. It is Hel- 
lenistic, or more properly, Hebrew-Greek : the later Greek, 
that is, chiefly Attic, with a mixture of other 

Elements . ■ . 

enume- dialects, and the whole modified by Jews who had 

rated. . . J 

resided in Alexandria, and in Palestine. Hence 
words and phrases from foreign sources, Aramaean, Latin, 
Persian, Egyptian : hence words peculiar in their ortho- 
graphy or form, in their inflexion or gender: hence words 
common to the ancient dialects, but not usual in the Hel- 
lenic; and hence, also, words and phrases in senses peculiarly 
Jewish or Christian. 



CRITICISM — ANCIENT MANUSCRIPTS. 



33 



Aramsean expressions may be seen, Mark xiv. 36 (abba) : Acts i. 19 
(field of blood): Mark iii. 17 (sons of thunder): Matt. v. 22 (vain, 
foolish). Latin v/ords, Matt. x. 29 ; xviii. 28 ; v. 26 ; xvii. 25 ; xxvii. 
27, 65 ; xxvi. 53 ; Mark xv. 39 : Luke xix. 20 : John ii. 15 : Acts xix. 
12 : and phrases, Matt. xii. 14 : Mark xv. 15 : Luke xii: 58 : Acts xvii. 
9. Persian expressions, Matt, xxvii. 32 : Acts viii. 27 : Matt. ii. 1 : 
Mark vi. 11 : Luke xxiii. 43 (paradise, a garden of beautiful trees). 
Egyptian expressions, Matt, xxvii. 59 : Luke xxiv. 12. 

For a full account of grammatical and other peculiarities, see 
Planck's Treatise on the nature and character of the Greek style of 
the New Testament, Bib. Repository, 1831, p. 638. See also a brief 
account in M. Stuart's Syntax of the New Testament. 

40. The grand lesson taught by these facts, is that while 

we need a knowledge of Greek generally, in order 

m ° _ . Lessonu 

to read the New Testament, we need, m order to 

understand it, a knowledge of New Testament Greek, and of 

the Old Testament version. So essential is this knowledge, 

that a merely English reader, with only his English Bible, 

may understand the New Testament better than the scholar 

who brings to the investigation of a particular passage only 

classical acquisitions. 

41. For aid in studying Hebrew, see the ordinary gram- 
mars and dictionaries of that language. In studying 
Hellenistic Greek, see Winer's Idioms ; any good ^tudyofthe 
grammar of the New Testament ; and Thiersch de JJjJJ J estar 
Pentateuchi Versione Alexandrina. The ''English- 
men's Hebrew and English," and " Greek and English" Con- 
cordances, are of great value to a mere English student. The 
careful study of the LXX. compared with the Hebrew and 
the New Testament, is of course the best aid. 

a Sec. 3. — The Manuscripts of Scripture. . 

42. In speaking of the MSS. of Scripture, we have mentioned 
their age, and their comparative value. It is now 
necessary to state the facts on which these distinc- on the age 
tions rest. How, it may be asked, is it possible to 

a See Preface. 



34 



ANCIENT MANUSCRIPTS — AGE. 



ascertain the age of a MS., often fragmentary, and generally 
How ascer- exposed to influences which, cannot have failed to ob- 
tained. scure or modify the evidence of its date and character ? 

43. In answering this question, it may be observed that in 

some MSS. the date is inscribed upon them ; and 
frlSf dates when this inscription is by the first hand, and other 
itseiff MS ' evidence is confirmatory, it is regarded as pretty 

decisive. Such inscriptions, however, are never 
found on MSS. earlier than the 10th century. 

44. Sometimes the traditional or known history of a MS. 
^ f affords important aid. The Cod. Alex. (A), for ex- 
its known ample, was given by the patriarch of Constantinople 
history. (Cyril Lucar), to Charles I., with the . tradition in- 
scribed upon it in Arabic, that it was written by Thecla, an 
Egyptian princess, who lived not long after the first council of 
Nice, A. D. 325 : a tradition supported by internal evidence. 

45. In most cases, however, the question of date is more 

intricate, and can be settled only after a careful in- 

Generally . J 

Dyexaminar vestigation of somewhat abstruse evidence, supplied 
cuit.eyi- by the material on which the MS. is written, the form 
of the letters, and the general style of the writing. 

46. Some parts of the ancient Scriptures were written on 

skins tanned, or dyed red or yellow. In use, these 
materiai°on skins were generally connected, so as to contain on 
nuscripts" one or volume, 8, an entire portion of the Bible, 
lknl ntten ' as the Penta teuch, or the Prophets. Some of the 

most ancient MSS. in the world are copies of the 
Pentateuch in this form. 

Next in durability was the parchment of the ancients, so 
„ , called from Pergamos, the town where it was first 

Parchment. 

made. Most MSS. which have come down to us, 
earlier than the 6th century, are on this material. 

Sometimes tables of wood b or of stone, called caudices 

a Isa. viii. 1 : Jer. xxxvi. 2 : Zech. v. 1. 

b Ex. xxxii. 15 : Deut. vi. 9 : Isa. xxx. 8 : Hab. ii. 2 : Luke i. 63 : 
2 Cor. iii. 3. 



AttCIEifT MAJTtrSOHTPTS — AGE. 



35 



or codices, were employed : hence the term codex „ 

' 1 J Caudices. 

came to be applied to a MS. on any material. For 
legal purposes, where durability was important, the use of such 
tables was very frequent ; and from this circumstance Cod ^ 
a system of laws was called a code. These tables 
were written on in their natural state (or when used for tem- 
porary purposes, covered with wax), with an iron ^ 
needle called a stylus. From the name of this in- 
strument our term style is taken. 

For many ages the article most in use was made from the 
papyrus, or flag of Egypt. By the Eomans espe- p apyrug 
cially this manufacture was carried to great per- 
fection. Towards the end of the 9th century, however, the 
papyrus was very much superseded by paper made from the 
cotton plant (not unlike the present paper of India and China); 
and a little later, in the 10th and 11th centuries, old Paper, 
linen was substituted in the manufacture for the raw material. 

Notices of these different materials occur occasionally in 
ancient profane writers. Herodotus mentions the' , 

r . These 

skins of goats and sheep, roughlv dressed, as being; materials 

° . 1 -ri ■ t mentioned 

used by the Ionians (v. 58). Pausanias says that by ancient 
he saw in Bceotia the works of Hesiod engraved on 
lead (ix. 31). Roman laws were often written on tables of 
brass, and Pliny states that papyrus was in use long before 
the Trojan war (B. C. 1184), Nat. His. xii. 21-29. " Libroa 
linteos," books of cotton cloth, are also mentioned by Livy. 

47. MSS. on all these materials are known to the The mate- 
antiquarians, and from the material an inquirer is ascerSux t0 



in. 



the age. 



aided in ascertaining their age and orig 

48. The earliest specimens of Greek writing, the dates of 
which are known, are books found among the ruins of Her- 
culaneum and Pompeii. These cities were destroyed A. D. 79. 
The books recently found there are, at latest, of Kind of 
that date, and consist of sheets of the papyrus, Jormif^ 
connected together with gum and rolled. The writ- Mslfof 
ing runs across the volume, is in capital or uncial pom P eii - 



86 



ANCIENT MANUSCRIPTS — AGE. 



letters, without any division of words or sentences, without 
accents or ornaments, and with but very few pause marks. 
These books give evidence of the most ancient style of 
writing, and are older than any MS. of the New Testament 
Scriptures. 

In the Imperial library of Vienna there is a copy of an an- 
Ms of Dio- c ^ en "^ wor k by Dioscorides, the copy written for the 
scorides. daughter of one of the early emperors of Constanti- 
nople, and certainly belonging to the 5th century. It agrees 
in the shape of its letters, and in the absence of all 

Test of age. r . 

ornaments and marks, with the MSS. of Hercula- 
neum. These peculiarities suggest important tests of age. 

49. In the earliest times the New Testament was divided 

Division of "^ nree P ai "ts : the Gospels (to evotyye^iov), the 

books and Epistles and Acts to ' 'avoo-toXikov), and the Revelation 

chapters a x y 

test of age. (^ ^oKcixv^iq'). In the 3d century the Gospels were 
divided into two kinds of chapters, the longer called nr^oi, or 
breves ; the shorter sspaAeua, or capitula. The latter were 
originally introduced by Ammonius, and were thence called 
Ammonian sections. In the 4th century they were in com- 
mon use in the Gospels, and to these sections Eusebius adapted 
his tables of references, called from him the Eusebian Canons 
(A.D. 315-340). 

50. In the latter part of the same century (360), Chrysostom 
niuraina s P ea ks of the practice of writing biblical MSS. on 
of°a°V est ^ e nnes ^ P arc b mei rt and in letters of gold and silver, 

as already introduced. 
Various 51. In the year 458 Euthalius published an edition 

other tosts 

t — ' of the Epistles of Paul, in which he gave, for the first 
description time, the contents of the chapters. In 490 he di- 
' vided the Acts and the Epistles into sections. He 
himself states also that he introduced accents into 
MSS. copied under his supervision, — a custom, however, which 
_ . . did not become common till the 8th century. He 
tions to va- also added to the books of the New Testament the 

nous books; 

subscriptions which are still found in the English 



ANCIENT MANUSCRIPTS— AGE. 



87 



Version. To make MSS. more legible, Euthalius further di- 
vided them into lines, called ©-rtyei, consisting in 

, sticho- 

Bome instances of as many letters as could be placed metric 

. _ divisions; 

in the width of a page, and m others 01 as many 
words as could be read uninterruptedly. This style of writing 
soon became common. In the 8th century, however, ' 
the lines ceased to be written separately, and were 
indicated only by dots. In the same century other marks of 
punctuation were introduced, and later still the stichometrical 
dots were omitted. 

In the 7th century lectionaries, that is, MSS. of Scripture 
lessons for use in public service, were multiplied, and f 0rmo f 
about the same time the letters in which MSS. were letters; 
Written began to be compressed and slightly inclined. ^^^ qr 
In the 8th century these changes were still more ° f gospels; 
marked; in the 9th the note of interrogation and " stops; 
the comma were introduced ; in the 10th the cursive 

7 cursive 

style of writing had nearly superseded the uncial ; letter; 

J ° ... chapter 

and in the 12th the present division of chapters was, and verse; 
introduced by Hugo de Sancto. of age. 

52. From these facts various rules are deduced : — 
A MS. with the present division of chapters and , 

1 Negative 

verses, is not earlier than the 12th century : results. 
A MS. on cotton is not earlier than the 11th century : 
A MS. in cursive character than the 10th century : 
A MS. with compressed or inclined uncials,, or with notes 

of interrogation or commas, than the 9th century : 

A MS. systematically punctuated, or marking the cm^ot 

with points or Avith ornamented initials, than the 8th century : 
A MS. in uncial letters, divided into lines or accented, or 

with the Euthalian divisions or titles or subscriptions, than the 

5th century: 

A MS. with Eusebian canons, than the 4th century. 

53. These rules lead, it will be observed, to negative conclu- 
sions only. When the facts are applied to ascertain 
positive results, much minute inquiry and skilful Positive - 

4 



38 CRITICISM — HISTORY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT TEXT. 



criticism is necessary. Full information may be obtained in 
the books mentioned below. 

On the whole subject see Montfaucon's Palasograptiia Grgeca. Hug's 
Introduction to the rTew Testament, ch. vi. Scott Porter's Lectures on 
Bib. Crit., and Michaelis's Introduction, (4th edit.), vol. ii. 

54. These results and the facts on which they are founded 
History of were reached at a comparatively recent period, and 
and S of teStS a ^ er protracted inquiry. In the meantime progress 
biblical was made in other processes of investigation, which 

criticism x i i- 

generally—- led to results no less important. These results will 

1. As to New . 

Testament be best understood if our remarks be thrown into 
the narrative form. 

55. The received text of the Greek Testament is founded, as 

The textus we ^ ave seen (P ar * ^^)» on texts of Erasmus and 
receptus. . f the Complutensian editors. Both these texts were 
printed from modern MSS., and therefore, comparatively 
speaking, the authority of the " received text" is not high. 

The examination of early MSS. was the work of many years, 
London ^ began with the London Polyglot (1657), which 
Polyglot. added to previous editions the readings of sixteen 
MSS., and supplied the renderings of ancient versions. Cur- 
„ cellams also examined several MSS. for an edition 

Curcellgeus. _ ... 

of the New Testament which Elzevir printed in 1658. 
Dr. Fell. In 1675 Dr. Fell published an edition with the read- 
ings of forty more, and selected Dr. Mill to complete a more 
thorough revision of MSS. and versions, To this work Dr, 
_. Mill devoted thirty years, and 2ave in his edition 

Dr. Mill. . J J ' o . 

the readings of a large number of MSS, not pre- 
viously examined, and also the readings of the early Fathers. 
In 1734 these readings were further augmented by the labors 
Beimel °^ ^engel. Forty years after Mill, the edition of 

Wetstein was published (1751), in 2 vols. fol. His 
Wetstcm. ^ ^ e Received ; but he applies the results of 

his inquiry to the correction in notes of the text wherever he 
deemed it faulty. Upwards of forty years later still, Greis- 



CRITICISM — HISTORY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT TEXT. 39 



bach applied the rules and investigation of Wetstein 

^ ± . / tr Greisbacn. 

to a correction of the text itself (1/96-1806), and 

added many various readings which his own inquiries had 

discovered. 

In the meantime other important additions to our knowledge 
had been made. In 1782-8 Matthsei, of Moscow, 

. Matthsei. 

published an edition, remarkable chiefly for contain- 
ing the readings sanctioned by what was afterwards called the 
Oonstantinopolitan recension ; while Alter, at Vienna &c 
(1786, 7), Birch and Adler, in Italy, Moldenhauer 
and Tychsen, in Spain, and others elsewhere, were busy com- 
pleting inquiries which were to supply Griesbach with the 
materials of his critical apparatus. The results were embodied 
in the edition of the New Testament, published by Birch, at 
Copenhagen. 

56. On comparing; the evidence which these investigations 
disclosed, Griesbach found (as his predecessors had Griesbaeh , g 
intimated) that characteristic readings distinguished division of 

o o these 

certain MS. Fathers and versions, and that they readings, 
were all divisible into three classes : MSS., &c, having one 
set of readings, being said by him to belong to the Alexan- 
drian family or recension ; those with another set to the Oon- 
stantinopolitan ; and those with another set to the Western. 

This conclusion, supposing it well founded, was a most im- 
portant discovery. It changed the whole science. m 
Hitherto the reading favored by most MSS. had importance., 
been regarded as having the best evidence on its side ; but 
from this time not the number of individual MSS. in favor 
of a reading, but the number of families, became the great 
question. 

In later times Scholz, who devoted many years to this work, 
divided Oreek MSS. of the New Testament first into 

Seholz's 

five, and then finally into two families, — the Alex- division. 
anJrian, which includes the Western of Griesbach, and the 
Oonstantinopolitan. Of the three classes Griesbach himself 
attached most importance to the Alexandrian and Western 



40 CEITICISM — HISTORY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT TEXT. 

families ; Scholz, on the contrary, preferred the readings of 
the Constantinopolitan ; Hahn and Lachmann, it may be added- 
agree in substance with Scholz, but attach importance, the first 
to internal evidence, and the second to the antiquity of MSS, 
57. It must be added that though later inquiries have not 
set aside this principle of classification, they have thrown 
doubt upon it. It is now a question whether Griesbach's con- 
clusions be not an instance of those hasty generalizations 
which impede almost as much as they aid the progress of true 
science. This suspicion is strengthened by the inquiries of 
Dr. Lawrence of Dublin. Proposals have been for some time 
before the world for the publication of a text founded not on 
families of MSS., but on the readings sanctioned by the most 
ancient authorities. Dr. Bently first suggested this principle. 
Lachmann has practically acted upon it to a large extent ; 
and Dr. Tregelles now proposes to adhere to it strictly in his 
intended edition of the New Testament. Whether antiquity 
alone, however, is a satisfactory test, may be gravely ques- 
tioned. The earliest transcribers were subject to local influ- 
ences as well as the later. Cursive manuscripts, of late date, 
may be accurate copies of very early ones, which are now 
lost, and their testimony is not to be disregarded ; and, more- 
over, if there be any ground for the 'division of MSS. into 
families, mere antiquity may be like mere numbers, a delu- 
sion and snare. 



UNCIAL MANUSCRIPTS. 



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MANUSCRIPTS — NEW AND OLD TESTAMENT TEXTS. 43 



59. In addition to these uncial MSS. Griesbach has given 
the numbers, contents, and dates of 236 cursive Total 
MSS., 1 to 236; Matthsei of 23 more, 237 to 259; S|f 
Scholz of 270, which he for the first time collated examined 
either in whole or in part, 260 to 469. Particulars may be 
seen in the introductory explanations of the editions of the 
New Testament by Griesbach, Matthsei, Scholz, and Tischen- 
dorf ; also in Home ii., part 1, ch. hi., § 2, and partly in Scott 
Porter's Criticism, p. 304. ■■<*$QA***e*&i£$ ~u<^- fawi^v* 

Of Lectionaries, Scholz enumerates 176 Gospels, and 48 from 
the Acts and Epistles (Praxapostoli). Of the former, one (No. 
135) is referred by him to the 6th century, and most to periods 
between the 10th and 15th. 



Scholz enumerates in all, — 



Uncial MSS. Cursive MSS. 



Of Gospels ... 27 469 

Acts and Catholic Epistles 8 192 

Paul's Epistles . « . 9 246 

Revelation ... 3 88 

Many other codices have never been collated, of which 31 
are enumerated by Home as existing; in libraries in 

. _ J . , 8 . . Others 

this country, and others are known to be preserved still un- 
in libraries on the Continent. 

60. The history of the Hebrew text is much briefer. The 
process of inquiry which was undertaken in the case Bibi. Grit, 
of the Greek text within the last two centuries f tt^nl? 
was undertaken for the Old Testament a thousand S theoid 
years earlier at Tiberias. There, existing MSS. Testament - 
were revised and compared, and a text was formed, on the 
whole very fair and accurate. This text is called the M a-oretic 
Masoretic, and nearly all recent investigations have ]£f* j n ^ d 
ended in sustaining generally its readings. On the acc ^ urac y- 
dispersion of the Jews through the influence of Mohammedan 
ism, their learned men moved westward into Spain, Italy, and 
Central Europe, carrying with them the Masoretic text of 



44 



HISTOEY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT TEXT. 



Scripture, and in process of time multiplying the editions (a? 
they may be called) to meet the wants of their nation. The 
value of these editions differed, according to the care with 
which they were written. As a matter of fact, the Spanish 
MSS. are generally most accurate ; next in accuracy are the 
Italian, 'and last the German. 

61. It is an instance of the slow progress of truth, that 
The com- Buxtorf, one of the greatest Hebrew scholars, main- 
racjfquS" Gained, in the 17th century, the absolute uniformity 
tioned. ue& f a n MSS. of the Hebrew Text. Oappellus (1650) 
was among the first to combat this view, and Bishop Walton, 
Critical the editor of the London Polyglot, having sided with 
tus com- Oappellus, commenced the work of forming a critical 
London' apparatus. From this time, the collation of Hebrew 
Polyglot. MSS. was made with vigor, and the results soon 
appeared in the publication of an improved text. In 1667, 
Athias, a rabbi and printer of Amsterdam, pub- 
lished a Hebrew Bible, the text of which was founded 
on MSS. and printed editions. In 1690, Jablonski published, 
Jabionsid. a ^ Berlin, a critical edition, and in 1705, the very 
Vander accurate edition of Van der Hooght was printed at 
Amsterdam. His text is formed on that of Athias, 
with Masoretic readings in the margin, and a collection of 
various readings at the end. In 1709 Opitz, at Kiel, and in 
1720 I. H. Michaelis, at Halle, also published editions of criti- 
TT , . L cal value ; and in 1746-53 Houbigant published, at 

Houbigant. . ° ' 

Paris, a splendid edition in 4 vols, folio, though its 
value is much diminished by the number of conjectural emen- 
dations embodied in the notes and translation. In the same 

year Kennicott published his first Dissertation on the 

Kennicott. d x 

state of the printed Hebrew text, and in 1776-80 his 
Hebrew Bible was printed at Oxford. The text is that of Van 
der Hooght, with the various readings of 692 different authori- 
ties, including MSS., printed editions, and rabbinical writings. 
De Rogs . In 1784-8, De Kossi, of Parma, published 5 vols, of 

extracts from Hebrew MSS., and in 1793 the most 



HISTORY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT TEXT. 



45 



important readings of Kennicott and De Rossi were published 
in an edition issued at Leipzig, 1793, by Doederlein and 
Meisner, and at Vienna by Jahn, 1806, as they were Jahn ^ 
also in the English edition of the Hebrew Scriptures 
published in 1810-16 by Boothroyd. Boothroyd. 

62. The result of all these inquiries is that we have but one 
class of MSS., the Masoretic, and that the variations Result: but 
of reading in them do not exceed those of one family of Mssllnd 
of MSS. of the Greek Testament. An edition of the readin s s - 
Hebrew Bible which shall give the readings sanctioned by 
ancient versions is still needed ; but so far as the accuracy of 
the present text is concerned, such a work is rather curious 
than important. 

63. The general uniformity of Hebrew MSS. makes a classi- 
fication of them less important than in the case of Number of 
Greek MSS. Kennicott mentions 630, of which 258 Heb< Mss ' 
were collated by him throughout, the remainder only in part. 
De Rossi collated 751, of which all but 17 were collated for the 
first time. Many others remain uncollated. (See Jahn's He- 
brew Bible, vol. iv. App.) 

Though, as already stated, there is but one recension, the 
Masoretic, it seems that in the 10th century the Jews at Baby- 
lon had one set of readings, and those at Tiberias another. 
Hence arose the distinction of Eastern and Western 
families. Bishop Walton, in his Polyglot, has given Western 
the differences on which this distinction is founded. 
They are differences in the letters, and are about 220 in all, 
none of which, however, materially affects the sense ; and in 
the vowel points these amounting to about 860. In reference 
to the first, our printed editions vary from the Eastern read- 
ings in 55 places ; in reference to the second, they follow the 
Masoretic text, as fixed at Tiberias. Particular copies were 
long celebrated for accuracy, but only their traditional fame 
has descended to our times. 

• See Preface. 



46 



CRITICISM— ANCIENT VERSIONS. 



64. It is a summary proof of the general accuracy of the 
j . present text, that the Jew agrees with the Christian 

in the letter of the Old Testament, and the Roman- 
ist with the Protestant in the letter of the New. 

On this subject see Horne, vol. ii. part i. ch. ii. § 1 : Scott Porter, p. 
73 ; Bishop Marsh's Lectures on the Criticism and Interpretation of the 
Bible; and Davidson's Bib. Cr., vol. i. 

Sec. 4. — The Ancient Veesions of Scripture. 

65. The origin and history of the LXX were long matters 
The lxx °^ con ^ rovers 7> though now the questions connected 

with it may be regarded as settled. The story of 
Aristeas, a writer who pretends to be a Gentile and favorite 
at the court of Ptolemy Philadelphus, is, that this version was 
made by seventy-two J ews (six from each tribe) sent to Alex- 
andria by Eleazar at the request of Demetreus Phalareus, and 
that the whole was completed in seventy-two days. To this 
story various additions were made, claiming miraculous inter- 
position for the work, and infallibility for the translators. Dr. 
Hody first proved that the narrative could not be authentic ; 
though nothing has been discovered that materially affects 
either the value or the date of the version. Eegarding the 
work critically, it may be observed that it contains many 
Grseco-Egyptian words, and that the Pentateuch is translated 
with much more accuracy than the other books. The Book 
of Job, the Psalms, and the prophets, are all inferior, and espe- 
cially Isaiah and Daniel. The historical books are often inaccu- 
rately translated. 

In the early Christian church the version was deemed of 
great value, though writers often appealed against it to the 
Orion's Hebrew. With the view of correcting it, Origen 
Hexapia. formed his Hexapla. This work, which made alto- 
gether fifty volumes, perished probably at the sacking of Csesa- 
rea by the Saracens, 653, A. D. ; but happily the text of the 
LXX (which formed one of the columns) had been copied by 



CRITICISM— ANCIENT VERSIONS. 



47 



Etisebius, together with, the corrections or additions which 
Origen had inserted from the other translators. This Hexa- 
plarian text, as it is called, was published by Montfaucor, at 
Paris, in 1714. Of the two celebrated MSS. of the LXX, the 
Vatican (B) follows the original version, while the Alexandrian 
(A) exhibits many of the readings embodied in the Hexapla, 
and conforms more generally to the present Hebrew* 

The four chief printed editions of the LXX are — the Aldine, 
exhibiting many of the readings of B; the Complutensian, 
which often follows the Masoretic Hebrew and Origen-s Hexa- 
pla ; the Roman or Vatican ; and the Grabianj which is taken 
chiefly from A. 

The version is rather free than literal, and frequently misses 
the sense of the original. It is often valuable in interpretation, 
though less so in settling the text. 

66. Among the earliest versions founded on the LXX was 
the Italic. In the days of Augustine (died 430) there versions 
were several Latin versions of the Bible, of which the Lxx. the 
old Italic was the best. Jerome bears the game testi- 1 - TheItallc - 
mony to its general excellence. It was made, as may be gath* 
ered from fragments which still remain,* from the Alexandrian 
MS., and is ascribed by Eichhorn to the 1st century. 

67. The diversities and imperfections of this version induced 
Jerome (A. D. 382) to revise the text, as Origen had previously 
revised the version of the LXX. He employed for this pur- 
pose the Hexapla of Origen, and carefully corrected the whole 
of the Old Testament, though portions only of his revision 
remain. As these labors of Jerome were drawing to a close, 
the LXX, though long favorably received by the Jews, began 
to fall into disrepute, on the ground, probably, that it was ap- 
pealed to by Christians. To meet this feeling Jerome undertook 
to prepare a translation into Latin direct from the Hebrew. He 
devoted the larger portion of twenty years to this work, and it 
was completed in 405. A superstitious reverence for the LXX 
led many to oppose this version, but it gradually gained influ- 

• Job, Psalms, some of the Apocrypha, and parts of other books 



48 



CRITICISM — ANCIENT VERSIONS. 



ence, and in the time of Gregory the Great (604) it had at least 
a co-ordinate authority, and was dignified with the name of the 
2 ti Vulgate. The text was made up in part from the 

Vulgate in old Italic, in part from Jerome's improved edition of 
that version, and is in part a new version formed im- 
mediately from the Hebrew. Jerome was acquainted with 
Hebrew expositors, and many of their interpretations are em- 
bodied in the Vulgate, but generally it follows the LXX, even 
when that version differs from the Hebrew. It is more useful 
for interpretation than for criticism, though for both it is of 
Talue. The version of the Psalms was made from Origen's 
Hexapla, and is called the Psalterium Gallicanum. The text 
was early corrupted, and various learned men have undertaken 
to revise it, among whom are Alcuin and Lanfranc. The two 
chief editions are those of Sixtus Y. and Clement VIII. , which, 
however, though both sanctioned by papal authority, contain 
eome most remarkable errors. a (See par. 76). 

68. Ecclesiastical history places the conversion of Ethiopia 

about A. D. 330, and to the same century belongs the 
Other . ... b 

versions translation of the Scriptures into Oheez, the sacred 

from the . . . 

lxx language of Ethiopia. Its author is not known. 

continued. _ ~, ° . x 

3. The Perfect copies oi the Old lestament are not common, 
though Bruce states that he found several ; and there 
are MSS. of this version in some of the libraries of Europe. 
Only fragments have been printed. The text follows the read- 
ings of A, and is founded entirely on the LXX. The New 
Testament has all been printed. The text seems to be founded 
on the Peshito and the old Italic. — See Ludolf, Gieseler, and 
the travels of Bruce. 

The greater part of the Old Testament is also extant in the 
4, 5. Coptic, Coptic and Thebaic, dialects of Egypt, though only a 
Thebaic. portion has been printed. The most probable date 
of their origin is the 3d and 4th century, though some suppose 
them to have been made as early as the 1st and 2d. Both are 

a Of the Vulgate, as prepared by Jerome, the most important MS. is 
the C. Amiatinus, now at Florence, and written about the year 541. 



CRITICISM — ANCIENT VERSIONS. 



49 



founded on the LXX, and generally follow the readings of A. 
The translators are not known. 

The Gothic version of the Bible was made by Ulphilas, a 
bishop of the Mceso-Goths, who assisted at the Council ^ ^. 
of Constantinople in 359. The version was made from 
the Greek, and is of considerable critical value, though unhap- 
pily only fragments of it remain. The most celebrated MS. is 
the Codex Argenteus, written in silver letters, which is now 
preserved in the library of Upsal, in Sweden. This MS. con-j 
tains only the four Gospels, and is imperfect. 

Of the Armenian version little more is known than is stated 
in another paragraph. The date is 410, and the , 

\ ° 1 7.Armenian. 

translator Miesrob, who seems to have used the LXX 
and the Alexandrian recension as the basis of his version. 
The Georgian version was made in the following century, from 
copies of the Armenian translation. The Armenian version 
has been repeatedly printed (Bible, Amst. 1666, New Testament, 
1668-1698), and the whole Bible, in Georgian, was printed at 
Moscow in 1743, parts of it having been previously printed at 
Tiflis. 

To the 9th century belongs the Slavic or Slavonic version, 

supposed to have been made bv the sons of Leo, a 

x 1 J e. Slavic. 

Greek nobleman, who first preached the gospel to the 

Slavonians. It is generally regarded as a descendant of the 
LXX, though ancient testimony states that it was made, in 
great part, from the Italic, a statement which recent collation 
has confirmed. The text was early corrected from Greek MSS. 
and it is hence deemed of considerable critical value. The 
whole was printed in 1576, and several editions have since 
been issued from Moscow. 

69. From the Vulgate were formed the various Anglo-Saxon 
versions of parts of Scripture. About the year 706, 

Versions 

Adhelm, the first bishop of Sherborn, translated the from the . 
Psalms into Saxon, as did Egbert, the bishop of Holy 
Island, the four Gospels. About the same time Bede (A. D. 
735) translated parts of the Bible. King Alfred undertook to 



50 



CRITICISM — ANCIENT VERSIONS. 



translate the Psalms, but died (900) when his work was about 
half finished. iElfric of Canterbury translated the Pentateuch 
and some of the historical books. To the same version we may 
ascribe the various translations of the Old Testament into 
French, Italian and Spanish, executed before the 16th century, 
and even Luther availed himself largely of its renderings in 
making his German translation of the Bible. 

70. The Samaritan Pentateuch is rather a recension than a 
Samaritan translation of the Hebrew text. Copies are referred 
Pentateuch, ^y. Eusebius and Cyril, but it was long thought 
that the whole had perished. In the early part of the 17th 
century, however, a copy was transmitted from Constantinople 
to Paris. Usher afterwards procured six copies, and Kennicott 
collated sixteen. The most probable account of this recension 
is, that it was taken from the copies of the Pentateuch which 
were in the hands of the Israelites in the days of Eehoboam, 
when the kingdom was divided. The Psalms and the writings 
of Solomon, which were known to pious Jews of that age, were 
rejected for obvious reasons. 

The critical value of the readings of this recension was over- 
Critieai estimated at first, but now they are held to be not at 
Value. a rj gnperior to the Hebrew. The LXX seem to have 
followed it more frequently than the present Hebrew text; 
from which, however, it does not materially differ. Gesenius 
deems its readings preferable to the Hebrew in Gen. iv. 8, 
where it supplies the words, "Let us go into the field;" in 
Gen. xiv. 14, where it reads, " he numbered," instead of " he 
armed in Gen. xxii. 13, where it omits the words " behind 
him;' and in Gen.lix. 14, where the difference is in expres- 
sion only and not in sense. The Samaritan is of great value 
in determing the history of the Hebrew vowels, and in con- 
firming the general accuracy of the present text, but it is not 
a source of valuable independent emendation. 

The characters in which it is written are probably the older 
forms of the Hebrew. 

The ancient Samaritan Pentateuch must not be confounded 



CRITICISM — ANCIENT VERSIONS. 



51 



with the more modern Samaritan version which is printed 
with the other in the Polyglots. This is a very literal trans- 
lation into modern Samaritan. 

71. The Peshito version of the Scriptures was probably 
made by those translators "who were sent to Pales- gyrja(X 
tine by the apostle Jude and Abgarus, king of Edes- Horse 
sa." Such is the ancient tradition, and it is in itself Synacia 
sufficiently probable. From internal evidence, it is believed 
that the translators were Jewish Christians, and that they 
translated the Old Testament from the original Hebrew. It 
contains all the canonical books of the Old Testament, and all 
those of the New, except 2 Pet., 2 and 3 John, Jude, and the 
Revelation. The text differs from all the chief families of 
MSS., and each in succession has claimed it. The New Tes- 
tament was first printed at Venice in 1555, and the Old Tes- 
tament in the Paris and London Polyglots. 

Internal evidence and tradition agree in ascribing it to the 
1st century. It is of great critical yalue. Several ancient 
Arabic versions, and the Persian version of the Gospels, 
(printed in the London Polyglot), were made from the 
Peshito. 

The Philoxenian (New Testament only) version was made 
from the Greek, by the hand, or under the care, or Philo . 
in the days of Philoxenius, Bishop of Maberg, in xeman - 
Syria, about the year 508. No MS. of it remains, but various 
readings taken from it are given in a MS. in the Vatican 
(153). Early in the following century Thomas of Harkel, or 
Heraclea, the successor of Philoxenius, began to revise the 
work of his predecessor, and published another ver- 

iii Heraclean. 

sion m olo. It contains the whole of the New Tes- 
tament except the Apocalypse. The most complete MS. of it 
is one which formerly belonged to Pidley, and is now pre- 
served in New College,- Oxford. The style is extremely lite- 
ral, and in consequence frequently violates the Syriac idiom. 

There is also a fourth Syriac. version of Lessons from the 
Gospels (Vat. MS. 19). The date of the MS. is 1030, but the 



52 



CRITICISM — VARIOUS READINGS. 



version seems to belong to the 5th or 7th century. The 
language is a mixture of Ohaldee and Syriac. The readings 
generally favor the Western recension; and the MS. is some- 
times called the Palestino-Syriac or Jerusalem version. 

72. The Arabic versions of several of the books of Scripture, 
Arabic as gi ven ™ the Paris and London Polyglots, were 
versions, made from the LXX by different authors between 
the 10th and 12th centuries; and of Job, Chron., Judges, 
? Ruth, Samuel, and parts of other books from the Peshito 

Syriac. 

73. From the same version was made the Persian version, 
Persian °^ ^ ne Gospels, published with Le Clerc's Latin 
version. translation in the London Polyglot; it abounds with 
Arabic expressions, and must have been later than the time of 
Mahomet. Another version of the same part of Scripture 
was published by Wheelock in 1652 ; but these, with the more 
recent version made under the care of Nadir Shah 1740-1, 
are of little critical value. 

74. From these facts it is clear that the Samaritan Penta- 
Conciusion ^ eu(m > ^ ne ^^X> P ar ^ °f * ,ne Vulgate, and the Pe- 
shito Syriac, are all more or less valuable for ascer- 
taining the text of the original Hebrew; but that other 
versions of the Old Testament being made from these, and 
not from the original, are of little or no critical value, except 
for ascertaining the text of those versions from which they 
were made. In the case of the New Testament, all the ear- 
lier versions from the Greek are of value, proportioned, of 
course, to the general condition of their texts, and to the 
obvious accuracy with which they have been made. 

Modern versions (and to a great extent the ancient) are of 
value only as helps to interpretation. 

Full accounts of ancient versions may be seen in Le Long's Biblio- 
theca Sacra (Masch's edition), or in Home's Introduction, vol. ii. 



criticism — various readings. 53 

• Sec. 5. The Various Readings of Scripture ; Rules for 
Determining the Text. 

75. Of Hebrew MSS. upwards of 1,300 have been collated, 
and of Greek upwards of 600. These numbers, it Number of 
will be observed, do not represent copies of complete Mss - 
Scriptures, but of parts only. Each of the three divisions of 
the Old Testament (par. 4) forms in Hebrew one roll, and 
each of the New Testament divisions (par. 49) generally] 
forms one MS. in Greek. 

76. These MSS. have been exposed, in transcription, to 
many errors. Nor will this fact excite surprise if it ^rfous° f 
is remembered that carefully-printed books often* readings, 
contain numerous inaccuracies. In writing, the risk is 
of course much greater than in printing. Revision and 
correction are less practicable in the first than the second. 
The slowness of the process increases the probability that let- 
ters, syllables, and words will be added, omitted, changed, or 
transposed. Sometimes the writer transcribed from a MS. 
before him ; sometimes from dictation. In the latter case his 
ear frequently deceived him, and in the former, his eye. 
Different words having often the same final syllable, or differ- 
ent sentences having the same final word, made mistakes the 
more easy. A misunderstanding of the MS. from which he 
copied would sometimes lead to the same result. He might 
either misinterpret its abbreviations, or inaccurately divide 
the words where they were written, (as in most ancient MSS.) 
Without pause marks ; or the MS. might be wholly or partially 
effaced. Independently, therefore, of design, these causes of 
error were always at work. The results, however, seldom 
affect the meaning of the text materially (though they do so 
in some cases), and are similar to the mistakes produced in an 
English version by such errors of the press as escaped the eye 
of even a careful reader. Differences more serious may be 
seen in the Bibles printed "by authority" of the Popes 



5* 



a See Preface. 



54 



CRITICISM — VARIOUS READINGS 



Sextus and Clement. Hody has given a large number of 
these discrepancies. Compare them in Prov. xxv. 24: Matt, 
xxvii. 35: Judg. xvii. 2, 3; which are left out in the Sextine 
edition; and in 1 Sam. xxiv. 8: 2 Sam. viii. 8; which are left 
out in the Clementine edition. They contradict one another, 
moreover, in Josh. ii. 18 ; ix. 19 : Exod. xxxii. 28 ; Gen. xxiv. 
24: 1 Kings ii. 28. 
For example: — 

77. (1) There are many cases in which, from the similarity 
Similarity °^ soun( l or of form, the transcriber would natu- 
form Und ° r ra ^y make a false reading. 

In Gen. xiv. 5, the Heb. Sam. and LXX read "with them" (tp{-ft), 
Behem. 'the English and seven Sam. MSS. read "in Ham" (tjn^)> 
cham. 

In Judges viii. 16, some Hebrew MSS. and the English read "he 
taught" (3>-p), Yadah: but many MSS., the LXX, Chald., Arab., Syr., 
and Vulg., read "he tore" (ta^p), Yadash, which is clearly the true 
reading. So in Numbers xxii. 5, where many read Ammon instead of 
"Ammo" (his people). 

In 1 Kings i. 18, "And now" is our English version (n^S"i), Veatta; 
but 200 MSS. and the Chald. read "And thou" (nfijo), Veatta. So 
ver. 20. 

In Jonah i. 9, "I am a Hebrew" (i-^), Ivri, is the reading of most 
MSS. and of the English: but the LXX and some MSS. read 'S 
Ivdi, "the servant of Jehovah." 

lo (not) is put for ^ lo (to him) fifteen times in the Old Testament, 
and the reverse twice. Though there is this change, the text which the 
Jews use, and which our Version translates, is in these places the cor- 
rect one, except, perhaps, in one passage, 2 Kings viii. 10, where for 
"Go, say unto him, Thou may est certainly recover," we ought to read, 
as the present Hebrew MSS., "Go, say Thou shalt not recover, for — " 

In Eph. iv. 19, some MSS. read "past hope" instead of "past feeling" 

{d.7Tilh.7riKb<Ti$ for aTmhy-XKitts) . 

Similar cases may be found in the Hebrew, of the following passages, 

1 Sam. xx. 18: Psa. lix. 9. 

Under this same head may be placed the transposition of letters, or 
even of words: as "Shalmai," Nehem. vii. 48, for Shamlai, see Ezra ii. 
46: " almug- trees " for algum-trees; 1 Kings, x. 11: 2 Chron. ix. 10. In 

2 Sam. vi. 5: and 1 Chron. xiii. 8, "all manner of fir-wood," and "with 
all their might and with singing" differ chiefly in one similar letter and 



CRITICISM — VARIOUS READINGS. 



55 



in the transposition of another. See also Hebrew of 2 Sam. vi. 2, com- 
pared with 1 Chron. xiii. 6. 

The Jews never prononnced the name Jehovah, but when it occurred 
in Scripture read Adonai or Elohim. These latter words are conse- 
quently often put in MSS. for the former. 

We have noticed elsewhere how similar letters have been confounded 
in the case of numerals (par. 117), a confusion the more easy in the 
early stage of the Hebrew Language, as the letters more closely resem- 
bled one another than at present. 

78. (2) Similarity of ending, either of words or similarity 
of whole sentences, sometimes created mistake. of endings. 

There are different readings in 1 Chron. ix. 5, from this cause. 1 
Kings xiv. 25 seems to belong to this class : compare 2 Chron. xii. 2& 2 y 
See also the Hebrew of Numb. xxvi. 3 ; and compare Psa. xxxvii. 28 with 
the LXX. 

In Exod. xxx. 6, "before the mercy-seat that is over the testimony" 
is a repetition, probably, of the previous clause. 

In Matt xxviii. 9, the expression "went to tell his disciples" (which 
is in Greek the same as "to bring his disciples word" in the eighth verse, 
is omitted in many MSS., B, D, and also in the Vulg., Syr., Copt, Arm., 
Pers., Arab., Chrys., Jer., Aug.: but it is found in most MSS. On the 
other hand, the last clause of 1 Cor. x. 28 is taken from ver. 26, and is 
wanting in A, B, D, in most ancient versions, and in many other 
authorities. 

79 (3) A large class of various readings owe their origin 
to the use of synonymous expressions: as "he spoke " Ugeof ^ 
for "he said," in 2 Kings i. 10; "they found" for nymous ex- 

,,/ n n \ ■» r --it • pressions 

"they saw (evgov for eldov), Matt. n. 11: "this very 
world" for "this present world," Matt. xii. 32; "the messen- 
gers of John" for "the disciples of John," in Luke vii. 24; 
"to follow after" for "follow," Mark viii. 34. 

80. (4) Many copyists were acquainted with other oriental 
languages, and, in the case of the New Testament, Dialectic 
with other dialects; and thence arose great diversity chan s es * 
in the orthography, even where the readings are substantially 
the same. 

81. (5) Ancient MSS. are often without stops and ^ P ?Sd°* 
without even the division of the words ; hence occa- words . 11 ° f 
eional mistakes, though fewer than might be supposed. 



66 



CRITICISM — VARIOUS READINGS. 



In Psa. xlviii. 14, for "unto death" some MSS. and the LXX read, by 
connecting the two words, "for ever." And Psa. xxv. 17 may be read 
through a similar mistake, "Enlarge the troubles of my heart, and 
bring," etc.; comp. also LXX and Heb. of Psa. iv. 3. 

82. (6) Sometimes abbreviations are wrongly interpreted : 
,/k i(J) is the Heb. abbreviation for "Jehovah," and it 

Abbrevia- 
tions misa] 
prehendec 



tionsmisap- means also my; hence an occasional mistake. In 
id. 



the LXX of Jer. vi. 11, " the fury of J" is translated 
"my fury." So in 1 Pet. ii. 3, for " gracious," which is some- 
times written XS (^u^to?,) some of the Fathers (Clem-Alex., 
Greg. Naz. Theoph.) read "Christ" (%p^to?,) which is also 
written X£. 

83. (7) In the Old Testament MSS. the copyists never di« 
Mistakes vided a word, nor did they leave at the end of 
•^custodes ^ nes an 7 vacant space; and hence they often filled 
lmearum." U p ^he line with some favorite letter, or with the 
initial of the next word, which of course was repeated in the 
following line. "For them," in Isa. xxxv. 1, is an example. 
And, on the other hand, ignorant copyists have mistaken final 
letters for mere custodies linearum, as they are called, and 
have omitted them. 

84. (8.) Sometimes marginal readings have been inserted in 
Marginal ^ e b'ody of the MSS., corrective or explanatory of 
Giosles. the original text. 

The repetition " Surely the people is grass," (Isa. xl. 7) is supposed to 
belong to this class, and is not found in the LXX. The number 50,000 k 
mentioned in 1 Sam. vi. 19, is supposed by Jahn to be another instance. 

In Mark i. 16, the word "Ais" seemed ambiguous; and many MSS. 
(54, besides all Stephens's) read "this same Simon." 

In Luke vii. 16, "God has visited his people for good" (tie &yu&6v) add 
eleven MSS., Arm. and Pers., in explanation of a phrase which seemed 
scarcely clear. 

So in Luke v. 7, a few MSS. add " a little" (nag* <n). 

85. All the sources of various readings noticed thus far may- 
Various be regarded as accidental. Other readings, however, 

readings ° . > r 

originating were intentionally made, either from good motives or 



CRITICISM — VARIOUS KEADINGS. 



57 



from bad. A Greek copyist, for example, accustomed {J}5tera iol> 
to hear his own language spoken without an admix- tions. 
ture of oriental idioms, and regarding a Hebraism as a violation 
of grammar, would correct it, forgetting that such idioms go to 
prove the genuineness of the inspired writings. He would 
sometimes substitute for the original, Greek words which he 
deemed more clear and easy. Sometimes he would correct one 
Evangelist by another, or fill up the shorter account from the 
longer one, or adapt the quotations from the Old Testament to 
the text of his own copy, whether it were Hebrew, or Greek, or 
Latin. 

In other instances motives less honorable may account for 
deviations from the original text. 

86. (9.) Sometimes, for example, in particular Mistakes 

p i o • i ■ -I it retained in 

copies of the Scriptures, a mistake m the spelling order not to 

/ J j i. * J j-"U t, x x n & injure the 

of a word, once made, is retained throughout the Ms. 
book. 

The Hebrew for a boy is put twenty- one times in the Pentateuch for 
a girl (^y] for j-jIS'D na-ar, na-ara), which latter is found but once (Deut. 
xxii. 19.) All the versions and the Masora direct us to read it as a 
feminine noun. So, in Ezek. xl. there is a solecism in grammar, through 
the omission of the ordinary sign of the plural (before the suffix ^ viz. h) 
in thirty-four words, though the Keri directs us to read it. Some critics, 
it may be added, ascribe these variations to other causes. 

87. (10.) Sometimes attempts were made to im- Attempts to 

Tv\r ' i , . * , , improve the 

prove Mob., by making the language more clear and style, 
easy. 

Many passages of the Chronicles, for example, when compared with 
Samuel, will be found to give more modern words, in place of the obse- 
lete ones of the earlier writer. These passages, when compared by 
copyists, gave rise to various readings. See Hebrew of 1 Sam. xxxi. 12: 
1 Chron. x. 12 : 2 Sam. vii. 23 : 1 Chron. xvii. 21 : 2 Sam. vi. 16 : 1 Chron. 
xv. 29. 

So, in Luke, xvi. 9, for " the mammon of unrighteousness," which is a 
Hebraism, some read (MS. Bezse) "the unrighteous mammon." 



53 



CRITICISM — VARIOUS READINGS. 



In Luke i. 64, "was loosed" is added in some MSS. (Bez. and Compl. 
text). 

In Exod. xv. 3, it is said "The Lord is a man of war." The word 
seemed to the Sam. copyists objectionable, and they have put "mighty 
one of war." 

In Gen. ii. 2, it is said that God finished his work on the seventh day 
The Sam. and Syr. seem to have read "on the sixth day." 

In the Pentateuch the word for God is plural (Elohim) ; and is some- 
times joined with a singular verb, and sometimes with a plural verb. 
In all the latter cases there is a variety of readings ; most of them, (as 
in the Sam.) in favor of a singular noun (as the Holy One), retaining, 
however, the plural verb: the object being, probably, to prevent a 
supposition that the Scriptures favored polytheism. See Gen. xx. 13 ; 
xxxv. 7. 

MSS. of the Alexandrian family, it may be observed, often alter 
words to make what was deemed better grammar; as MSS. of tha 
Western alter them to make the meaning more clear. 

88. (11.) Sometimes alterations were made to suit the par- 
Paraiiei a ^ e ^" P assa 8 e > or ^° ma ^ e the text agree with the 
passages, passage from which it is quoted. See Schulz's edition 
of Griesbach (Ber. 1827), for a view of the influence, in this 
respect, of the LXX on the text of the New Testament. 

Luke iv. 18, "to heal the broken-hearted," is wanting in several 
MSS. It is probably taken from the LXX of Isa. lxi. 1. Matt. xii. 
35 " of the heart" is omitted in many MSS., and in the Vulg., Syr., Copt., 
Pers., Arab. It is probably from Luke vi. 45. Matt. xx. 22, 23, "the 
baptism I am baptized with can ye be baptized with?" is wanting in 
several MSS., and in the Vulg., Ethiop. and Copt.; probably from Mark 
x. 38, 39. Matt, xxvii. 35, " That it might be fulfilled," etc., is wanting 
in A B D E F G H K L M, etc., and many other MSS., the Syr., Copt, 
Ethiop. and Arab. It is probably from John xix. 24. Acts ix.; xxii.; 
xxvi. and Acts x. ; xi. have been peculiarly liable to various readings on 
this ground. 1 Cor. xv. 5, "the twelve" being not strictly accurate (for 
Thomas was absent), some MSS. read "the eleven." So, in Mark viii. 
31, some MSS. read "after three days," and others, M on the third day." 

89. (12. Sometimes a passage has been altered wilfully to 
Alterations serve the purposes of a party, or to favor what was 
purposes, deemed the cause of truth. 



CRITICISM— VARIOUS READINGS. 



59 



In Deut. xxvii. 4, the Ifeb. reads "Ebal," and the Sam. "Gerizim," 
which was in the Samaritan territory; and the passage is used as a 
reason for erecting there a Samaritan temple. In Judg. xviii. 30, "Ma- 
nasseh" is written in many MSS. for Moses, to save the honor of his 
family. So B. Solomon Jarchi acknowledges. Isa. lxiv. 4, has been 
altered, and is now unintelligible. It is quoted in 1 Cor. ii. 9. Isa. lii. 
14, for "at thee," some MSS., the Chald., Syr., and Vulg. read " at him." 
Such intentional alterations, however, are very rare in the Old Testa- 
ment, nor are there many in the New Testament Greek. In Matt. i. 18, 
"before they came together," and the word "first-born," are omitted in 
some MSS. and Versions, in favor of the perpetual virginity. In Mark 
xiii. 32, "neither the Son" is omitted in several MSS. and Fathers, as 
seeming to favor Arianism. Luke xxii. 43 is omitted in A B, and some 
other MSS., because supposed to detract from our Lord's Divinity. 

90. (13.) There are also various readings, which can be ex- 
plained only on the supposition of carelessness on careiess- 
the part of transcribers, and which are not referable ness - 

to any of the causes just enumerated. 

In 1 Chron. vi. 28, there is an omission of the name Joel (see ver. 33 : 
1 Sam. viii. 2). The verse really reads "And the sons of Samuel, tne 
first-born Joel, and the (second now translated Vashni), Abiah." Bishop 
Lowth has noticed that in Isaiah there are as many as fifty slight omis- 
sions, none of them, however, affecting the sense. A singular instance 
may be seen in 2 Sam. xxi. 19, which ought to be read in the same way 
as 1 Chron. xx. 5. Read in Samuel ^ for ji^, eth, beth and n& for 
ach eth. The word fc^^j* (weavers), has come up improperly from the 
end of the verse. The 430 years mentioned in Exod. xii. 40, as the 
time of the sojourning of the children of Israel in Egypt, is not correct ; 
it was only 215 years, and the text as it stands is hardly consistent with 
Gal. iii. 17: Gen. xii. 4; xvii. 1, 21; xxv. 26. The Sam. Alex. LXX, 
and some MSS. read "and of their fathers who dwelt in the land of 
Egypt, and in Canaan." Perhaps, however, there is here a latitude of 
expression easily understood by Jewish readers. 

91. The readings which have originated in these and similar 
causes amount to many thousands, but in nearly all, 

J , J ' Result of 

any various reading may be adopted without mate- suchvaiious 
rially affecting the sense. The most inaccurate text 
ever written, it has been justly said, leaves the truths of Scrip- 
ture substantially unchanged. 



GO 



CEITICISM — VAEIOUS READINGS. 



92. It is, nevertheless, a question of much interest, how is 
o ^ the comparative value of various readings to be de- 

parativevai- cided? The following principles are recognised by 
ingsis all competent scholars in this branch of inquiry. 

' They are taken substantially from Griesbach, Wet- 
stein and other critics. Griesbach' s rules may be seen at length 
in his Prolegomena, or abridged in Planck's Sacred Philology, 
p. 235, etc., and Wetstein's in his introduction to the Greek 
Testament. Rules approved by Eichhorn and De Wette, 
with special reference to the Old Testament, may be seen in 
T)e Wette, i. 319. 

93. (1.) When MSS., versions and quotations agree in a 
External reading, the external evidence in its favor is com- 
and internal pl e te, and when the reading thus fixed agrees with 

evidence, x ° ° 

what. the nature of the language, the sense, the connection 
of historical facts and parallel passages, the internal evi- 
dence is complete. Where these concur, the reading is 
undoubtedly genuine ; and this is the evidence found in the 
case of the great bulk of the Scriptures, as contained in the 
common editions. 

94. (2.) Generally the value of a reading is in proportion 
General ^° ^ e a § e °^ MSS., because the older it is, the 
rules as to i ess likely is it to be a transcript of many previous 

external ev- J r J s. 

idence. transcripts, (though a recent MS., certainly copied 
from a very early one, may be of greater authority than one 
less recent) : to the number of MSS. in which it is found ; to 
the family to which it belongs (some preferring, with Gries- 
bach, the Alexandrian; and others, with Schmlz, the Constan- 
tinopolitan) ; and to the obvious care with which the MS. is 
written. 

In the case of Hebrew MSS., we speak rather of the coun- 
tries where they were written than of families formed on any 
other principle ; Spanish, Italian, German, representing their 
origin, and the order of their critical value. 

The following rules may be laid down for guiding the in- 
quirer in determining the correct reading: 



CRITICISM — VARIOUS READINGS. 



61 



95. (1.) "When the external and internal evidence are op- 
posed, the former ought generally to be preferred, External 
because the "genuine reading" is an expression that JJJ^. 
refers rather to external than to internal evidence. fharf nt 

It is the sum, not of reasons, so much as of autho- mternal - 
rities. 

96. (2.) Yet the internal evidence may be so strong as to 
counterbalance a greater degree of external (as in 

the case of most of the Masoretic readings of the 
Old Testament) : wherever, in fact, the readings are clearly 
false, or where the introduction of a particular reading can 
be easily explained. 

97. (3.) Readings are certainly right when they are sup- 
ported by the most ancient MSS., by most of the various 
ancient versions, by quotations, by parallel places, ladings 
and by the sense, though such readings are not probable or 
found in all MSS., or in the common version. certain. 

Isa. lx. 21, "my planting;" 1 Kings, i. 18. 

98. (4.) Readings are most probably right, when they are 
supported by a few ancient MSS., the ancient versions, quo- 
tations, parallel places, and the sense, though not found in 

MOST MSS. 

2 Chron. xi. 18, "Behoboam took the son (*p ben, jni bath), of Jeri- 
moth to wife;" so most MSS.: the E. v. says rightly, "the daughter," 
E^. /Psa. xxii. 16, most MSS. read, "like a lion my hands and my 
feet," (i^S Kaari.) Three MSS., two printed editions, the LXX, Syr., 
and Vulg'., read, "they pierced;" as does the English version (m 1 -)^ or 
*h&%iD> Kore or Kaaru). Others, however, regard the present Masoretic 
text as defensible (Vitringa, Stuart). Ezek. xi. 7, most MSS. read, "he 
will bring forth" (josin hotzi). A few MSS., all the versions, and the 
English, read, "/will bring forth" (a^aia* otz *-) E P^- v * 9 > most MSS. 
read, "of the Spirit;" but A, and nine others, with the Syr., Copt., 
Ethiop., and Vulg., read, "of the light." 

99. (5.) Readings in the Pentateuch, supported by the 
Sam., a few Heb. MSS., the ancient versions, parallel places, 

6 



62 



CRITICISM — VARIOUS READINGS. 



and the sense, are certainly right, though not found in most 
MSS. 

Gen. xlvii. 3, "Thy servants are a shepherd" (sing.): read with 30 
MSS. and the Sam. " shepherds." Even if the reading is not found in 
any Heb. MSS., it may be true. Gen. ii. 24, " They two shall be one 
flesh." So Sam., LXX, Ital., Syr., Arab., Vulg.; Matt. xix. '5. So 
Exod. xii. 40. : 

100. (6.) The concurrence of the most ancient MSS., and 
the sense, is sometimes sufficient to show that a reading, 
though not general, is right. 

Isa. lvii. 13, " Let thy companies deliver thee." Most MSS. have a 
t-ingular verb ; but ten read in the plural. This rule is especially 
applicable to the New Testament. 

101. (7.) The concurrence of the most ancient versions, and 
the sense, or a parallel passage, will sometimes show the pro- 
priety of a reading, especially in the Old Testament. 

Psa. lxvm\ 19, " He received gifts for men." Eph. iv. 8, says, " He 
gave gifts unto men." So Targ., Syr., JEthiop., Arab., and some of 
the Fathers. The present Heb. is flPipb lakachta: the transposition 
of the letters explains the difference ; npbfl chalakta. Isa. lix. 20, 
"unto them that turn from transgression in Jacob" is the present 
reading. But the Versions, and Rom. xi. 28, read "that turn trans- 
gression from Jacob." In both these passages, however, the New 
Testament may be intended to give rather the general meaning than 
the words. 

102. (8.) When a text is very corrupt, a parallel passage 
may suggest the true reading. 

2 Kings xxv. 3, for "on the ninth day of the month" read "of the 
fourth month," as in Jer. lii. 6. 1 Chron. i. 17, for "The sons of 

Shem Aram and Uz," read "The sons of Shem, and the sons of 

Aram," &c, Gen. x. 23. Isa. xxx. 17, for "At the rebuke of five shall 
ye flee," read "At the rebuke of five shall ten thousand flee," Lev. 
xxvi. 8. 

103. When we come to consider readings which are but 



CRITICISM — VARIOUS READINGS. 



08 



probable, being equally, or more or less nearly equally Doubfful 
supported by external evidence, the rules of criticism readin s s - 
become more difficult, and the application of them must be 
made with less rigidity. 

104. (1.) Of two readings, equally supported by external 
evidence, that is the most probable which best suits various 
the sense, or which could not, so easily as the other rules ' 
have been written by mistake. 

! 

2 Cor. v. 14, "(If) one died for all," u is omitted in many MSS., but 
the sense requires it, and it is easily omitted before efc. Acts xi. 20, 
"unto the Grecians" is the reading of many MSS.; but, probably, it 
ought to be, as many read, "to the Greeks." The fact seems noticed 
because of its remarkableness, and justly so, if it be the second case of 
the success of the gospel among the heathen ; see chap. x. 44, 45, for the 
first. Grecians were Jews who resided out of Palestine. 2 Cor. v. 3, 
"If so be that being clothed" (gvJWa/^ev^): so very many MSS. Others 
read aJua-djutm, "If we be even unclothed, yet shall we not be found 
naked, for we have a glorious body," etc. 

It may be noticed as a general rule, that readings no better 
than the received text should not be placed in it ; but if a3 
good, or nearly so, they may be placed in the margin. 

105. (2.) Of two readings, equally probable, the fuller 
reading is more likely to be genuine ; unless there is reason 
to suspect an interpolation, or there is something in the text 
to suggest an addition ; and then the rule is reversed. 

In 1 Chron. xi. 32, we have "Abiel;" but in 2 Sam. xxiii. 31, 
"Abi-albon." The last syllable might easily be omitted. So in 
Matt. ii. 1, "in the days of Herod" is omitted in several MSS.; but it 
is genuine. 

Yet, if there is reason to suppose an interpolation, or if 
there is something in the text to suggest an addition, the rule 
is reversed; as copiers were more likely, from intention, to 
add than to omit ; though they were more likely, from acci- 
dent, to omit than to add. 



64 



CRITICISM — VARIOUS READINGS. 



Acts viii. 37, is wanting in A, and sixty other MSS.; also in the Syr.. 
Ethiop. and Copt. It is perhaps added from 'Rom. x. 9. 

106. (3.) Of two readings, the one classical and the other 
oriental, the latter is the more probable. 

107. (4.) Of two readings, the one easy and the other diffi- 
cult, the latter is generally to be preferred. All the emi- 
nent critics, Wetstein, Grriesbach, Bengel, and others, have 
admitted and maintained this rule, which they deem of 
essential value. 

108. (5.) Of two readings (equally probable), that is to be 
preferred which best agrees with the style of the writer, or 
with his design, or with the context. 

Jude 1, "sanctified by God the Father" (jj^/skt^Ivws), is more probable 
than "heloved" (yiy&miuevoie), because more common in the commence- 
ment of Epistles. Acts xvii. 26, "of one blood" is more probable than 
"of one" (as in Rom. ix. 10), because it is a good Hebraism. John vi. 
69, " Thou art the Christ, the Son of the living God" {vibe), is preferable to 
Griesbach's reading, "the Holy One of God" (ayioi), because this last is 
nowhere applied to Christ, except in the confession of the demoniac. 
Mark i. 2, "in the prophets" is preferable to "in the prophet Isaiah," 
which is the reading of Griesbach and Mill, because two prophets are 
quoted (Isa. xl. 3 : Mai. iii. 1). 

109. (6.) Conjectural readings, supported by the sense, or 
similar texts, may be probable ; but must not be received as 
true, unless they are confirmed by evidence. 

In Gen. i. 8, "God saw that it was good" is wanting .at the end of 
the second day's creation, but is found in ver. 10, in the middle of the 
third day's work. There has, therefore, probably been a transposition 
of the clause, especially as the LXX reads the phrase in ver. 8. Josh, 
xxiv. 19, "Ye cannot serve the Lord" (nb^iri 5*b)> se e ms strange at the 
end of an exhortation to serve him. " Cease not to serve him" 

is probably the true reading, but it wants confirmation. Isa. Iii. 
15, "So shall he sprinkle many nations" (^^h yazze) is generally inter- 
preted "he shall purify or make expiation for them;" but this sense 
does not agree with the parallel, and the verb has everywhere else a 
preposition after it (^3>). The LXX reads "Many nations shall admire 



CRITICISM — VARIOUS READINGS. 65 

him." They probably read (itm yechezu), as in Psa. xi. 7 ; xxvii. 
The lexicographers give this meaning to the present word. Isa. xvii. 
2, "the cities of Aroer" (^y^y Aroer) are broken: but to say that the 
cities of a city are broken is -unmeaning ; and, besides, this has nothing 
to do with Damascus. Perhaps (i-jjns adadi), is the true reading. 
The LXX reads "for ever," as this last reading means; and the Chald. 
reads "are laid waste." 

110. In the New Testament (as MSS. are nume- ^ . 

v Conjectural 

rous and varied) conjectural emendations are not ^menda- 
admissible, and but very rarely in the Old. 

111. In a few cases passages have two or more various 
readings, all of which are suitable to the sense, and are sup- 
ported by MSS., versions, and quotations ; and in these cases 
the probabilities vary with the evidence ; and the work of 
determining the true reading is one that requires much dis- 
crimination and care. It is highly satisfactory to know that 
in the -Bible, generally, the text is clear and certain beyond 
doubt. 

112. To aid the reader to apply these rules, we take Rules ap- 
as an instance, 1 John v. 7. John v? 7. 

The passage is printed in the Clementine editions of the Vulgate, in 
the Complutensian of the Greek, in the third edition of Erasmus ; and 
so thence found its way into the common texts of Stephens, Beza and 
Elzevir. 

Against its genuineness it may be said, 

1. That no Greek MSS. of certainly earlier date than the 15th cen- 
tury contains it. It is omitted in 174 Cursive MSS., and in A, B, G, H. 

2. It is wanting in all the ancient versions, except the Latin, nor is 
it found in the most ancient MS. of the Vulgate, the C. Amiatihus, or 
in any earlier than the 9th century. It is wanting, for example, in the 
two Syr., Arab., Copt., Ethiop., Armen., Slavonic, though some printed 
editions of the two latter, and of the Peshito insert it. 

3. Ancient Greek fathers have never quoted it. Ver. 6, 8, 9, are 
quoted more than once, but ver. 7 never. 

4. The best critical editions of the Greek Testament omit it; the first 
and second of Erasmus, Aldus, Harwood, Matthcei, Griesbach, iMchman, 

6* 



66 



CRITICISM— ENGLISH VERSION. 



Schoh, Tisch., Hahn; though, on the other hand, Mill and Bengel re- 
tain it. 

In favor of its genuineness it may be said, 

1. That it is inserted in some Greek MSS., the Codex Ravianus, at 
Berlin, Cod. Ouelph, and three others, concerning which, however, it is 
remarked that the first is a forgery ; the second has the passage written, 
not in the text, but in the margin ; and that the others belong to the 
15th century or later, and are, therefore, modern authorities. 

2. It is found in the old Latin versions, except in copies made in 
Africa. This is another form of part of the statement above, No. 2. 

3. It is supposed to be quoted by some of the Latin Fathers, as Ter- 
tullian, Cyprian and Fulgentius. It is not clear, however, whether the 
quotations are from the 7th or from the 6th and 8th verses. 

4. It is quoted in a Confession of Faith, given in the history of the 
Vandalic persecution in Africa, and which Confession is said to have 
been presented by a body of Christians in the year 484. This alleged 
fact, however, is thought not sufficient to weaken the positive evidence, 
and is, moreover, itself doubtful. 

5. It is said to be required by the construction and connection of the 
passage, an argument of which the English reader can himself judge. 
— Porter's "Biblical Criticism." 

On the whole, it is better not to rely upon this passage when 
we are quoting proofs of Scripture doctrine; 

Sec. 6. — The English Version on the whole Identical 
with the Original Text. 

113. A question of much interest remains : Is the English 
„ ,.' version of the Bible accurate, and may the reader 

English . . . 

version. regard it as, on the whole, expressive of the mind 

Opinions on ° , x . 

itsaccn- of the Spirit of God? And again the answer is at 
hand. The English Bible is essentially the Bible 
of the Primitive Church. The Committee appointed in the 
days of the Commonweal tK to inquire into the possibility of 
improving it, reported that while it contained some mistakes, 
it was, in their judgment, "the best of any translation in the 
world." A later witness, Dr. Geddes, admits "that if accu- 



CRITICISM — ENGLISH "VERSION. 



.67 



racy, fidelity, and the strictest attention to the letter of the 
text be supposed to constitute the qualities of an excellent 
version, this, of all versions, must in general be accounted the 
most excellent." "Of all the European translations," says 
Dr. A. Clarke, " this is the most accurate and faithful ; nor is 
this its only praise. The translators have seized the very 
spirit and the soul of the original, and expressed it almost 
everywhere with pathos and energy. " a Dr. Doddridge bears 
the same testimony, and adds that his "corrections affect not 
the fundamentals of religion; they seldom reach any further 
than the beauty of a figure, or at most, the connexion of an 
argument." 1 * 

114. But while this is the unanimous testimony of compe- 
tent authorities, there are points, it is admitted, in May be 
which the translation might be improved ; and these improved 
improvements, though not of vital importance as affecting the 
doctrines of Scripture, would, if made, often serve to remove 
objections which are now urged against it. 

115. (1.) In some cases the English version has 

, ,i i • Examples 

given a wrong meaning to the words or expressions of inaccu- 

o ,i • - i rate traus- 

oi the original. latum. 

In Exod. iii. 22, the Israelites are said to have " * borrowed" of the 
Egyptians things which they never intended to return. The original 
says simply, that they asked for them. In 2 Sam. xii. 31, a preposition 
is translated under instead of to. David cruelly tortured his captives is 
the meaning of the English version. He put them to ignominious em- 
ployments is the meaning of the original. So Psa. lxxiii. 4, for "no 
bands in their death," read, no bands or difficulties till their death 
Rosenm. 

It may be observed, generally, that the use of prepositions and par- 
ticles is often indeterminate in our version. For sometimes means 
because, 2 Cor. v. 1 ; sometimes instead of, Isa. lx. 17 ; sometimes in 
order to, Rom. iv. 3/ So, of means from, as in John viii. 40, 42; and. 
by, as in 1 Cor. xv. 5. These ambiguities are not in the original. In 
the narrative of Elisha, 2 Kings ii. 23, the word translated "children" 

•Preface to Commentary on Old Testament, p. 19. 

-Works, ii. p. 329. M . ^ ^ A J^, *„, ( ■ 



68 



CKJTICISM — ENGLISH VERSION. 



is translated elsewhere, "young men;" and is applied to Isaac when 
he was twenty-eight years old, and to Joseph when he was thirty. In 
1 Chron. xix. 7, a word is translated "chariots" instead of "riders," and 
the passage is made to contradict 2 Sam. x. 6. This correction makes 
the passages consistent, 32,000 men (cavalry and foot-soldiers) being 
the entire number. 

In 2 Kings vi. 25, the article sold for five shekels of silver was a 
kind of pulse or vetch, as Bochart has .shown ; the fourth part of a cab 
being about a pint. Gen. iv. 15 ; for "set a mark upon," read " gave a 
sign or assurance to." Lev. vii. 10; for "mingled with oil and dry," 
read, or dry (i. e., whichever it be). Deut. xxxiii. 25 ; for "shoes," iron 
and brass, read bars, alluding to the chain of mountains which pro- 
tected Asher from the inroads of the Gentiles. Judges xv. 8, 11 ; for 
"top," read "cleft." Josh. xxiv. 14, 15 ; for " flood," read " river." 1 
Kings i. 45; for "in Gihon" (a river), read "at Gihon." 1 Kings iv. 
31; for "sons of Mahol," read "players on the timbrel." Compare 1 
Chron. ii. 6 : 1 Kings xviii. 42; for "he cast himself down upon," read 
"he bowed down to." 1 Kings xviii. 43; for "he said go again seven 
times," read "he said seven times, go again." 2 Chron. viii. 2; for 
"had restored," read "had given." 2 Chron. xxi. 11 ; for "compelled," 
read "sent him astray," as in Deut. xxx. 17; iv. 19. Neh. vi. 11 ; for 
"to save his life," read "and live." Not being a priest, Nehemiah was 
not allowed to enter the holy place. Psa. lxxxvi. 2 ; for "I am holy," 
read " I am a devout man, or the object of thy favor." 

In John x. 28, 29, for "no man, any man," read "none, any." In 
Acts vii. 45, for, "that came after," read "having received." In Acts 
xvii. 23, for "ignorantly," read "without knowing him." In Acts xxii. 
23, for "cast off," read "threw up." In Acts xxvii. 12, for "lieth," 
read "looketh." In verse 15, for "into the wind," read "against the 
wind." In Acts xxvi. 18, for "to turn them," read "that they may 
turn." In 2 Cor. iii. 6, for "who hath made us able ministers," read 
"who hath fitted us to be ministers." In Gal. iv. 24, the history of the 
sons of Hagar and Sarah is said to be an " allegory," or a fictitious nar- 
rative. The apostle merely says that it represents important spiritual 
truth ; the Jews of the apostles' day, "Jerusalem that now is," answer- 
ing to Ishmael ; and true believers — the Church — to Isaac, the heir of 
the promise. In 2 Pet. i. 5, for "and beside this," read "and for this 
very reason." Milettis (not urn), Euodia (not as), Urbanws (not e), are 
the correct renderings ; and Joshua is less liable to mistake than J esus, 
in Acts vii. 45 : Heb. iv. 8. 

Examples hq (2.) In some cases the full force of the origi- 

ofmade- ; J J ° 

gimte trans- na ]_ i s no t expressed. 



CRITICISM — ENGLISH VERSION. 



69 



In John i. 14, the word is said "to have dwelt among us ;" the origi- 
nal connects his appearance with the ancient tabernacle as the dwelling- 
place of the Divine glory. In 1 Cor. iv. 13, the apostles are said to 
have been made as "the filth of the earth:" literally "the sweepings" 
(classical usage), or " appeasing offerings" (LXX and classical usage.) 
"Kid of us, the world will deem itself comparatively clean:" or "it 
offers us in expiation to its gods," John xvi. 2. In Heb. xii. 2, Chris- 
tians are described as "looking to Jesus ;" the original implies, looking 
up to him and away from every other object of trust. In 2 Tim. ii. 5, 
read "if a man contend in the games." So in 1 Cor. ix. 25. In 1 
Thess. iv. 6, read "in that matter." In 1 Pet. ii. 13, read "Submit 
yourselves therefore." 

In several passages the sense of the original is weakened by a mis- 
translation of the Greek article. In 2 Thess. i. 12, e. g., we read "ac- 
cording to the grace of our God and the Lord Jesus Christ;" the 
original reads "according to the grace of our God and Lord, Jesus 
Christ:" and so in 2 Pet. i. 1. In Titus, ii. 13, the original reads " the 
glorious appearing of our great God and Saviour Jesus Christ." In 1 
Thess. iv. 13, read for "even as others," "even as the rest of the world." 
In 2 Thess. ii. 15, read "whether by our word." In 1 Cor. iv. 5, read 
"and then shall every man have of God the praise that is his." In 1 
Cor. v. 9, read "in my epistle," and for "I wrote," read "I have writ- 
ten," referring probably to the same epistle. 

The Hebrew article, though less definite than the Greek, is often im- 
portant. In Exod. xvii. 14, read, " in the book (viz. of the law);" in 
Psa. lxxxix. 37, read, " as the faithful witness in heaven (the rainbow)." 
In Isa. vii. 14, Bp. Lowth reads, following the Hebrew, " Behold the 
virgin conceiveth," etc. 

117. (3.) In some cases the peculiar idiom of the original 
has been overlooked. Examples 

of neglect 

In 1 Kings ii. 8, 9, where David says concerning Shimei, of_peculiar 

" Hold him not guiltless but his hoary head bring 

down with blood to the grave," the word not ought (in Dr. Kennicott's 
opinion) to be repeated in the second clause, as it is in Psa. i. 5 ; ix. 18 ; 
xxxviii. 1 ; lxxv. 5 : Isa. xxiii. 4 (orig.), etc. The event shows that 
Solomon understood David's language in this sense. He immediately 
put Joab to death ; but Shimei, though he held him not guiltless, he merely 
bound to remain in Jerusalem, as a person who might not be trusted 
elsewhere. Kennicott's Remarks, p. 131. In 1 Cor. iv. 4, " I know 
nothing by myself," is, "I am not conscious of anything" (viz., wrong). 
In Gal. v. 17, the expression is ambiguous, and should be, " So that ye 



70 



CRITICISM — ENGLISH VERSION. 



do not the things that ye would." In Acts xvii. 23, for " devotions," 
read, "objects of devotion." In 1 Cor. i. 21, for "the foolishness of 
preaching,'" read, " the foolishness of the preaching," i.e., with special 
reference to the doctrine preached. So Luke ii. 32. In 2 Pet. ii. 5, read, 
" Noah, with seven others." In Heb. xii. 13, read, " the mountain that 
could be touched." 

Both in the Old and New Testament again, verbs are some- 
times translated in the wrong tenses. 

Many of the imprecations in the Psalms are really predictions, and 
express the rule of the Divine government rather than the prayer of 
the author. In 2 Kings xxiii. 30, read, "in a chariot dying." See 2 
Chron. xxxv. 24. The present translation of John xiii. 2, " supper being 
ended," contradicts ver. 26-28. The original is, "supper being come." 
So in Acts ii. 47, for "such as should be saved," read, "such as wero 
being saved." So 1 Cor. i. 18 : 2 Cor. ii. 15, 16 ; iv. 3. In Luke v. 6, 
read, " began to break," or "was breaking" (see ver. 7). So Matt. viii. 
24 : Luke viii. 23 : Mark iv. 37 : 1 Cor. xi. 23 : 2 Pet. i. 16. 

In 2 Cor. v. 14, read, " then are all dead," or " have all died." In 2 
Cor. xii. 2, 3, for "I knew," read, "I know." In Luke xxiii. 46, read, 
"And Jesus cried with a loud voice, saying." In Philem. xxi. for " I 
wrote," read, " I have written," as in ver. 19. See also Jas. ii. 21 : 1 
Thes. i. 10 : Acts vii. 36. 

In some parts of the Old Testament the numbers men- 
tioned seem enormously large, and may be corrected by the 
idiom. 

It is said, for example, that at Bethshemesh (a small town) the Lord 
emote 50,070 men, 1 Sam. vi. 19 : and in Judges xii. 6, there are said to 
have fallen of the Ephraimites 42,000; while a short time before the 
tribe contained only 32,500 persons. Both passages are corrected by a 
mode of notation still common among the Arabians. They say, in the 
year 12 and 300 for 312. Translating literally, we have for the first 
passage, " the Lord smote seventy men, fifties and a thousand," or 1170. 
And for the second, " there fell of the Ephraimites 40 and 2000," or 
2040 —Taylor in Calmet. 

It deserves to be noticed generally that numerical state- 
ments in Oriental languages are peculiarly liable to error in 
transcription. 

In the Hebrew, for example, a is 1 ; j&is 1000; a is 2 ; 5 is 20 ; t stands 
for 7000 ; ^ stands for 700 ; and the one letter being inadvertently writ- 



CRITICISM — ENGLISH VERSION. 



71 



ten in very early copies for the other has given rise to some apparent 
contradictions, 2 Sam. viii. 4 : 1 Chron. xviii. 4. There is a similar 
error in 2 Sam. x. 18, 700 ; see 1 Chron. xix. 18, 7000 ( ). 1 
Kings iv. 26, 40,000 ( atD^P^K probably); see 2 Chron. ix. 25, 4000 
(ShSnnjft-) 1 Kings ix. 23, 550 see 2 Chron. viii. 10, 250 (^). 1 
1 Kings ix. 28, 420 ; see 2 Chron. viii. 18, 450 2 Kings viii. 

26, 22 (ss); see 2 Chron. xxii. 2, 42 fofa). The numerals in Josephus 
are similarly corrupt. 

118. (4.) In some cases, the same word in the original is 
rendered by different words in the English. game wordg 

In Isa. xxxvii. 3, an accurate translation would suggest liferent 
that the insult Eabshakeh had offered to Judah was to recoil ones, 
upon himself. He reproved Judah, and God reproved him. In Psa. 
cxxxii. 6, "the fields of the wood" is the translation of what is really 
a proper name, " of Jearim," as it is given in 1 Chron. xiii. 5, "Kirjath" 
(or the city of) " Jearim." In Lev. xix. 5, " at your own will," should 
rather be, "that it may be accepted of you," as in ver. 7, and so xxii. 
20, 21. 

In Matt. xxv. 46, the eternal life of the righteous and the everlasting 
punishment of the wicked are expressed by the same word. To "ap- 
prehend" may be translated to lay hold of or obtain, in Phil. iii. 12, as 
in 1 Cor. ix. 24. The same word is translated "imputed," "counted," 
and " accounted" in, Rom. iv.'3 : Gal. iii. 6 : James ii. 23. "Attendance" 
is everywhere translated "heed" or " attention," except in 1 Tim. iv. 13. 
" Comforter," (John xiv. 16; xv. 26; xvi. 7) is the word translated 
" advocate" in 1 John ii. 1, and the idea is given in the word " consola- 
tion" in Luke ii. 25, and elsewhere. In 2 Cor. iii. and Heb. viii. "cov- 
enant" and " testament" represent the same words. In Acts xix. 2, a 
word is translated "if there be" a Holy Ghost, which is rendered more 
accurately in John vii. 39, " the Holy Ghost was not yet given." 

The following should be translated uniformly : 1 Cor. xv. 24, 26 (put 
down): Rom. iii. 2, 3, 11 (rejoice, glory, joy): Rom. viii. 19, 22 (creature, 
creation): Matt. xx. 31: Mark x. 48 {charged, rebuked): Mark viii. 35, 
36 (life, soul): 1 Cor. i. 4, 5 : Eph. i. 3 (in, by): 1 Cor. vii. 12, 13 (leave, 
put away). See also Heb. ix. 23 (ver. 14) ; i. 3; x. 2: Tit. ii. 14: 1 John 
xv. 2, 3: and Rom. xv. 4, 5. 

119. (5.) On the other hand, different words in the original 

are often rendered by the same word in English. Different 

In the Old Testament the word "vanity" represents three fatedlby^he 
Hebrew words at least, one meaning " breath" or nothing- same word. 



72 



CRITICISM — ENGLISH VERSION. 



ness", as in Ps. lxii. 9 ; another meaning wicked profitless deception, as the 
heathen idols, Isa. xli. 29 ; and a third meaning falsehood, as in Ps. xli. 6 ; 
Job xxxi. 5. All these terms convey sometimes the ideas of profitless- 
ness and of sin ; but the first especially is used to indicate mere insig- 
nificancy. In Ps. lxxxix. 47, the sense is, How vain (fleeting, insignifi- 
cant) are the sons of men, whom thon hast created. 

Lord in capitals is the translation of Jehovah, and Lord in small 
letters, of another word. See Ps. ex. 1. This distinction is important. 

The word " repentance" is used to translate a word denoting that 
change of disposition (jutravcm) to which the term is properly applied : 
and this is the common meaning. But it is also used to translate another 
word, denoting merely regret or a change of plans (/uentjuixutL), without 
implying any change of disposition. This is the meaning in Matt. xxi. 
29, 32 ; xxvii. 3 : 2 Cor. vii. 8, 10: Heb. vii. 21. Elsewhere the former 
word is used. 

" Conversation" again is the translation of two words ; and means 
(1) citizenship, as in Phil. i. 27;, iii. 20; and (2) everywhere else in the 
New Testament, coarse of life, or behavior. The Greek word for con- 
versation, in the modern sense, is translated in our version " communi- 
cation," Matt. v. 37: Luke xxiv. 17: Eph. iv. 29. In 1 Cor. xv. 33, 
however, communication is the rendering of a word which signifies 
intercourse. 

" Hell" again means (1) the invisible state, the place of departed spirits, 
without reference to* their condition of happiness or misery, as in Matt, 
xi. 23 ; xvi. 18 : Luke x. 15 ; xvi. 23 : Acts ii. 27, 31 : 1 Cor. xv. 55 : 
Eev. i. 18 ; vi. 8 ; xx. 13, 14 ; and (2) the place of eternal punishment, 
as in Matt. v. 22, 29, 30 ; x. 28 ; xviii. 9 ; xxiii. 15, 33 : Mark ix. 43, 45, 
47 : Luke xii. 5 : James iii. 6. These two meanings are represented in 
the original by different words. 

The word " temple" is the translation of two words ; and means either 
the whole consecrated precinct (Zs/mV),' or the portion appropriated as the 
local abode of God's presence (vaoc). In the first sense (including the 
outer or unroofed court) markets were held in it (Matt. xxi. 12), and the 
rabbis met their pupils there. It is to the second that our Lord refers 
when he said, " Destroy this temple" (alluding to the indwelling of the 
Divine nature in his person). So is it applied to Christians in 1 Cor. iii. 
16 ; vi. 19. 

" Ordain" is the translation of several words ; and means determined 
in Acts x. 42 ; xvii. 31 ; and foredetermined in 1 Cor. ii. 7. The word 
used in the following passages is different ; and means ordained, with 
the idea of setting in order, Acts xiii. 48 : Rom. xiii. 1 : Gal. iii. 19 : 1 
Cor. ix. 14. In Acts xvi. 4 it represents a word that means to decide. 



CEITICISM — ENGLISH VERSION. 



73 



In Eph. ii. 10, to prepare (as in Rom. ix. 23). In 1 Tim. ii. 7, to ap- 
point (as in 2 Tim. i. 11 : Acts xiii. 47; xx. 28). In Heb. v. 1 ; viii. 3, 
to constitute or establish. In Jude, ver. 4, to write up in the face of 
men, or denounce, or to write concerning a thing beforehand. In Acts 
i. 22, and Rom. vii. 10, there is no corresponding word in the original. 

The word " devils" (pi.) should always be translated demons or evil 
spirits ; and the word devil should be translated demon in the following 
passages : Matt. ix. 32 ; xi. 18 ; xii. 22 ; xv. 22 ; xvii. 18 : Mark, wher- 
ever found. Luke iv. 33, 35; vii. 33; xi. 14: John vii. 20; viii. 48, 
49, 52. In all other passages the word is rightly translated the devil, 
as in Matt. iv. 1 : Rev. xx. 2. 

"Will" is sometimes the translation of the future; but sometimes of 
an independent verb, as in John v. 40 ; vii. 17 ; viii. 44 : Matt. xi. 14, 
27; xvi. 24, 25; xix. 17, 21: Luke ix. 24; xiii. 31: 1 Pet. iii. 10; Rev. 
xi. 5. In two passages " I would" expresses a duty in addition to a wish 
(oqtkov), Gal. v. 12 : Rev. iii. 15. " Shall" is sometimes used impera- 
tively, and sometimes, as a simple future. It is a simple future in Matt, 
xvii. 22: Mark x. 32: Luke xxiv. 21: John vi. 71; xii. 4: Acts xxiii. 
3 : Rom. iv. 24 ; viii. 13. The word translated " shall" in some of these 
passages (jui\xa>) is translated "will" or "would" in Matt. ii. 13: Luk© 
x. 1 : John vi. 6 ; vii. 35 ; xiv. 22 : Acts xvi. 27 ; xxv. 4 ; xxxvii. 10 : 
Bev. iii. 26. Simple futurity is expressed in each. On the other hand, 
duty or necessity {Sit) is found in Matt. xxvi. 35. This is the word 
generally translated "must" or "ought." 

"Shall" is not now used as a simple future, except where "will" 
would be ambiguous. 

See also Acts xix. 15": Rev. iv. 6 (comp. chap, xiii.); 1 Cor. ii. 15 
(comp. ii. 14). 

120. (6.) Some of the expressions of our English, version 
are obsolete in the sense in which the translators obsolete - 
used them. term3 ' 

Audience means the (act of) hearing, Luke vii. 1. Carriage ex- 
pressed what is now called baggage. 1 Sam. xvii. 22: Acts xxi. 15. 
Charger means a large dish, Matt. xiv. 8. Charity means love, 2 
Cor. xiii. 2. To comfort means to strengthen, as a helper, to succor; 
and hence, to encourage and cheer. So advocate meant one called in 
on an emergency. The first word is now confined to consoling the 
afflicted, and the second is used in a restricted sense. In Scripture the 
idea is general, to strengthen, to guide, stimulate, aid, encourage, 1 
Gor. xiv. 31 : 1 Thess. v. 11, 14 (where it is rightly translated "exhort 5 '): 

7 



74 



CEITICISM — ENGLISH VEESION. 



Bom. xv. 4. Convince has, in old English, the sense of convict, John 
viii. 46, as may be seen in the writings of Lord Bacon (Essays). Dam- 
nation would be more correctly rendered "condemnation" in 1 Cor. 
xi. 29: so in Eom. xiv. 23. Dispensation of the gospel means "stew- 
ardship," 1 Cor. ix. 17. To ear the ground is to till it, 1 Sam. viii. 12. 
Frankly or freely means gratuitously. " Freely ye have received, 
freely give." "He frankly forgave them both." Harness in Exod. 
xiii. 18: 1 Kings, xx. 11, denotes armor. The word in the original 
may also mean in files or rows. Heir often meant, in old English, 
heritor or possessor. "Heir of the righteousness by faith" is possessor 
of it ; Heb. xi. 7. So Christ was appointed heir or possessor of all 
things, Heb. i. 2. His is the old English form of its, Matt. xii. 23 ; 
xxiv. 32; xxvi. 52: Acts xii. 10: 1 Cor. xv. 38: 1 Cor. xiii. 5. In- 
stant, instantly, means urgent; closely applying oneself to a busi- 
ness, Luke xxiii. 23 : Acts xxvi. 7. Leasing means lying, Psa. iv. 2. 
To let means to hinder, Isa. lxiii. 13: 2 Thess. ii. 7: Rom. i. 13. Lewd 
means ignorant, untaught, idle, bad, Acts xvii. 5. Malice (from Mali- 
tia) always means vice or wickedness generally. It refers to sin in it& 
intrinsic nature ; sin or transgression having reference to it as the vio- 
lation of Divine law, 1 Cor. xiv. 20: 1 Pet. ii. 16. So in James i. 21, 
where the same word is translated "naughtiness." Mortify means to 
kill, to put to death, Rom. viii. 13 : Col. iii. 5. To offend means 
sometimes to give offence; but its ancient meaning is to cause or give 
occasion to stumble, as in 1 John ii. 10: Matt. v. 29. It may often be 
translated "insnare." Mystery now means a doctrine or fact which 
is incomprehensible ; involving often the idea of apparent and to U3 
irreconcileable contradiction. In Scripture it means a revealed secret, 
a truth not previously known, Rom. xvi. 25, 26: 1 Cor. ii. 7-10: Eph. 
i. 9; vi. 19: Col. i. 26, 27. Of course, Scripture doctrines often involve 
mystery in the common sense of the word. But it is not in this sense 
that Scripture uses it. The doctrine that God would receive the Gen- 
tiles into the church, e. g., is called by St. Paul "a mystery," because 
it "was not made known unto the sons of men" till the gospel revealed 
it, Eph. iii. 3, 5. "Mystery" is also used in Eph. v. 32, and in Rev. 
for a symbolical representation, i. 20; xvii. 5 r a meaning not materially 
different, however, from the above. It signifies an emblem of revealed 
trutn. Nephew is an old word for descendant, 1 Tim. v. 4. Penny 
waa originally any piece of silver money. It is now confined to our 
larg*st copper coin. The value of the Roman penny was nearly 8d. f 
John vi. 7. See Rev. vi. 6, where the sense is reversed by our present 
translation: "a measure of wheat for a penny," giving rather the idea 
of plenty than of want. Prevent means to come before or anticipate, 



CRITICISM — ENGLISH VERSION. 75 

Psa. cxix. 148 : Matt. xvii. 25 : 1 Tliess. iv. 15 : or to surprise, 2 Sam. 

xxii. 6, 19. Purge is to cleanse, to clear away, John xv. 2 (applied to 
pruning): Heb. ix. 14. Quick means alive, 2 Tim. iv. 1: Eph. ii. 1: 
Psa. cxxiv. 3. Religion is never used in Scripture, in the modern sense 
of the word, for godliness or piety; but for religious worship or ob- 
servance. It is found only in Acts xxvi. 5: Col. ii. 18 (orig.): and 
James i. 26, 27. It means (as in the last case) the outward expression 
of religious feeling. Room means place (as in Acts xxiv. 27): Matt. 

xxiii. 6: Mark xii. 39: Luke xiv. 7; xx. 46. To take thought means 
to be distracted or anxious, Matt. vi. 25. Vain is unreal, false, delu- 
sive, immoral ; especially as connected with a groundless and idola- 
trous creed, -Rom. i. 21 : 1 Pet. i. 18 : Rom. viii. 20 : Eph. iv. 17. So 
"made a road," means went for spoil, or "made a raid," in 1 Sam. 
xxvii. 10: "in a several house" for "alone," 2 Kings xv. 5: "fetched 
a compass" for "made a circuit," in Acts. For "coasts" read "bor- 
ders" or "districts," in Judges xviii. 2: Matt. ii. 16; xv. 21. 

Strange as it may seem, most of these obsolete terms have 
furnished objections to the truth of the sacred Scriptures. 
Very many of the objections urged by Voltaire are founded 
on similar mistranslations in the Vulgate* 

121. It may be added that there are several apparent dis- 
crepancies in Scripture from want of uniformity of 
translation. Wa ^ of ., 

uniformity 
in translat- 
ion Psa. xix. 4, "line" may be translated "sound," as in ingthe ^ 

Rom. x. 18. Jer. xxxi. 32, "though I was a husband unto 

them" may be rendered, "and I rejected them," as in Heb. viii. 9. So 

Hos. xiv. 2 (Heb. xiii. 15) : Isa. xxviii. 16 (Rom. ix. 33) : Mic. v. 2 

(Matt. ii. 6) : Psa. civ. 4 (Heb. i. 7) : Psa. lxviii. 18 (Eph. iv. 8). 

122. Some words are untranslated : as 

Amen ; true, or so be it. Halleluia ; praise Jehovah. 

Hosaioa; save now. Mammon; riches. Maranatha; in ) Vord!3U ^- 
' ' ' translated, 

the coming of the Lord. Saeaoth ; hosts. 

123. The precise meaning of a very few words is unknown. 

» Newcome's Historical View of English Biblical Translations, 
p. 206. 



76 



CRITICISM — ENGLISH VERSION. 



Meaning " Higgaion " occurs in the Psalms seventy-one times, 
not known. an( j thrice in Habakkuk. It was probably a musi- 
cal mark. "Selah" is equally uncertain; but may have been 
used for the same purpose. 

124. The marginal readings of the English version often 
Marginal deserve attention. They express another sense, of 
readings. wn i cn the original is capable : and they sometimes 
throw light upon the meaning. They might be multiplied 
•with advantage, e.g. 

Gen. xxi. 14, Hagar wandered into the wilderness, as if in despair, 
or she "lost her way," having probably set out to return to Egypt. 
Bom. i. 18, "who hold the truth," or "repress," or "impede," a sense 
more consistent with the scope, and with Scripture generally. The 
marginal reading in the following passages is preferable : Judges xi. 
31: Gal. v. 24. 

125. It is to be observed, further, that words printed in 

the English version, in Italics, are not generally in 
the original. They are often necessary to express 
the sense, and they often express it happily ; but they some- 
times add a sense which is not in the sacred text. 



Of felicitous Italics there is an instance in Psa. cix. 4 : " I give my- 
self to ,prayer :" and again in Psa. cxxxiii. 3 : "As the dew of Hermon, 
and as the dew that descended upon the mountains of Zion." Without 
the words in Italics, the passage would be inconsistent with physical 
facts, Hermon being upwards of a hundred miles distant from Zion. 

On the other hand, the sense is obscured in Matt. xx. 23, where 
Christ is represented in the English version as having no power to give 
honors m heaven. The omission of the words in Italics exhibits the 
true meaning. "To sit upon my right hand is not mine to give, except 
for whom it is prepared." See John xvii. 2: Rev. iii. 21. 

In some cases the Italic words ought to be printed in E,oman letters: 
as the auxiliary verbs, the word "not," in such passages as Deut. xxxiii. 
6: Psa. lxxv. 5: Isa. xxxviii. 18: Job xxx. 20, 25: the Hebrew idiom 
not requiring the repetition of the negative. § //?, 



126. The analysis of the chapters of the Bible, and the 



ENGLISH VERSION — DIVISIONS. 



77 



titles and subscriptions of the books of the New Analygisof 
Testament, form no part of the inspired writings, chapter^, 
(See § 51). seriptions. 

127. The present division of the Scriptures, too, into chap- 
ters and verses, and the order of the several books, 

. . . Divisions. 

are not of Divine origin, nor are they of great an- 
tiquity. The books are now arranged not with reference to 
their historical connection, but chiefly with reference to their 
contents, and the position of their authors. The Vulgate was 
the first version divided into chapters : a work undertaken 
by Cardinal Hugo,£n the 13th century, or as Jahn thinks, 
by Langton, archbishop of Canterbury, 1227. He introduced 
the division of chapters only. The Hebrew Scriptures were 
similarly divided by Mordecai Nathan in 1445, and in 1661 
Athias added, in his printed text, the division into verses. 
The New Testament was divided in the same way by Kobert 
Stephens, who is said to have completed it in the year 1551, 
during a journey (inter equitandum) from Paris to Lyons. 

As might be expected, these divisions are very imperfect : 
and even when not inaccurate, they tend to break the sense 
and to obscure the meaning. 

The subject of 2 Kings begins at the 24th verse of chap. vi. The 
description of the humiliation and glory of Christ (the subject of Isa. 
liii.) begins at chap. lii. 13 : and the previous verses of chap. lii. belong 
to chap. li. The 6th verse of Jer. iii. begins a distinct prophecy, which 
is continued to the end of chap. vi. 

The first verse of Col. iv. belongs to chap. iii. Connect in the sam 
way, Gen. ii. 1-3, and chap. i. : Rom. xv. 1-13, and chap. 14 : 1 Cor. xi. 
1, and chap, x.: 2 Cor. iv., and chaps v., vi., vii. 

The latter part of Matt. ix. belongs to the 10th chapter. John viii. 
1, belongs to the 7th; and the last two verses of Acts iv. belong to 
chap. v. 

As a rule, no importance is to be attached to the division 
of verses or of chapters, unless it coincide with the division of 
paragraphs. Follow the pauses of the narrative, and mark 
the change of the subjects discussed. 



73 



ENGLISH VERSION — DIVISIONS. 



128. The ancient divisions of the New Testament are no- 

ticed in § 49. To complete information on this 

Jewish divi- . _ . x 

sion of old point, we append a brief account of the ancient 
divisions of the Old Testament. 
Modern Jews use the present division of chapter and verse. 
But ancient MSS. were differently divided. The law had 
fifty-four greater divisions, called Parashoth, and the Proph- 
ets had similar divisions, called Haphtaroth, or dismissions, 
being read shortly before the close of the service. One of 
each of these divisions was read on the sabbath. Smaller 
divisions were employed especially in the law, called also 
Parashoth; sometimes "open" (mrntis), where there is an 
obvious break in the sense, and sometimes "shut," or leaning 
upon (rtotoS or mtoltiia ), where the sense runs on. Of these, 
there are in the Pentateuch alone 669. They are marked D 
and 6 respectively. 

129. When Jews referred to the Old Testament, it was 
„ . , their custom to mention the subiect of the para- 

Scnpture : J * 

how quoted, graph, as it still is among the Arabs, in quoting 
from the Koran. 

"In Elias," Bom. xi. 2, (marg.) refers to 1 Kings xvii.-xix. "The 
bow," in 2 Sam. i. 18, refers to the poem so called, in the book of 
Jasher. So, perhaps, "in the bush" to Exod. iii. 

130. These corrections must not lead to a depreciation of 
jur English Bible. The more we examine it the higher will 
oe our estimate of its general excellence. But zeal for any 
version must yield to zeal for that Divine word which it seeks 
to»represent. 

131. They have been given at considerable length, for sev- 
objeetof era ^ reasons - They furnish answers to objections 
the.se cor- which have been brought against Sacred Scripture. 

rections. . ° 1 

They remove difficulties and reconcile apparent con- 
tradictions. They are of value, moreover, because they illus- 
trate very fully the nature of the differences which exist 



HISTORY OF ENGLISH VERSION. 



79 



between the English version and the original text. It is 
obvious that very many of these differences may be rectified 
by a comparison of parallel passages, so that the English 
reader has in his own hands the means, to a- large extent, of 
correcting them. Nor do they disturb the conclusion to 
which the most competent authorities have come, that the 
English Bible is, on the whole, identical with the Bible of the 
early Church. 

132. The English version of the Scriptures now in rise is 
itself the result of repeated revisions. In the pref- H}story of 
ace to the Bishops' Bible, (A. D. 1568) a distinct Engiisl 
reference is made to early Saxon versions, and gaxon 
there are still extant parts of the Bible in Saxon, versions, 
translated by Bede, by Alfred the Great, and by JElfric of 
Canterbury. Early Saxon MSS. of the Gospels are still pre- 
served in the libraries of the British Museum, and Corpus 
Christi College, Cambridge. 

The first complete translation of the Bible was made by 
Wycliffe, about A. D. 1380. It existed only in MS. Wye]iffe , s 
for many years, but the whole is now in print (New version. 
Testament, 1731 ; Old Testament, 1848.) The work was re- 
garded with grave suspicion , and a bill was introduced into 
the House of Lords for suppressing it ; but through the in- 
fluence of John 0' Gaunt this was rejected. In 1408, however, 
in a convocation held at Oxford, it was resolved that no one 
should translate any text of Scripture into English, as a book 
or tract, and that no book of the kind should be read. This 
resolution led to great persecution, though there is reason to 
believe that, notwithstanding, many MSS. of Scripture were 
at that time in extensive circulation throughout England. 

The first printed edition of the Bible in English, was pub- 
lished by Tyndale ; the New Testament in 1526, 
and the Bible, in part, in 1532. Tonstall, Bishop 
of London, and Sir Thomas More, took great pains to buy up 



80 



HISTORY OF ENGLISH VERSION. 



and burn the impression, but with the effect thereby, of ena« 
bling the translator to publish a larger and improved edition* 
' On the death of Tyndale (who died a martyr to the truth,) 
•Corerdaie ^il es Ooverdale revised the whole, and dedicated 
etc 6 " a6 ' it to King Henry the 8th, A. D. 1535, and in 1537 
John Rogers, who had assisted Tyndale, and was then resid- 
ing at Antwerp, reprinted an edition, taken from Tyndale and 
Coverdale. This edition was published under the assumed 
name of Thomas Matthews. A revision of this edition again 
was published (A. D. 1539,) by Richard Taverner. 

The Great Bible appeared A. D. 1539. It was Coverdale's, 
revised by the translator, under the sanction of Oranmer. It 
was printed in large folio. For the edition of 1540 Cranmer 
wrote a preface, and it is hence called Cranmer 's Bible. It was 
published "by authority." 

During the seven years of King Edward's (VI.) reign eleven 
editions of the Scriptures were printed, but no new version 
or revision was attempted. 

During the reign of Mary was published the Geneva Bible, 
A. D. 1557-60. Coverdale and others who had taken refuge 
in Geneva, edited it, and added marginal annotations. 

Archbishop Parker obtained authority from Queen Eliza- 
beth to revise the existing translations, and with the help of 
various bishops and others, published in 1568 what was called 
the Bishops Bible. It contains short annotations, and in the 
smaller editions (from 1589) the text is divided, like the 
Genevan, into verses. 

The same text was afterwards printed (in 1572) in a larger 
size, and with various prefaces, under the name of Matthew 
Parker s Bible. It continued in common use in the churches 
for forty years, though the Genevan Bible was perhaps more 
read in private. 

The Rhemish New Testament and the Douay Old Testa- 
ment form the English Bible of the Romanists. The former 

a See Anderson's Annals of the English Bible, and "Our English 
Bible," published by the Religious Tract Society. 



VALUE OF A WRITTEN REV ELATION. 



81 



was printed at Kheims, A. D. 1582, and the latter at Douay, 
A. D. 1609-10. 

In 1603 King James resolved on a revision of the transla- 
tion, and for this purpose appointed fifty-four men of learning 
and piety. Forty-seven only undertook the work, and in four 
years (from 1607-11), it was completed. The text, as thus 
prepared and printed in 1611, is the authorized version. 

133, What wisdom is seen in the fact that we have a writ- 
ten word ; Scripture and not tradition, and not many Advantage 
Bibles, but one. A revelation more than this would pf a writ- 

' ten record. 

have multiplied the difficulties of inquiry. A reve- 
lation less than this would long ago have lost its distinctness. 
Apart from any desire to vitiate a Divine message, merely 
oral tradition must have suffered from the condition of those 
to whom it was addressed. So incessant is the influence of 
man's moral state upon his judgment and perceptions, that any 
unwritten revelation must have undergone essential, though, 
perhaps, insensible modifications. Every truth, too, which 
had ceased in one age to be of present importance, would have 
been omitted in the number of truths handed down to the 
next. But for the Bible we should have had a fearfully mu- 
tilated revelation, and of what remained we should have been 
contending, not so much for the sense of our Master's words, 
as for the words themselves. What grace is it, therefore, that 
in a world prone to deteriorate everything holy, and to falsify 
everything true, whatever may have grown old with age, has 
the means of renewing its youth ; whatever may have been 
lost from the memory of the Church is not lost irrecoverably. 
We have the seeds of reformation and of renewed knowledge : 
the very " word of the Lord, which liveth and abideth forever." 

134. And yet this blessing of a written Bible will prove a 
curse, if on that account we forget the reverence 

; ° Danger to 

that is due to it. As each truth of Scripture was which a 

written rov** 

made known of old, God gave sensible evidence elation may 

i • tip- •» r expose us. 

whence it came and wherefore it was sent. Men 



82 



VALUE OF A WRITTEN REVELATION. 



were called to believe the report, because the arm of the Lord 
was revealed. Awe and submission, and the consciousness of 
a divine approach were impressed upon the minds of men by 
the most instructive solemnities. Adam heard God in the 
garden before he had to answer for his disobedience. When 
God spoke to the children of Israel, they had such sensible 
proofs of his power, that they desired to hear his voice, with- 
out a mediator, no more. When He spoke to Moses, the 
cloud was on the tabernacle, or his thunders shook the moun- 
tain. Samuel was taught by miraculous signs to give the 
Divine message a fervent welcome. Isaiah witnessed the 
scenes which we now read with so little awe, and he cried 
out in conscious unworthiness, "Woe is me, for I am of un- 
clean lips." John was prepared to receive his visions by a 
spectacle which absorbed all his faculties, and made him fall 
down as one that was dead. A complete written revelation 
is clearly inconsistent with such miraculous evidence : and 
there is danger lest the familiar tone of the Bible, and the 
every-day appearance of the volume itself, should tempt us 
to read it as a common composition. We need, therefore, to 
supply by our thoughtfulness and solemnity the feelings which 
were produced of old by sensible images of the Creator's 
presence and authority. It is not the word of an equal, and 
if we would have it bless us, we must study it with the col- 
lected and reverential frame of mind which becomes an inter- 
view with Him who is its Author and our Judge. 



SCRIPTURE CLAIMS TO BE DIVINE. 



8$ 



CHAPTEE II 

ON THE AUTHENTICITY AND AUTHORITY OF SCRIPTURE. 

This reverence have I learnt to give to those books of Scripture 
only which are called canonical. Others I so read that I think not 
anything to be true because they so thought it, but because they were 
able to persuade me either by those canonical authors, or by some pro- 
bable reason that it did not swerve from truth." — Augustine, Ep. 19: 
died 430. 

" If any of these books were disputed at first, but on examination 
were admitted, they are confirmed by their trial." — Gambier's Moral 
Evidence. 

" If those facts (on the origin, nature, and progress of the Christian 
religion) are not theref >re established, nothing in the history of man- 
kind can be believed." — Chief Justice Bushe. 

Sec. 1. Scripture Claims to be Regarded as an Inspired 
Teacher,' and as the only Inspired Teacher. 

135. In proving the genuineness of the books of Scripture, 
nothing has been said of their Divine authority. A fc . 
They have come to us as their writers left them, of s. s.. as 
and this is all that is proved. What they are, and Scripture 
what they claim, must be first gathered from the 

books themselves. 

A little attention will easily satisfy the reader of the truth 
" of the following statements : 

136. (1.) The books of Scripture represent the mission of 
our Lord as Divine. He professes to be a teacher . 

1 Mission oi 

sent from God, and from the first announces that he > ur Lord 

. . represented 

is to give his life for the salvation of the world. as Divine. 
John viii. 42 ; vii. 16 ; xvii. 8 ; iii. 14-18. 

In proof of his mission he performed many miraculous 
works, and showed supernatural acquaintance with the human 
heart and with future events. 



84 



SCRIPTURE CLAIMS TO BE DIVINE. 



Matt. xi. 2-6 : John v. 36 ; xv. 24 ; vi. 64 ; xvi. 30 : Matt. xx. 17-19: 
Luke xix. 42-44. 

Those who knew him best and were least favorably disposed 
towards him were unable to account from natural causes for 
his power and wisdom. 

Mark vi. 1-3 : Luke iv. 22 : John vii. 15. 

His public life was self-denying and disinterested : his private 
life blameless and beneficent. 

1 Pet. ii. 22, 23: Matt, xxvii. 3, 4: Acts x. 38: John iv. 34; vi. 15; 
vii. 18. 

He was put to death (*as he foretold) for making himself 
"equal with God," — a charge he did not deny; and after hia 
death he arose from the grave. 

Luke xxii. 70 : John xx. 17 : Awts i. 3. 

On these grounds we conclude that his words are to be re- 
ceived as Divine. 

John xiv. 10, 11 ; xii. 44-50 : Mwtt. xvii. 5. 

137. (2.) They represent the commission of the apostles 
The com- as Divine. Of the eight writers of the New Testa- 
fiveof the ment five, Matthew, John, Peter, James, and Jude, 
ei| h o/the were among the number of the apostles to whom 
tament es " Christ gave power to perform miracles and to pub- 
I)ivine - lish his gospel to the world. 

Matt. x. 1-4, 7, 8 : Luke ix. 6. 

He promised to them, in this character, on four different 
occasions, the presence of a Divine instructor, who should 
recall to their remembrance what he himself had taught, and 
impart a more complete and permanent knowledge of his 
truth.* The apostles proved their commission by miracles 

». Matt, x. 19, 20: Luke xii. 11, 12: Mark xiii. 11 : (Luke xxi. 14): 
John 14-16. See also Matt, xxviii. 18-20: Mark xvi. 20: Acts i. 4; 
xxi. 4 : 1 Pet. i. 12. 



SCRIPTUBE CLAIMS TO BE DIVINE. 



85 



which, they performed in the name and by the power of 
Christ, and they imparted supernatural gifts to othera.* 

Their mission was attested by holy self-denial and integrity 
of purpose, and by the rapid and (humanly speaking) the un- 
accountable success of their ministrations. 

Acts iv. 16 ; v. 29 ; ii. 41 ; xii. 24. 

We therefore conclude that the words of Matthew, John, 
Peter, James, and Jude, are Divine. 

John xiv. 12-14 ; xx. 21 : Matt. x. 20 : 1 John iv. 6. 

138. The Gospels of Mark and Luke were written by 
companions of the apostles : Mark, the convert of Mark 
Peter (1 Pet. v. 13), and Luke, the intimate friend andLuke - 
of Paul. Papias (flourished 110), Justin (died 164), Irenseua 
(flourished 180), and Origen, all speak of Mark's Gospel as 
commonly received, and as having been dictated or sanctioned 
by Peter. 

Luke and Paul resided in Palestine for two years, travelled 
together during a large part of the apostles' journies, and were 
together during Paul's imprisonment at Kome. 

Acts xxi. 17 ; xxiv. 24 ; xxviii. 16 : Col. iv. 14 : 2 Tim. iv. 11. 

Luke x. 7 is quoted as Scripture in 1 Tim. v. 18. Irenseus, 
Tertullian, and Origen, speak of his Gospel as universally re- 
ceived, and as sanctioned by Paul. 

139. (3.) They represent the commission of Paul as Divine. 
He was called to the apostolic office, claimed apos- c 

tolic authority, vindicated his claims by miracles, sionofPaul 

DiviriG. 

imparted supernatural gifts, manifested the utmost 
disinterestedness, submitted to the severest sufferings, was 
acknowledged by the rest of the apostles, and was eminently 
successful. He therefore claims to speak in Christ's name, 
and his words are Divine. 

a Acts iii. 16 : Heb. ii. 4 : Acts v. 12, 15 : Mark xvi. 17, 18 : Acta 
viii. 17-19. 
8 



86 



SCEIPTUEE CLAIMS TO BE DIVINE. 



1 Cor. xv. 8 : Acts xxvi. 12-17 ; ix. 13-17 : 2 Cor. xi. 5 : Gal. i. 1-12; 

ii. 6 : 1 Cor. ii. 10-13 : 1 Cor. vii. 40 : Rom. xv. 18, 19 : 2 Cor. xii. 12 • 

Acts xix. 6: 2 Tim. i. 13, 14: 2 Cor. xi. 7: 2 Cor. i. 5 : Gal. ii. 7-9: 
2 Cor. xi. 14-16 : 2 Cor. v. 18-20 : 1 Thess. ii. 13. 

140. (4.) They represent the apostolic writings generally 

as Divine. The apostolic writings were composed 
writings by Divine command, and in fulfilment of the com- 
mission their writers had received. 

1 Thess. iv. 15: 1 Tim.'iv. 1: Rev. i. 19: John xx. 31: 1 John v. 
13: 1 Cor. xiv. 37. 

The apostles had the same object in view in their writings as 
in their preaching. 

Jude iii.: Heb. xiii. 22: 1 John ii. 1, 26. 

The writings of the apostles set forth their verbal instructions 
in a permanent and condensed form, and they claim for both 
the same authority. 

Eph. iii. 3-5; 1 John i. 1-5; ii. 12-14: John xx. 31: 2 Pet. i. 15: 
2 Pet. iii. 1, 2: 2 Thess. ii. 15; iii. 14: 1 Cor. xv. 1 (ii. 13). 

The writings of the apostles were received by the first Chris- 
tians as of equal authority with their preaching, and produced 
similar effects. 

Acts xv. 19-31 ; xvi. 4 : 2 Cor. vii. 8-10 : 2 Thess. ii. 1. 

There is evidence that from the first the apostolic writings 
were held equally sacred with the Old Testament, and that 
they were quoted as the words of God. 

2 Pet. iii. 15, 16: James iv. 5 (comp. Gal. v. 17-21): James ii. 3 
(comp. Matt. xxii. 39). 

141. (5.) The Jewish religion and the Jewish Scripture 

are represented in the New Testament as Divine. 

Jewish re- x m , 

Hgjonand Christ and the writers of the JNew lestament 
Scripture uniformly assume that the religion of the Jews was 
from God. 



SCEIPTUKE THE-'ONLY DIVINE AUTHORITY. 87 



Christ, in John iv. 22 : Peter, in Acts iii. 13 : Paul, m Kom. ix. 1. 

They acknowledge the Divine origin of the revelation given 
to Abraham and to Moses. 

Christ, in John viii. 56 : Peter, in Acts iii. 25 : Paul, in Gal. iii. 18. 
Christ, in Mark xii. 26: John, in John i. 17: Paul, in 2 Cor. iii. 7. 

They acknowledge the Divine authority of the moral law and 
the Divine origin of the Jewish ritual and of the civil enact- 
ments of the Mosaic law. 

Christ, in Matt. xv. 4 : Peter, in 1 Pet. i. 15, 16 : Paul, in Rom. vii, 
22 (see ver. 7, 12). Christ, in Luke xxii. 15, 16 : John, in John xix. 36 : 
Paul, in Cor. ix. 8, 9. 

They represent Christianity as the completion of Judaism, 
and as foretold by the prophets. The Old Testament writers 
at the same time acknowledge that what they spoke or wrote 
was given to them from God, and published by his command. 

Christ, in Matt. v. 17; xxvi. 54-56: Peter, in Acts x. 43: Paul, in 
Eph. ii. 20. Bom. iii. 21 : 2 Cor. iii. 6-14. Ex. iv. 12, 15, 16 : Deut. 
xviii. 18 : Jer. i. 6 : Amos iii. 7, etc. 

They maintain the Divine authority of the ancient Jewish 
Scriptures under the three-fold division of the Law, the 
Prophets, and the Psalms, and under other equally familiar 
titles, ascribing all to the Holy Ghost. 

Matt. xxii. 31 : Heb. xiii. 5 : Acts xxviii. 25 : Matt. xxii. 43 : Rom. 
iii. 12: John x. 35: Gal. iii. 8: Heb. iii. 7 (comp. iv. 7): 1 Pet. i. 11. 

142. Here then we have the first peculiarity of the Bible. 
It professes to be a book from God, speaks every- 

-i . . r J Result. 

where with Divine authority and demands our sub- 
mission. It is the one book, which claims " God for its author, 
unmixed truth for its contents, and salvation for its end." If 
we admit the authority of our Lord as a Divine teacher, the 
authority of the Bible is established. If we deny the au- 
thority of the Bible, we deny the truth of some of his most 
frequent teachings, and with it the divinity of his mission. 



88 



SCRIPTURE THE ONLY DIVINE AUTHORITY. 



143. As Holy Scripture claims to be regarded as the book 
Scripture the °^ ^ oc ^' a Divine authority, so it claims to be the 
on^ Divine on ly authority. It is not a rule, it is the rule both 

authority. . . . 

of practice and faith. To ascertain its meaning, we 

Result of -i -i , -i • • n -, j 

an oppo- employ reason and the opinions oi good men, and 
site view. ^ e eX p er i ence f a devout heart; but no one of 
these helps, nor all combined, can be regarded as of co-ordi- 
nate authority. They are not parts of the law, they only 
help to expound it. To follow reason or opinions, or inward 
experience in matters of faith, when their decisions contradict 
the Bible, is to deny it : to follow them when they add to it, 
is to admit another revelation ; and to make them our rule 
when they agree with it, is to rest our obedience on the wis- 
dom of man, and not on the truth of God. Faith ceases to 
be, even in the last case, submission to Divine authority. 

144. From the following passages it will be seen that these 

conclusions are drawn from the lessons of the Bible 
Proof - itself. 

The inspired writers address themselves to men of every 
country and condition. 

Prov. viii. 1-4: Psa. xlix. 1-3: Rom. x. 12, 13. See Deut. xxix. 29: 
Psa. lxxviii. 5-7. 

The most important parts of the inspired books were ad- 
dressed, in the case of the Old Testament to the Jews, in their 
assemblies ; and in the case of the New, to the people gene- 
rally, and to the churches. 

Deut. v. 22 ; xxxi. 24, 26 : Ezek. xxxiii. 30, 31 : Josh, xxiii. 6 : Jere. 
xxxvi. 2-6 : Hab. ii. 2 : Matt. vii. 28 : Acts v. 20 : Rom. i. 7 (2 Cor. i. 
1 : Gal. i. 2 : Col. i. 2 : Philip i. 1): Rev. ii. 29. 

The public reading of these books in a language intelligi- 
ble to the people, was appointed by God both among the J ews 
and in the Christian Church. 

Deut. xxxi. 11-13 : Josh. viii. 33-35 : Ezra vii. 6-10 : Neh. viii. 1-8 : 
I Thes. v. 27 : Col. iv. 16. 

The private reading of Scripture, which was strongly incul- 
cated in the Old Testament, is commended in the New. 



SCRIPTRUE THE ONLY DIVINE AUTHORITY. 



89 



Deut. xi. 18-20 : Psa. xix : Psa. i. 2 : Josh. i. 8 : Acts viii. 30-35 ; 
xvii. 11: Rom. xv. 4: 2 Tim. iii. 15: 2 Pet. i. 19. 

Men are ultimately accountable for their religious opinions 
and practices to God. 

Eccl. xi. 9: Rom. xiv. 4-12: James iv. 12. 

The Bible, on the principle of man's responsibility, expressly 
appeals to his reason. 

1 Sam. xii. 17 : Jer. ii. 9-11 : Mark vii. 1, 16 : 1 Cor. x. 15. t 

In the New Testament especially the exercise of private 
judgment — in a teachable spirit, of course — is represented as 
essential to the existence and progress of true religion. 

Matt. vi. 22, 23 : 1 Cor. xiv. 20 : Col. i. 9 : Phil. i. 9, 10 : Acts xvii. 
23. See 1 Pet. iii. 15 : Rom. xii. 12. 

Men are exhorted in Scripture to bring all doctrines pro- 
posed to them and their own character, to the test of scriptural 
or apostolic truth. 

Isa. viii. 20: 1 John iv. 1 : 1 Thes. v. 20, 21 : Eph. v. 6, 8-10, 17: 
Col. ii. 18 : Gal. vi. 4, 5 : 2 Cor. xiii. 5 : 1 Cor. xi. 28-31. 

Our Lord and his apostles, in addressing those who had the 
Old Testament in their possession, always appealed to its 
authority. See § 141. Our Lord and his apostles condemn 
all spiritual usurpation, and point to their teaching as the 
ultimate standard. 

Matt, xxiii. 1, 8-10: 2 Cor. i. 24. 

The utter insufficiency of unenlightened reason to discover 
or rightly to appreciate Divine truth, makes it incompetent 
to do more than interpret the revelation ; it cannot sit in 
judgment upon it. 

Psa. xix. 1: 1 Cor. ii. 9, 14; i. 18-25: Gal. i. 11, 12. 

From the earliest times, God commanded that whatever 
was to become a rule of faith or practice, should be committed 
to writing. 
8* 



90 SCRIPTURE THE ONLY DIVINE AUTHORITY. 



Exod. xvii. 14: Deut. xxxi. 19: Hos. viii. 12: Isa. viii. 19, 20. 

The inspired writers were guided to use such language a? 
the Spirit of God approved. 

Dan. xii. 7-9: Matt. x. 19, 20: 1 Pet. i. 10-12: 2 Pet. i. 21: 2 Tim. 
iii. 16 : Heb. i. 1 : 1 Cor. ii. 12, 13. 

Hence conclusions are drawn from particular words. 
1 Cor. xv. 45 : Heb. iii. 7-10. 

Any attempt to add to or to take away from the words of 
God is denounced. 

Deut. iv. 2 ; xii. 32 (Heb. xiii. 1): Prov. xxx. 5, 6 : Kev. xxii. 18, 19 
(Gal. iii. 15). 

The oral traditions of the Jews, which were censured both 
by the law and the prophets, were condemned by our Lord. 

Isa. xxix. 13, 14 : Matt. xv. 2-9. 

If the comparatively imperfect revelations of the Old Test- 
ament were sufficient for man's instruction and salvation, 
much more are the fuller discoveries of the New. 

Psa. xix. 7-11; exix. 130; ix. 104: Prov. xxii. 19-21: John xx. 30, 
31 : 1 John i. 34 : 1 Cor. xv. 1-4. 

An examination of these passages will prove that the Scrip- 
tures are our only rule, that we are bound to study them, and 
that according to our use of this blessing they will become 
the " savour of life unto life or of death unto death. " a 

145. These are among the first principles of Protestantism. 
Not the claims for us the right, and it enforces the duty, 

Jf these* 8 °f exam i n i n g the Bible for ourselves. But be it 
Euuhe 1 ! 8 * remem kered, "that our safety lies not in the acknowl- 
piication of edgment of these principles, but in the application 

them can D r 1 ^ x 

save. f them ; and in the consequent belief of the doc- 
trines and precepts which the Bible reveals. 

a See for these passages in detail Morren's Biblical Theology, part 1, 
On the Eule of Faith. 



INSPIRATION. 



91 



Sec. 2 — Inspiration. 

146. The general truth that the books of Scripture are of 
Divine origin and authority is sometimes expressed . 

° ^ . . . , Inspiration. 

in another form, and they are said to be inspired. 

Holy men spoke or wrote them as they were moved by the 

Holy Ghost. 

147. Whatever refers to the explanation of this truth — as, 
how men were inspired, and whether the same kind Theorieg 
of inspiration was needed in each case — is theory, 

and is concerned with questions rather curious than useful. 
The truth itself is all that is fully revealed. 

Among the heathen and uninspired Jews it was generally 
held that while inspired men were under the Divine ^ ncient 
impulse, all voluntary action was suspended. Among news, 
the early Christians the doctrine of inspiration was held rather 
practically than speculatively, though they generally main- 
tained that the writers of the Bible, when inspired, exercised 
their ordinary mental powers. On the mode or kinds of 
inspiration they said little. "When the authority of the 
Papacy, however, began in modern times to be questioned, the 
whole doctrine of inspiration was more closely examined. 
The facts were generally admitted, but the theory or compre- 
hensive statement which best embodied and accounted for 
them, was a topic regarded as open to discussion. See the 
^passage fromUhe Fathers, in Westcott's Gospel Hansony:. 

Some held that the Holy Spirit dictated the sacred books 
word for word, a as we have them in the original , 

' o Modern 

languages : others, however, holding that this theory views - 
went beyond the facts, and was inconsistent with the diversi- 
ties of style, the varying quotations, and the very professions 
of the writers themselves. 

A few taught that the fundamental truths of the Bible 



B Advocates of verbal dictation, are Calarny, Haldane, and others. 



92 



INSPIRATION. 



were given by inspiration, while the arguments and illustra- 
tions were of human origin ; a to which it is a sufficient reply, 
that unless we are told what truths are fundamental, this 
theory throws the whole of Scripture into disrepute, and is 
inconsistent with those texts which represent it as an authority 
in religious matters. 

Others, again, held that those parts of the Bible whose moral 
tendency is obviously good are Divine, but not the rest ; a 
theory which strips the Bible of all authority, and supposes man 
to have right notions of what is morally good before he can 
use the Bible. b 

Another and much more rational theory is one which Dr. 
Various Doddridge and many modern theologians have 
kinds of. sanctioned. In this theory there are supposed to 
be different kinds of inspiration ; the first and highest pro- 
viding for the revelation of things not previously known to 
the sacred writers ; the second providing for the security of 
the writers against error in exhibiting doctrines and facts 
with which they were already acquainted; and the third, 
conferring Divine authority by the approbation of inspired 
men, on parts of writings originally composed without inspi- 
ration. 

This theory does not materially differ in its results from 
statement an °ther which many have preferred. They main- 
without t a i n that holy men wrote in obedience to Divine 

theory. J 

command, and that in writing they were kept 
free, we know not how, from all error, whether they taught 
truths previously unknown to them, or published truths and 
facts already familiar. In this theory, which is indeed rather 
a statement of the fact than a theory in relation to it, inspira- 
tion is ascribed to the whole of Scripture, while revelation 
is confined to those acts of the spirit by which truths pre- 
viously unknown were communicated to men. All Scripture 
is inspired, and the new truths of Scripture are revealed; or, 

a Priestley and even Burnet : see on the Articles, Art. 6. 
b Kant. c Bishop D. Wilson, etc. 



INSPIEATION. 



93 



as Thomas Scott expressed it, inspiration discovers new truth 
(this we call revelation), and superintends the communication 
of the old. This distinction it is convenient to retain. l ^ 

148. These (except the last) are theories of inspiration, 
The fact which they have to embody and explain g cr j pture 
is that Scripture is everywhere the utterance — the claims, 
word — of Divine wisdom, and that it expresses the very ideas 
which the Holy Spirit intended. It is this gift which the 
inspired writers profess to have received. Their writings are 
God-inspired, or, to use the words of one not prejudiced in 
favor of sound views on this question, "animated through and 
through by the Spirit." — Be Wette. 

149. Old Testament writers, for example, claim it for them- 
selves. 

Scripture 

Exod. iv. 15, 16 ; xix. 9 : Lsv. passim : Deut. iv. 2: Num. defect 
xxiii. 12 : 2 Sam. xxiii. 2 : Jer. v 7-9 : Ezek. hi. 4-10 : Mic. 
iii. 8, etc. 

New Testament writers claim it for the old, and also for 
themselves. 

2 Pet. i. 20, 21 : Luke i. 20: 1 Pet. i. 11 : Acts i. 16; xxviii 25 : Heb. 
iii. 7. 

John xiv. 26 ; xvi. 13, 14: 1 Cor. ii. 13 ; xiv. 37: 1 Thess. h. 13 ; iv. 
8 : 2 Pet. iii. 1, 2, etc. 

150. The gift, however, admitted, in the sacred writers, of 
diligent and faithful research; 5 of the expression ,. 

o » -i- Whatmspir- 

of the same thought in different words ; b of such ation allows, 
differences (not discrepancies) between the accounts of in- 
spired men as would be likely to arise from the different 

» Luke i. 1-4. 

b Compare Matt. xxvi. 26, 27: Luke xxii. 19, 20, and 1 Cor. xi. 24, 
25 : and Matt. iii. 17 : Mark i. 11, and Luke iii. 22. To this class be- 
long quotations from the Old Testament. These are taken either from 
the LXX, without giving the exact words, and even when that version 
is not verbally accurate, or sometimes (when the original differs from 
the Greek), from the Hebrew direct. The quotations are rather sub- 
stantially than literally accurate ; see chap. 6. 



94 



SCRIPTUKE CANON. 



stand-points of each ; a of quotations from other inspired au- 
thorities ; b of the employment of uninspired documents ;° and 
of peculiarities of style and manner arising from diversities 
of intellectual structure and from educational or other influ- 
ences, such as may be observed on a comparison of Ezekiel 
and Isaiah, of John and Paul. Add to these facts that the 
inspired writers were sometimes uncertain of the precise mean- 
ing or application of their message,* and that this message was 
delivered in language which the spirit of God approved, and 
we have the Scripture facts on this doctrine. These facts it is 
.the business of theory, if a theory must be framed, to embody 
and explain, 



Sec. 3. — The Canon. 

151. The question of the authority of the books of Scrip- 
ture is sometimes put in another form, and it is 
of Scripture asked whether the whole belong to the Canon; a 
how proved. q Ueg ^ on se ^led, if it is once proved that they are 
the production of inspired men. It is sometimes said, indeed, 
that we prove the inspiration of the books by first proving 
their canonicity ; the church has received them, and therefore 
they are Divine. The reverse, however, is the accurate order. 
They are Divine, and therefore the church has received them. 

* See Introduction to the Gospels, part ii. 

b Psa. cviii. and Psa. lvii. 7-11 ; lx. 5-12 : Gen. chaps, x., xi. and 1 
Chron. i. 17, etc. : 2 Kings xviii. 13-37, and Isa. xxxvi. 1-22: Mic. iv. :- 
Isa. ii. : also Chron., with Kings and Sam. Eichhorn has given a list 
of such quotations. 

c Josh. x. 13 : Numb. xxi. 14: Jude ix. 14, 15. 

d l Pet. i. 10, 11 : Dan. xii. 8 ; so, also, the facts mentioned in the fol- 
lowing passages are not recorded in the Old Testament Scripture : Acta 
vii. 22: 2 Tim. iii. 8: Heb. ix. 4, that the pot was golden: Heb. xii. 
21. the words of Moses : facts in xi. 37, etc. ; so the burial of the patri- 
archs in Sychem, Acts vii. 15. 

«1 Pet. i. 10, 11: Dan. xii. 8: 2 Tim. iii. 16: Heb. i. 1: 1 Cor. ii. 12, 
13. See \ 144. 



CANON — NEW TESTAMENT. 



95 



The books are now received as canonical because we have 
satisfactory evidence of their inspiration; and if there had 
been other books not recognized in the present canon, but de- 
monstrably of Divine origin, we should be bound to give them 
a place among the rest. 

152. The question, therefore, of the canonicity of the books 
of Scripture is three-fold. Is each book the pro- a three-fold 
duction of its professed author? is it authentic? ( i ue3tlon - 
and was the writer in composing it under the special guidance 
of the Spirit? Genuineness and authenticity are both in- 
volved ; and though the present section is placed between 
the sections on those subjects, the argument needs the facts 
of both. 

153. We begin with the New Testament. 

In the early church many writings were extant, professing 
to give an account of the life and character of our The 
Lord ; but four only were received as authoritative. Gos P els - 
It was admitted on all hands that these were the productions 
of the Evangelists whose names they bear: the Gospels of 
Mark and Luke being respectively penned under the care of 
Peter and Paul. The apostle John, moreover, is recorded to 
have acknowledged publicly the authority of the first three 
Gospels, and added his own to complete them. These books, 
therefore, were written by apostles to whom our Saviour 
specially promised his Spirit, that He might guide them into 
all truth, bring to their remembrance whatever He himself 
had told them, and qualify them to give his gospel to the 
world. 

In the same way, though less directly, John is supposed to 
have attested the book of Acts.* ml , , 

The Acts. 

So of the Epistles of Paul. There are thirteen 
of them which bear his name. Other disciples were Ses o? Pas i. 
witnesses of his having written them. b Generally 
he wrote by an amanuensis, who also became a witness of the 

a See the evidence in Wordsworth on the Canon, pp. 156-160. 
" 1 Thess. i. 1 : 2 Thess. i. 1. 



96 



CANON — NEW TESTAMENT. 



genuineness of his writings : a in these instances he added his 
subscription and salutation. b His Epistles were sent by pri- 
vate messengers. Nine of them, moreover, were addressed to 
public bodies. The earliest of them he commanded to be read 
in the public assembly; the second, and indeed all the rest, 
were read in public too ; d and we know from Ignatius, Poly- 
carp, and Clement, and especially from Peter, that his Epis- 
tles were regarded as inspired Scripture, and read with the 
Law and Prophets of the Old Testament and the Gospels of 
the New. 6 To complete this evidence, it should be added that 
the language of Peter was used by him after all the Epistles 
of Paul to the churches had been written/ and that he applies 
to them a name ("Scripture") which, though occurring fifty 
times in the New Testament, is never applied to any other 
than the present canonical books. The conclusion, therefore, 
is that these Epistles are Paul's, and that they have what 
Paul claimed for them (§ 139), and what the early church and 
a chief apostle ascribed to them — inspired, and therefore can- 
onical, authority. They are not the words which man teaches : 
they are the words of the Holy Ghost. 

All the parts of the New Testament mentioned thus far 
Antiieeo- were deemed, as soon as published, to be Divine, as 
mena, or were 1 Peter and 1 John. The remaining books 

Deutero- ° 

Canonical. f the New Testament were called, as we have 
seen (§ 20), Antilegomena, or, from their forming a part of 
the Canon only after a second revision, the Deutero- Canoni- 
cal. That position in the Canon they gained gradually; at 
the beginning of the fourth century they were received by 

a Rom. xvi. 22. 

* Col. iv. 18 : 1 Cor. xvi. 21. 

c Rom. xvi. 1: Appendix: Col. iv. 7, 8: Appendix: Eph. vi. 21: 
Philip, ii. 25. 

d 1 Thess. v. 27: 2 Thess. ii. 15; iii. 6, 14: 2 Cor. i. 13: Col. iv. 16. 

e Ign. to Eph. chap, xii.: Polyc. to Phil. iii. 11, 12: Clem, to Cor. i. 
c. 47 : 2 Pet. iii. 15, 16. 

f Shortly before the death of Peter, who suffered martyrdom the 
same year as Paul, 2 Pet. i. 14. 



CANON — -NEW TESTAMENT. 



97 



most of the churches, and at the end of that century they 
were received by all. 

The special evidence of each book it is not necessary to 
give now. The point to be noticed is that the doubts 

, . , . . .- -. , -, . . Their can- 

which existed had reference not to the canonicity onieity,why 
of the writings of James, Cephas, John, and Jude, 
but to the question whether the writings bearing their names 
were really written by them. Nor can these doubts excite 
surprise. The subject was one of deep interest. Many spu- 
rious compositions were abroad under the names of these 
very apostles. 1 Apostolic teaching might be quoted in de- 
fence of caution. b The internal evidence of the authorship 
of these Epistles is peculiar ; the Epistle to the Hebrews, for 
example, is without the author's name, and differs in style 
from most of the Epistles of Paul. The style of 2 Peter 
differs in the same way from the style of the first Epistle. 
In James and Jude the authors are described not as apostles, 
but as "servants" of Christ, while in 2 and 3 John the writer 
describes himself as a presbyter or elder, not as an apostle. 
Jude also refers to stories which were supposed to be con- 
tained in apocryphal writings. All these Epistles, moreover, 
were addressed either to Christians generally or to private 
persons, not to particular churches. No bod} r of men, there- 
fore, were interested in preserving them, and external evi- 
dence in their favor was necessarily scanty. All these causes 
of doubt did operate, as we know. In the end there was uni- 
versal conviction ; and the very doubts which deferred the 
reception of a small portion of Scripture in certain parts of the 
early church now serve to confirm our faith in the rest. 

154. These facts sufficiently indicate the course of argu- 
ment by which the canonicity of the New Testament Nature 
is proved. Let it be shown that they were written of proof ' 
by the men whose names they bear, and that there is reason 
for believing that their authors wrote under the guidance of 

a Jones on the Canon, i. 37-45. 
>> 2 Thess. ii. 1, 2: 1 John iv. 1. 
9 



98 



CANON — NEW TESTAMENT. 



the Spirit, and the evidence of the canonicity of the books is 
complete. 

As part of the evidence (in some sense a subordinate part, 
Evidence of ^ or ^ ne c l arms an d character of the books themselves 
councils 8 ° r su Pply *he cn i e f evidence), it may be added that 
hovvim- the books which now form the Canon were read 

portant. 

from the first in Christian assemblies as of Divine 
authority* that ecclesiastical authors quote largely from them, b 
and that they constituted the canonical books of the early 
church. 

155. Between the years 200 A. D. and 400 A. D. fifteen 
Ancient catalogues of such books were published. Of these, 
lists. six — those of Athanasius, Epiphanius, Ruffin, Aus- 

tin, the third council of Carthage, . and of the anonymous 
author of the works of Dionysius the Areopagite — agree with 
the present canon : three — those of Cyril, the Council of Lao- 
dicea, and Gregory Nazianzen — omit the Book of Revelation 
only : one — that of Caius, probably 196 — omits James, 2 Peter, 
3 John, and Hebrews: another — that of Origen — omits Jamea 
and Jude, though he elsewhere owns them. The catalogue of 
Eusebius marks James and Jude, 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, and 
Revelation, as doubted by some. Philastrius omits Hebrews 
and Revelation. Amphilochius inserts all, but marks the 
Antilegomena, he himself deeming the Hebrews genuine ; and 
Jerome speaks of the Hebrews only as doubtful, and that 
Epistle he elsewhere receives. 

Add to this evidence the authority of the Peshito and of 
the early Latin versions. The former contains all our present 
books, except 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, Jude, and revelation ; 
and the latter included probably all the books afterwards 
inserted in Jerome's version. 

a Lardner, ii. 132, 526. 

b Lardner, ii. 52, 72, 93, 109. 

c These authorities may be seen in the original in Wordsworth on 
the Canon, Appendix A. Thirteen out of the fifteen are referred to m 
Jones on the Canon, i. 73-76. 



CANON — OLD TESTAMENT. 



99 



15b. Though the opinion of the early church is called sub- 
ordinate or indirect evidence, that opinion has often 

1 . Proves 

been regarded as sufficient to decide the canonicity canonieity 

° . indirectly; 

of the books of Scripture. The reception of these not itself 
books by the churches was taken as proof of their 
inspiration ; just as the decision of a competent legal tribunal 
would be deemed conclusive evidence of any fact proved be- 
fore it, or as the opinion of an eminent mathematician might 
be taken as proof of the soundness of some demonstration. 
This practice, however, must not turn our attention from the 
real nature of the proof. The question is not one of authority, 
but of evidence. To reckon a book canonical, because a coun- 
cil or a church has pronounced it so, is neither logical nor 
scriptural. Our wisdom is to use such a decision (according 
to its intrinsic worth) for the purpose of ascertaining the 
claims of the book itself. The canonicity of each book — its 
right, that is, to a place in the Canon — is a question as large as 
the question of its Divine authority, and involves a conside- 
ration of the same evidence. Of that evidence early opinion 
is only part; an important part, doubtless, for the utmost 
care was taken from the first in discriminating the genuine 
from the spurious; but it is only part. It may aid, it must 
not control our decisions. 

157. The canonicity of the Old Testament is best established 
bv the New. Our Lord received as Scripture what . . 

. . Canonicity 

the Jews delivered to him as Scripture, and the of Old Tee* 

- , -i f i i r> i t tament j 

apostle speaks of the advantage of the Jew as con- proved, 
sisting chiefly in his possession of the " oracles of 
God." As an evidence of the close connection of the two 
dispensations, and of the sanction given in the New Testament 
to the Old, it may be noticed that the former has not less than 
263 direct quotations from the latter, and that these quotations 
are taken from almost every book. The obvious allusions to 
the Old Testament are even more numerous, amounting to up- 
wards of 350. See chap. vi. § 1. 

158. That at the time of our Lord the Canon was fixed as 



100 



CANON — OLD TESTAMENT. 



at present is established by decisive evidence. In addition 
Phiio and ^° quotations in the New Testament from particular 
Josephus. books, Josephus and Philo both testify to the books 
themseltes, and to the reverence with which the Jews regarded 
them ; the former expressly stating that the Canon he was set- 
ting down was received by all J ews, that they all would con- 
tend for it to the death, and that none had ever dared to 
increase or diminish or change them. (Cont. Ap. i. 8.) 

159. Testimonies no less decisive will be found in the next 
Ancient paragraph. In examining this list it must be remem- 
lists. bered that when certain books are omitted from pro- 
fessed catalogues of the Old Testament Scriptures, there is the 
greatest probability that each of those books was included in 
the preceding book ; Esther, for example, in Nehemiah, Ruth 
in Judges, and Lamentations in Jeremiah. The fact that some 
books are not quoted in the New Testament is accounted for 
on the simple principle that the writers had no occasion to 
quote them. That all our present books were included at the 
time of our Lord in the Old Testament Canon is undoubted, 
and as such they are quoted under the usual Jewish division. 

160. The authorities referred to in the preceding paragraph, 
may be classed as follows : — ■ 

The New Testament, which is really authoritative, refers to all Scrip- 
Ancient Old ^ Uie unc1 " er ^ ne threefold division of Law, Prophets, and 
Testament Writings. It also appeals to each of the books, except Euth, 
Ezra, Nehemiah, Canticles, Ecclesiastes, and perhaps La- 
mentations. The version of the LXX, which is evidence, inclndes them 
all. The soji of Sirach, B.C. 130, mentions the threefold division; as 
does Philo, A. C. 41, quoting from all except Euth, Chronicles, Nehe- 
miah, Esther, Canticles, Ecclesiastes, Lamentations, Ezekiel, and Daniel. 
Josephus, b. A.D, 37, enumerates them according to their classes, in- 
cluding all the present books. Melito, 177, mentions all except Esther 
and Lamentations. Origen, 230, mentions all, without exception. 
Athanasius, 326, mentions all except Esther. Cyril (Jerusalem), 348, 
mentions all, as also the Council of Laodicea, 363 ; Epiphanius, 368 ; 
and Hilary, of Poictiers, 370. Gregory of Nazianzen, 370, mentions 
all except Esther ; as does Amphilocjiius^ 370. The Apostolic Can.oii& } 



CANONICAL BOOKS — HOW PRESERVED. 101 

of uncertain date, but not later than the end of this century, mentions 
all ; as also the Apostolic Constitutions. These are Greek authorities. 

Of Latin authorities, the chief are Jerome, 392; Rvfin, 397; 3d Council 
of Carthage, 397 ; and Augustine, 395 ; and all agree in enumerating 
the whole. 

161. How the books of the Old Testament were preserved, 
is a question of some difficulty, and we can but give the most 
probable solution. 

The books of the law were placed in the Ta.bernacle with 
the ark of the covenant, and were kept there during __ 

' , 1 ,° How Old 

the iourneyinss in the wilderness, and afterwards in Testament 

J m preserved. 

Jerusalem. a To the same sanctuary were succes- 
sively consigned the various historical and prophetic books, 
from the time of Joshua to that of David. On the erection 
of the temple, Solomon deposited in it the earliest books, b and 
enriched the collection with the inspired productions of his 
own pen. After his days, a succession of prophets arose, Jonah, 
Amos, Isaiah, Hosea, Joel, Micah, Nahum, Zephaniah, Jere- 
miah, Obadiah, and Habbakuk. They all flourished before the 
destruction of the temple, and enlarged the volume of inspi- 
ration by valuable additions. About 420 years after the tem- 
ple was built, it was burnt by Nebuchadnezzar. What became 
of the MSS. of the Sacred Scriptures is not known. In 
Babylon, however, Daniel speaks of the book of the law as 
familiar to him, and also of Jeremiah, and of other prophets. 
Shortly after the conquest of Babylon by Cyrus, the Jews were 
released from captivity, rebuilt the temple, and restored Divine 
worship, being encouraged to persevere by the exhortations of 
Haggai and Zechariah. 

About 50 years after the temple was rebuilt, Ezra is recorded 
by tradition to have made a collection of the sacred writings, 
as he certainly took great pains to expound and enforce the 

<* Deut. xxxi. 9, 26: Josh. xxiv. 26: 1 Sam. x. 25. 
b 2 Kings xxii. 8: Isa. xxxiv. 16. 

c Dan. ix. 2, 11. In these passages the word book or a book is more 

properly " the book." 



102 CANON — THE APOCRYPHA. 



ancient law (see Neh. viii. 1, 3, 9). To this collection were 
added (probably by Simon the Just) the writings of Ezra him- 
self, with those of Nehemiah and Malachi, and thus was com- 
pleted the canon of the Old Testament ; for, from the days of 
Malachi, no prophet arose till John the Baptist, who connected 
the two covenants, and of whom it was foretold that he should 
precede the great day of the Lord. Mai. hi. 1. 

The collection of the canonical books is generally said to 
have been the work of the Great Synagogue, a body which 
included Ezra, Nehemiah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi, and 
afterwards, Simon the Just. The existence and labors of this 
body are distinctly referred to in the most ancient Jewish 
writings. 

After the captivity, synagogues were established in Judea, 
and throughout the world, and copies of the inspired Scrip- 
tures were so greatly multiplied as to make the preservation 
of particular MSS. rather a question of curiosity than of his- 
torical importance.* The early existence and history of the 
LXX. , have been noticed in a previous chapter. 

162. If we examine by these tests the books called Apocry- 
The Apo- P nai > we sna H be constrained to reject their authority 
crypha. as Divine. 

163. Externally the evidence is conclusive. 

External They are no ^ f°und in any catalogue of canonical 
evidence, writings made during the first four centuries after 
Christ ; nor were they regarded as part of the rule of faith 
ill the decision of the council of Trent, 1545. Philo never 
quotes them as he does the Sacred Scriptures, and Josephus 
expressly excludes them. b The J ewish church never received 
them as part of the Canon, and they are never quoted either 
by our Lord or by his apostles, a fact the more striking, as 
Paul thrice quotes heathen poets. It is remarkable, too, that 



a See Stuart on the Canon* and Havernick's Introduction to the Old 
Testament, Edin., pp. 18-22. 
b Cont. Apion. i. 8. 



APOCRYPHA — EVIDENCE AGAINST. 



103 



the last inspired prophet closes his predictions by recommend- 
ing to his countrymen the books of Moses, and intimates that 
no other messenger is to be expected by them till the coming 
of the second Elijah. 11 

Against this decisive external evidence must be placed the 
fact, that particular books have been quoted as canonical by 
one or more of the Fathers. iJ 

Baruch alone is quoted as canonical by Origen, Athanasius, 
Cyril, and Epiphanius. Of the Latin church, Augustine alone 
quotes as canonical, Tobit, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon, Eccle- 
siasticus, and 1 and 2 Maccabees. By other writers of the 
3d and 4th centuries, the books are not cited, or their canon- 
icity is denied. 

164. Internal evidence, moreover, is against their inspira- 
tion. Divine authority is claimed by none of the Internal 
writers, and by some it is virtually disowned. b evidence. 
The books contain statements at variance with history, self- 
contradictory , a and opposed to the doctrines 6 and precepts of 
Scripture/ 

165. For historical purposes, and for " instruction of man- 
ners," so far as they exemplify the spirit and pre- How far 
cepts of the Gospel, the books are of value. But useful, 
they are without authority, and form no part of the rule of faith. 

a Mal. iv. 4-6. . 
b 2 Mac. ii. 23 ; xv. 38 : Prol. of Eccles. 

c Barucli l. 2, compared with Jer. xliii. 6, 7. The story of Bel and 
the Dragon contradicts the account of Daniel's being cast into the 
lions' den. 

d Comp. 1 Mac. vi. 4-16: 2 Mac. i. 13-16: 2 Mac. ix. 28, as to the 
place where Antiochus Epiphanes died. The writer of the Book of 
Wisdom pretends that it was composed by Solomon, and quotes Isa. 
xiii. 11-18. 

e Prayers for the dead sanctioned, 2 Mac. xii. 43-45. Justification 
by works involved, Tob. xii. 8,9:2 Esd. viii. 33. 

f Lying sanctioned, Tob. v. 12; xii. 15. Suicide is spoken of as a 
manful act, 2 Mac. xiv. 42 ; assassination is commended, Judith ix. 2-9, 
comp. Gen. lxix. 7; and magical incantations sanctioned, Tob. vi. 
16, 17. 



104 



APOCRYPHA — EVIDENCE AGAINST. 



166. The utility and relative importance of these booka 
Relative may be further explained. The whole illustrate 
ofThese 1106 ^ e P ro g ress °f knowledge among the Jews, their 
books. taste, their religious character, and their govern- 
ment; while some of the books explain ancient prophecies, 
and prove the fulfilment of them, and others exhibit the most 
exalted sentiments and principles of uninspired men. 

Of least value are 1st and 2d Esdras, Tobit, Judith, Esther, 
Susanna, and the Idol Bel and the Dragon. These books 
contain indications of childish credulity, or of wilful disregard 
of truth. 

An intermediate place is due to the book of Baruch, the 
Song of the Three Children, and the prayer of Manasseh. 
The authorship of these books is uncertain, and they contain 
several mistakes ; but they were probably written with sincere 
intentions, and they show the views which, in that age, were 
entertained of personal religion. 

The remaining books claim a higher place. The Wisdom 
of Solomon, though not written by the Preacher, was probably 
intended as an imitation of his writings, and contains many 
striking counsels. Ecclesiasticus, avowedly uninspired, is often 
excellent. To the student it is also useful, as showing how the 
Jews expounded their law, what hopes had originated in the 
Divine promises, and by what motives the practice of godliness 
was enforced. The 1st book of the Maccabees gives the his- 
tory of the deliverance of the Jews, under the illustrious family 
from whom its name is taken. It contains many examples of ' 
heroic faith, and may be perused with the same design as any 
other portion of authentic history. The 2d book is less accu- 
rate than the 1st, historically and morally, but it illustrates the 
firm confidence of the Jews in a future life, and records sev- 
eral instances of devotedness to the religion and institutes of 
the law. 

For an account of other Apocryphal Books Bee Fabricii Codex Pseu- 
digr. V. T 1713-41, and Codex Ps. N. T. 1713-22, with Birch's Aucta- 
hum, 1804, or Jones on the Canon. 



EVIDENCES — HISTORICAL, 



105 




Sculpture on Arch of Titus, Representing the Vessels of the Temple. 



Sec. 4. — Scripture Evidences. 

167. All that lias been advanced thus far on the authority 
of Scripture is taken from Scripture itself. We have only 
arranged and given expression to its claims. The evidence by 
which those claims are sustained is among the most interesting 
subjects of inquiry. We can but touch upon it here, and 
must be content to refer to various authors for ampler infor- 
mation. 

168. We have already seen that Scripture is genuine, and 
that from the earliest times, its various books were Whafc 
received as written by the men whose names they J^nce °.f aa- 

*' _ J tnenticity jg 

bear. Ordinarily, nothing; more would have been involved in 

. ' genuine- 
proved by this process; but in this case the evi- ness - 

dence of genuineness is also evidence of authenticity. The 

truth of the general narrative, its authenticity, is involved in 

the very proofs of the genuineness of the record. The books 

are quoted and copied as history, and were received as such, 

while witnesses of most of the transactions they describe were 

living. That Palestine was under the Roman yoke; that 

during the reign of Herod Christ was born ; that he professed 



106 



EVIDENCES — HISTORICAL. 



to be a teacher sent from God ; that he claimed the power of 
working miracles ; that these miracles were always beneficent; 
that they sustained a morality altogether unknown to the 
Gentiles, and novel even to the Jews ; that he had several fol- 
lowers ; that he was put to death under Pontius Pilate ; that 
many hundreds, believing him to have risen from the dead, 
became his disciples ; that, in the course of a few years, his 
disciples were scattered over the whole Eoman world ; that, 
in short, all the main statements of the Gospel history are 
facts, is involved (whatever be thought of their spiritual 
significancy) in the very genuineness of the record. The 
whole was deemed historically true ; so that, while many 
rejected the gospel, the facts, on which in one sense it was 
founded, were acknowledged by all. 

169. An explanation of previous evidence (§ 16,) will make 
Summary ^ s statement clear. In the first four centuries 
ofeviden- we h ave upwards of fifty authors who testify to 
uineness. f ac ts told or implied in the Gospel narrative. The 
whole or fragments of the writings of these authors remain. 
The writings of about fifty others referred to by Jerome (392) 
have perished. These, authors belong to all parts of the 
world, from the Euphrates to the Pyrenees ; from Northern 
Germany to the African Sahara. They speak the Syrian, the 
Greek, and the Latin tongues. They represent the belief of 
large bodies of professed Christians, and no less the admissions 
of multitudes who were not Christians. They agree in quoting 
Scripture as genuine and true. They refer to it as a distinct 
volume, universally received. They comment upon it and 
expound it. They refer to it as Divine. Heretics who sepa- 
rated from the great body of the faithful received the narrative 
of the facts, and differed only on the doctrines which they 
supposed those facts to embody ; and even infidels who denied 
the faith, founded their denial upon the very facts which our 
present record contains. So general had a belief of the facts 
of the Gospel become, that we find J. Martyr (165) observing 
that in every nation prayers and thanksgivings were offered to 



EVIDENCES — HISTOEIOAL. 



107 



the Father by the name of Jesus ; while only fifty years later 
Tertullian states that in almost every city Christians formed 
the majority. 

Heathen and Jewish writers, without speaking of the New 
Testament, and without giving any evidence, there- Heathen 
fore, of its genuineness, confirm in a general way testimonies, 
the narratives of the life of our Lord and of his disciples, or 
incidentally illustrate them. Josephus in his Annals (A. D. 
37-93), Tacitus in his History (A. D. 100), Suetonius in his 
Biographical Sketches (A. D. 117), Juvenal in his Satires (A. D. 
128), and Pliny in his Letters (A. D. 103), all confirm the his- 
torical statements of the sacred story. Indeed there is no 
transaction of ancient history that can exhibit more than a 
fraction of the evidence by which the narrative of the Gospels 
is sustained. 

See the passages quoted in Paley, p. i. ch. ii. 

170. The following are the principal ecclesiastical Ecelesiagti 
writers who prove at once the genuineness and gen- "Jg^foS 
eral truthfulness of the New Testament : centuries. 



FIRST CENTURY. 


Scriptures quoted as genuine 
and authentic, and as a dis- 
tinct volume. 


Quoted as of peculiar 
authority, or as divine : 
expounded and com- 
mented upon. 


Appealed to by various 
sects, and by adversa- 
ries. 


Barnabas, Epistle belongs to 

the 2d cent. 
Hernias, Shepherd, do. 
Clement, Rome, died 100. 
Ignatius, Hour. 70, died 116. 
Polycarp, died 16G. 


Barnabas. 

Hennas. 
Clement. 
Ignati us. 
Polycarp. 




SECOND CENTURY. 


Quadratus. 122. 
Papias, flour. 119, died 1G3. 
J. Martyr, flour. 148, died 165. 
Dionysius (Cor.), 163. 
Ch. at Lyons, 170. 
Mclito, flour. 170. 
Hegesippus, flour. 175. 
Irenseus, flour. 176, died 202. 
Athenagoras, 176. 

Theophilus (Aut.), 178. 


J. Martyr. 

Tatian, flou. 158, died 176. 
Dionysius. 

Irenteus. 
Theophilus. 


Basilides, Alex. 122. 
Valentinians, Rome, 140. 
Sethites, Egypt. 140. 
Carpocratians, Alex. 145. 
Marcion, 150. 
Montanists, 157. 
Encratites, 165. 

Celsus. 

f Theodotus,"! 1n o 
lArtemon, f Jn 



108 



EVIDENCES — HISTORICAL. 



THIRD CENTURY. 



Scriptures quoted as genuine 
and authentic, and as a dis- 
tinct volume. 


Quoted as of peculiar 
authority, or as divine : 
expounded and com- 
mented upon. 


Appealed to by various 
sects, and by adversa- 
ries. 


Or i sen, flour. 185-213. 
Tertullian. flour. 198, d. 220. 
Minucius Felix, died 220. 

Clement, Alex, died 217. 
Dionysius, Alex, flour. 232. 
Cyprian, Carthage, 200-258. 
Commodian. flour. 270. 
Victoria (Germany). 
Arnobius, flour. 307. 
Lactantius, died 325. 
Eusebius, 270-340. 


Origen. 
Tertullian. 

Ammonias. Alex. 200-235. 

Hippolytus, 220, died 250. 

Clement. 

Dionysius 

Cyprian. 

Novatian, Rome, 250. 

Victorin. 

Lucian, died 312. 


Hermogenes, Carthage, 
203. 

Novatians. Rome, 251. 
Sabellians. Egypt. 258. 
Porphyry. Rome, 262. 
Paul of Samosata, Anti- 

oeh, 265. 
Manichasans, Persia, 274. 


FOURTH CENTURY. 


Hilary, Poictiers. died 368. 
Apollinarus, Laodic. flou. 362. 
Damasus, Rome, 366. 
Gregory, Nyssa, 331-396. 
Theodore, Tarsus, flour. 376. 
Eusebius, Nico. flour. 335. 
Ambrose, Milan, 374-397. 
Didymus, Alex. 375-396. 
Amphiloehius, Iconium. flou. 
380. 

Jerome, 329-420. 
Chrysostom, 344-407. 


Gregory Nazien. 328-359. 
Athanasius, died 373. 
Ephraem, Syrus. died 378. 
Basil (Csesarea), died 378. 
Cyril ( Jerus.), 315-386. 

Ambrose. 

Epiphanius, Cyprus, 368, 

d. 403. 
Palladius, flour. 407. 
Jerome. 


Arians, 318. 
Donatists, 328. 
Julian, Emp. died, 365. 
Priscillianists, 378. 
Apollinarians, 378. 

Pelagians, 410. 



This evidence is sometimes called the historical, and it forms 
the subject of the first part of Paley's volume. 

Historical J ._ _ . _ J 

evidence; 11 its truth be acknowledged, it places an inquirer 
in the position of a contemporary of our Lord, 
leaving the claims of his religion to be established by other 
evidence. 

171. Admitting the existence of a Being of infinite power 
and goodness, there are strong probabilities that 

Evidence; & ' ° r . 

hmv eias- He would not leave his creatures m ignorance and 
misery; and probabilities no less strong that any 
communication from him would contain a distinct reference 
to their condition, and would present analogies to other works 
of the Creator. These probabilities form the presumptive evi- 



EVIDENCES CLASSIFIED. 



109 



dence of revelation, and are discussed by such writers as Ellis, 
Leland, and Butler. Evidence founded on revelation itself is 
called positive. 

In God are attributes of power and of knowledge, of holi- 
ness and love. Sometimes the evidences of Scripture are 
ranged under corresponding divisions, and we speak of the 
miraculous, the prophetic, and the moral. 

A message from another, again, is susceptible of a two-fold 
evidence of truth; viz., credentials supplied by the messenger, 
and peculiarities or marks in the message itself. The cre- 
dentials are external, and the marks are internal. In this 
arrangement prophecy often belongs to both : the prediction 
is in the message, and the fulfilment either in the Bible or in 
profane history. 

The internal evidence, again, is two-fold ; according as it is 
founded (1), on the precepts of the Bible, the character of 
inspired men, or on the influence of truth in promoting holi- 
ness, which is the moral evidence, as it may be called ; and 
(2), on its internal harmony — literary, doctrinal, and ana- 
logical — on the adaptation of the message to human wants, or 
on its consistency with all our holiest conceptions of the Divine 
character and purpose, which may be called the spiritual evi- 
dence ; and this is the division to which it is intended to 
adhere. 

172. It is instructive to notice that each kind of evidence 
abounds in directly spiritual instruction. Miracles The v 
prove, at least, that physical nature is not fate, nor evidence of 

* ' ... . Scripture 

a merely material constitution of things. Prophecy instructive, 
proves that things material and moral (both nature and many, 
are governed by a free and Almighty hand. What were once 
grave questions of natural religion, are thus settled in the very 
evidences of the revealed. The spiritual truth wrapped up, 
both in prophecy and miracles, and the obviously holy ten- 
dency of the moral evidence of the Bible, will be noticed 
elsewhere. Contrary to what is sometimes affirmed, the devout 



10 



110 



EXTERNAL EVIDENCE — MIRACLES. 



study of Christian evidence may become the means of spiritual 
improvement. 

... . , 173. The different evidences, then, of the truth 

Evidence 7 ' 

arranged. f Scripture, may be arranged as follows : — 
T EXTERNAL Evidence : appealing to our senses. 

1. Direct: as in the miracles of our Lord, John iii. 2; v. 36; x. 
37 ; xiv. 11 

Works by Bishop Douglas ; Campbell ; West ; Sherlock ; 
Le Bas. 

2. Retrospective: as in the connection of Christ with the mir- 
acles and prophecies of the Old Testament, Luke xxiv. 26, 
27: John v. 47. 

Leslie; Stillingfleet ; Faber ; Kidder; Brown; Simpson. 

3. Prospective : as in the fulfilment of prophecy since the days 
of our Lord, John xiv. 29. 

Davison ; Newton ; Keith. 
II. INTERNAL : which is either 

a. Moral : appealing to our conscience ; consisting of the 

1. Moral precepts of the Bible. 
Jenyns ; Gregory. 

2. Character oe our Lord and of the inspired writers. 
Newcome ; Lyttelton. 

3. Character and lives of the early Christians, and 
the general influence of truth. 

Chalmers ; Warburton ; Ryan ; Pliny, etc. 

b. or Spiritual : appealing to our intellectual perceptions and 
to our new nature generally. It includes 

. The Scriptural or Literary: or the wisdom and har- 
mony of revealed truth, 

In its different dispensations. — Alexander. 
In the various parts of the record.— Graves on the 
Pentateuch; Paley's Horas Paulinas; Blunt; Birks, 
etc. 

With nature. — Butler's Analogy; Chalmers. 
I. The Experimental. The gospel felt to be adapted to our 
wants. 

Pascal ; Fuller ; Erskine ; Sumner ; J. J. Gurney. 
. The Spiritual properly so called. The Bible consistent 
with the character and purpose of God. 

Gilb. Wardlaw; Aldis; Philosophy of Salvation,: Eel. 
Tr. Soc? 



EXTERNAL EVIDENCE — MIRACLES. 



Ill 



174. The success of the gospel is connected in Scripture, 
and by all ancient Christian writers, with the posses- External 
sion (on the part of our Lord) of miraculous power, evidence. 
Men believed, in the first age at least, because Divine Miraculous 
works or miracles (facts, that is, which could not have pcmer * 
taken place from natural causes or without superhuman aid) 
attested the truth of the message. To these works our Lord 
repeatedly appealed, as works which none other man did, and 
as an evidence of his mission. He healed the sick, he raised 
the dead, not once only, but in many hundreds of cases; for it 
is said frequently that they brought sick people unto him, and 
that he healed them all. 

Matt. iv. 24; xii. 15; xiv. 14; xv. 30; xix. 2, etc.: Mark i. 34; iii. 
10: Luke vi. 17; ix. 11. 

He gave the same power to his disciples, first to the twelve, 
and then to the seventy. After his departure his Similar 
apostles received the power of bestowing this mi- f°hf s rgiven 
raculous gift on all upon whom they laid their disci P le s- 
hands ; so that many hundreds and perhaps thousands were 
thus endowed. It is certain that the apostles speak of it as 
a thing familiarly known, and reckon it among the *igns of a 
Divinely appointed teacher. Indeed (when there was no New 
Testament) miraculous power seems the necessary evidence of 
a mission from God. 

175. The sufficiency of the evidence which our Lord exhi- 
bited in this form was admitted by all, John vii. 31 ; 

iii. 2. The effect on those who witnessed the mir- of this 
acles, in a teachable spirit, was a deep conviction of 
his Messiahship, John vi. 14; ii. 11, etc., as the effect of the 
record of those miracles, and of the doctrines they confirmed, 
ought to be saving faith, John xx. 30, 31. 

176. But did he not deceive the people ? How? He intro- 
duced his religion among enemies. He wrought his Did he 
miracles openly. The senses of men were able to deceive? 
judge of them. His adversaries narrowly watched his pro- 



112 



EXTERNAL EVIDENCE — MIRACLES. 



ceedings, John ix. And why? He foresaw and foretold hi3 
death. He promised his disciples persecution and suffering, 
and he enforced and practised universal holiness. 

But was he not himself deceived? Whence, then, the so- 
briety and holiness of his precepts, the disheartening faithful- 
ness of his warnings, the dissimilarity between his teachings 
and the expectations of his countrymen? No one mark of 
enthusiasm is to be found in Him. 

The predictions of our Lord in this respect were soon 
fulfilled. 

Most of the apostles seem to have sealed their testimony 
with their blood, and each nobly endured the trial. The fol- 
lowing . facts are gathered chiefly from ecclesiastical history. 
They are not all, however, equally [certainj^a-t-f^^^**^ - 

Matthew suffered martyrdom (by the sword) in Ethiopia. Mark 
died at Alexandria after being dragged though the streets of that city. 
Luke was hanged on an olive-tree in Greece. John was put into a 
cauldron of boiling oil, but escaped death, and was banished to Patmos. 
Peter was crucified at Rome with his head downwards. James was 
beheaded at Jerusalem. James the Less was thrown from a pinnacle of 
the temple, and beaten to death below. Philip was hanged against a 
pillar in Phrygia. Bartholomew was flayed alive. Andrew was bound 
to a cross, whence he preached to his persecutors till he died. Thomas 
was run through the body at Coromandel, in India. Jude was shot to 
dgath with arrows. Matthias was first stoned and then beheaded. 
Barnabas was stoned to death by Jews at Salonica. Paul, "in deaths 
oft," was beheaded at Rome by Nero. 

Does the world furnish any such examples of sincerity and 

faithfulness ? 

177. In truth this evidence can be set aside only by sup- 
if miracles P osm g a miracle greater than all. If Christ were 
greater mir- no ^ ^ rom ^" oc ^' we nave a Jewish peasant changing 
admitted be ^ e re ^gi° n °f the world, weaving into the story of 
his life the fulfilment of ancient predictions, and a 
morality of the purest order, as unlike the traditional teach- 
ing of his countrymen as it was superior to the precepts of 
Gentile philosophy; enduring with most peculiar composure 



EXTERNAL EVIDENCE — MIRACLES. 



113 



intense suffering, and inducing his followers to submit to simi- 
lar privations, and many of them to a cruel death, in support 
not of opinions, but of the alleged fact of his miraculous resur- 
rection. We have, then, these followers, "unlearned men," 
going forth and discoursing on the sublimest themes, persuad- 
ing the occupiers of Roman and Grecian cities to cast away 
their idols, to renounce the religion of their fathers, to reject 
the instructions of their philosophy, and to receive instead, as 
a teacher sent from heaven, a Jew of humble station, who had 
been put to a shameful death. And all impostors ! To receive 
this explanation of the acknowledged facts is to admit a greater 
miracle than any which the Bible contains. 

178. These remarks apply in a similar way to the miracles 
of the Old Testament ; and the whole may be exa- Leglie , g 
mined by the tests laid down (in Leslie's tract) as tests of. 

lxiirficiiloiis 

infallible marks of the reality of miraculous appear- appearan- 
ances. 1. Were they such as men's senses could 
judge of? 2. Were they public? 3. Were public monuments 
kept up, and some outward actions performed in memory of 
the events thus publicly wrought? and 4. Were such monu- 
ments and observances set up at the very time when the 
events took place, and were they afterwards continued with- 
out intermission ? The first two tests render it impossible for 
men to be deceived at the time, and the last two as impossible 
for deception to be practised in any subsequent age. If the 
reader will apply these tests to the miracles of the Bible, and 
then to the alleged miracles of other teachers, he will see at 
once the distinction between the false and the true. 

179. Prophecies are miracles of knowledge, as miraculous 
acts are miracles of power. These last generally 

i • i • •-! -it i m i • Prophecy a 

bring their own evidence with them, while the evi- miracle of 
dence of the former is gradual and accumulative. 

The study of prophecy and of its fulfilment is highly in- 
structive, both for the confirmation of our faith and for the 
enlightenment of the church. The want of books, which Lord 
Bacon noted in this department, has been largely supplied in 
10* 



114 



EXTERNAL EVIDENCE — PROPHECY ( 



later times, especially by such works as those of Newton and 
Keith. 

180. In order that predictions may form part of the evi- 

dence of Scripture, it is necessary, first, that the 

Requisites r ' ■, , . 

of prophetic event foretold be beyond human calculation and 

evidence* 

foresight; secondly, that the prediction be known 
before the event takes place ; and thirdly, that the prediction 
be fulfilled without an intentional regard to the Divine pur- 
pose on the part of the agent. If prudence could have foreseen 
the result, the prediction may be but an instance of human 
sagacity. If the result was not foretold, there is no prophetic 
evidence. And if the prediction led men to seek its fulfilment, 
the fulfilment is the result of human contrivance. There are, 
indeed, predictions to which all these marks do not apply ; but 
such predictions, though useful for other purposes, cannot be 
regarded as decisive evidence of Scripture truth. 

181. Prophetic evidence, it may be noticed, runs through 

the Bible, and each dispensation has its appropriate 
the Bible to predictions. 

Immediately after the fall, we have the promise 
of a Saviour : in the days of Enoch, predictions of a coming 
judgment : in the days of Noah, of the flood. After the flood, 
prophecy gave a new charter of temporal blessing, and prom- 
ised a continuance of the seasons to the end of time. In Abra- 
ham, it founded the double covenant of Canaan and the gospel, 
promising to his seed a country, of which he possessed only his 
burying-place, and to all nations, that in his great descendant 
they should be blessed. a It foretold the bondage of Egypt, and 
promised deliverance. b By Jacob, it foretold the future his- 
tory of the patriarchs and of their descendants. 

During the bondage of Egypt the gift was withheld, but was 

renewed at the giving of the law. It then foretold 

To the giv- _ . „ ° ° _ , . , . 

.ng of the the coming oi a second and mightier prophet, 3 the 
future dignity of Judah, e and the destinies of the 

* Gen. xii. 2, 3 ; xv. 13. b Gen. xv. 14. c Gen. 49. 

d Deut. xviii. 15. 6 Num. 23. 



EXTERNAL EVIDENCE — PEOPHECi'. 115 

Hebrew people to the end of tinie: a while the whole of the 
dispensation foreshadowed in types the great doctrines of the 
gospel. 

A pause of four hundred years follows the giving of the 
law ; and a pause of like duration precedes the coming of our 
Lord. 

In the days of Samuel, whose prophetic office is distinctly 
noticed, b it foretold the consequences of the election To the dayg 
of a temporal king, the death of Saul, d the appoint- of Solomon, 
ment and character of David, e the establishment of his king- 
dom/ the birth and character of Solomon ; g and afterwards the 
division of the kingdom, 11 the overthrow of the idol-altar at 
Bethel, 1 and the dispersion of Israel. Contemporaneously we 
find brief sketches of the nature and future . progress of the 
kingdom of Christ. 

The prophecies and miracles of Elijah and Elisha occupy an 
important place in the narrative of the two king- 
doms/ and reach in their evidence, nearly to the days phetiepe- 
of Jonah, with whom the series of Hebrew prophets 
may be said to begin. Amos foretold the destruction of Sa- 
maria, and the final dispersion of the Ten Tribes, k as does 
Isaiah, 1 who also foretells the temporary captivity of Judah by 
Babylon, m a small and friendly state, and the deliverance of 
Hezekiah from Assyria, whose forces then surrounded Jerusa- 
lem. 11 The most prominent circumstances of the captivity 
were all foretold, — the time of its continuance, seventy years, 
the moral reasons for it, p the issues of it, the course of means 



a Dent. iv. ; xxviii. ; xxxiii. b 1 Sam. iii. 20. 

c 1 Sam. viii. 11-18. d 1 Sam. xxviii. 19. 

* 1 Sam. xvi. 13, 14. f 2 Sam. vii. 12-17. 

e 1 Chron. xxii.9; seel Kings iv. 25. h 1 Kings xi. 34, 40. 

» 1 Kings xiii. i 2 Kings 1-12. 

k Amos ix. 9, etc. 1 Isa. vii. 6-8. 

m Isaiah xxxix. 2-6. n Isa. xxxvii. 

Jer. xxix. 10, etc. 

p Ezek.xxiv.: Jere. xxx. 1-20: Isa. xxvii, etc. 



116 



EXTERNAL EVIDENCE — PROPHECY. 



by which it was to terminate.* The names of nations scarcely 
then known, and of a conqueror not yet born, are introduced, 
and the whole prediction has given to it the distinctness of 
history. 

During the whole period, the prophets pre-signify an ap- 
proaching change of the Mosaic covenant, give the future his- 
tory of the chief pagan nations, and complete the announce- 
ment of the Messiah and his work of redemption. 

In the captivity, we have the predictions of Obadiah, of 
Daniel, and (in part) of Ezekiel. After the captivity, the 
prophecies of Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi, cheered the 
builders of the temple, and point yet more earnestly to the 
advent of the gospel. 

Thus it is that prophecy makes its earliest and latest work, 
preparation for Christianity. The office and work of our Lord 
are set forth as the beginning and end of the earlier revelation 
of God. 

' ,. 182. This subordination of prophecy to one great 

All subordi- . . . . 

jjatetoone object deserves closer investigation. 

We know that in fact the religion of the Bible is 
generally acknowledged among two hundred millions of the 
human race ; and that while other systems indicate speedy dis- 
solution, it continues to extend on all sides, and seems destined 
to fill the earth. Little more than eighteen hundred years 
ago it had not one thousand followers. This fact is itself sig- 
nificant, but becomes doubly so when connected with the 
Scripture predictions which have been handed down to us. 

It was distinctly foretold that this mighty change should 
The work of ^ a ^ e P^ ace 5 ^ na ^ ^ should be effected by the seed of 
theMessiah. the woman b (itself an apparently contradictory ex- 
pression) ; that it should be in connection with the people who 
were to spring from Abraham; that though in connection with 

a Isa. xiii. 19 ; xiv. 3 ; xliv. ; xlv. : Jer. xxv. 1 : Ezek. ii. ; xii. ; xxiii., etc. 

h Gen. iii. 15. 
* Gen. xxii, 18. 



EXTERNAL EVIDENCE — PROPHECY. 



117 



them, it would be by means of a new covenant;* that not the 
whole nation, but one out of the nation, was to be author of 
this change ; that he was to be despised and condemned by 
his countrymen, and though put to death, was to establish a 
lasting and extensive kingdom. b 

The ancient books speak with equal clearness of his human 
and Divine nature; of his descent from Isaac, not Ishmael; 
from Jacob, not Esau; from Juclah, not from Reuben* the 
eldest son, or Levi, the father of the priestly tribe ; and from 
David, the youngest of the sons of J esse. 6 They mention the 
time of his coming ; f the place and circumstances of his birth; 8 
his offices as prophet, priest, and king; h the scene of his earliest 
ministry; 1 his miracles/ his sufferings, and his death ; k his 
resurrection and ascension ;* his bestowment of the Holy Spirit ; m 
and the final and general extension of his truth. 11 These are 
but specimens of upwards of one hundred predictions gene- 
rally delivered in clear and explicit language ; all referring to 
the work or person of our Lord, and exclusive of the typical 
and allusive predictions which in their ultimate application 
terminate in him. 

183. These predictions were most of them delivered at least 
six hundred years before he appeared, were many of Complete 
them highly improbable, and even apparently con- g®|| e of r 
tradictory, and are all so remarkable as to imply the dictions as 

£ ■ i • i i at evidence. 

exercise oi miraculous wisdom and power. A loose 
general prediction (of some great conqueror, for example) 
might have been made by guess, but a series of predictions 
containing many minute and seemingly opposite particulars, 

» Jer. xxxi. 31; xxxii. 40: Ezek. xxxvii. 26: Mic. iv. 1. 

b Isa. ix. 6 ; xi. 1 : Ezek. xxxiv. 23. c Isa. ix. 6. 

d Gen. xlix. 10. e 1 Sam. xvi. 11 : Jer. xxiii. 5. 

f Gen. xlix. 10: Dan. ix. 24; vii. : Hag. ii. 6-9. 

s Mic. v. 2: Isa. vii. 14. h Psa. ex.: Zech. vi. 13: Isa. lxi. 1. 

» Isa. ix. 1 : Matt. iv. 14. j Isa. xxxv. 5, 6. 

*Psa. xxii. 16: Isa. liii. 1 Psa. lxviii. 18. 

* Joel ii. 28. »I sa> liii. : i x . 7; Psa. ii. vi.; xxii. 



118 



EXTERNAL EVIDENCE — PROPHECY. 



all fulfilled in the person of our Lord, could have been given 
only by Hiii who worketh all things after the counsel of his 
own will. 

How instructive to notice that while no man is the theme 
The testi- °^ an y ser> i es °f prophetic revelations — not even 
mony of Moses — the Messiah is the theme of all. When He 

Jesus the 

spirit of came he had his sign before him as well as with him. 

prophecy. 

It was in the form and for the purpose which God 
himself had foretold "by the mouth of his holy prophets, who 
have been since the world began," Luke ii. 70. 

184. Nor are the destinies of other nations overlooked. God 
Pagan na- re vealed to Noah the history of his descendants ; Ca- 
tions noticed naarij a servant of servants, as his descendants have 



in connec- 
tion with 
the gospel. 



tionwith i on g been; Japheth enlarged and dwelling in the 



tents of Shem, or Europe master of Asia. To Abra- 
ham he revealed the remote judgment that awaited Egypt and 
the Amorites, and the nearer judgment of Sodom and Gomor- 
rah. Balaam spoke of the Hebrews, of the rise of Christianity, 
and of the visitations which were to fall upon the Amalekites, 
the Kenites, and the Assyrians. Moses foretold the rise of 
the Roman power eight hundred years before its existence. 

Of Ishmael it was foretold three thousand years ago that his 
family should dwell in the presence of their enemies ; that theii 
hands should be against every man, and every man's hand 
against them. And to this day they are unsubdued, though 
Sesostris, and Cyrus, and the Romans, and the Turks have all 
attempted to conquer them. 

In the prophets the overthrow of the Persian power by 
Alexander, 11 of Babylon, of Tyre, b and of Egypt, is sketched 
either before those states had risen into greatness or at the 
time when they were among the mightiest nations. The con- 
quests of the Saracens and of the Turks, d the names of the 
kingdoms which were to escape their power or to fall under it, 



11 Dan. xi. 2, 4. 

c Ezek. xxix. 14, 15. 



»> Ezek. xxviii. 1-20 
d Dan. xi. 40, 41. 



EVIDENCES — PROPHECY — THE TEWS, 



119 



the history of Edoui, a of Moab, b of Amnion, and Pnilistia, d are 
all foretold with such minuteness and peculiarity as proves 
that each must have been present to the vision of the 
prophet. 

These predictions were given amidst the decays of the 
Jewish covenant, and were intended to rebuke the 
pride of the nations, to administer consolation and ° h ^ e et p °^ 
instruction, and, above all, to lead the thoughts of pheeies. 
men to that kingdom which could not be moved. In the 
midst of the captivity Daniel numbered and weighed the king- 
doms of the earth, and pointed to the dominion of the Ancient 
of Days. See Davison, p. 303. 

185. To these facts it may be added that every promise 
realized in this life, every answered prayer, every Fulfilled 
act of honored faith, every spiritual blessing ob- P^jfof 
tained as the result of spiritual obedience, is a prophecy, 
fulfilled prediction ; while the typical persons and events of 
the previous economy still further swell the prophetic evi- 
dence of the faith, till we have at length a series of prophecies 
so full and so clear as to defy all explanation short of the 
inspiration of the Almighty. See on this subject Fleming's 
Fulfilling of Scripture. 

186. To form a more definite idea of these predictions, and 
of the completeness with which they fulfil the requi- T , 

1 . Instances 02 

sites of prophecy as an evidence of a Divine revela- fulfilment, 
tion (see § 180), the reader may compare Psa. xxii. and Isa. 
liii. with the Gospels ; or he may take the predictions of the 
Pentateuch 6 on the history of the Jewish people, which are 
referred to by Nehemiah/ and in part repeated in the books 
of Amos, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel. The Pentateuch has been in 
hostile keeping for more than 2500 years, and all the predic- 
tions were known and quoted by other writers 2000 years ago. 

a Jer. xlix., etc. b Jer. xlviii. 

c Ezek. xxv. 2-10: Zeph. ii. 9, etc. . d Ezek. xxv. 

e Deut. xxviii. 64, 65: Lev. xxvi. 32, 33. 'Neh. i. 8. 



120 



EVIDENCES — PEOPHECY. 



The priority of the prophecy, therefore, to the fulfilment, iS 
in this case undoubted. 

187. When the promise was first given to Abraham he was 
The Jews childless : a and nearly 200 years afterwards, during 
which time the promise was often renewed, the 
family had increased to only seventy souls. b Their preserva- 
tion and greatness was foretold by Balaam and Moses, when 
such a result was highly improbable ; when the whole nation 
was under the Divine displeasure, and nations mightier than 
themselves, and whom they were commanded to exterminate, 
had combined to destroy them. Isaiah foretold the captivity 
in the days of a pious king and a prosperous government. 
Jeremiah's predictions of deliverance were given when utter 
destruction threatened them in Babylon, and when ten of the 
tribes had already disappeared. 4 

After the overthrow of Jerusalem, their land became "trod- 
den down of the Gentiles," 6 and they were driven from their 
country. For nearly 2000 years they have been without dis- 
tinction of tribes, without a prince, without government, or 
temple, or priesthood, or sacrifice ; dispersed, and yet pre- 
served ; scattered, and yet kept from mixture ; and they are a 
proverb and a bye-word still. These are events without a 
parallel, and opposed to all our experience. Man could not 
have foreseen them, as certainly man has not, of his own pur- 
pose, accomplished them. To make the lesson morally com- 
plete, the law remains, and the Jews guard the very prophecies 
which their history fulfils ; so that they have become not only 
"a reproach and a taunt," but an "instruction" unto the na- 
tions that are round about them (Ezek. v. 15). 

188. Their history becomes the more impressive when com- 
The Edom- P are( ^ w ^' n that of the Edomites. Both were des- 
ites. cended from Isaac. The latter rose earlier into 

power, were never scattered by captivities, and when Jeru- 
salem was destroyed, they formed a flourishing community. 

a Gen. xv. 2. * Gen. xlvi. 27. c Numb, xxiii. 9. 

a Jer. xxx. 10, 11 ; xxxiii. 25, 26 ; xlvi. 27, 28. * Luke xxi. 21 



EVIDENCES — PROPHECY — BABYLON. 



121 



Thirty ruined towns, within three days' journey of the Eed Sea, 
attest their former greatness. 

Utter desolation, both of the country and of the family of 
Esau, was foretold, Jer. xlix. 17, 10 : Obad. viii, and utter deso- 
lation is now their condition. 

They were distinguished for wisdom ; now, the wanderers 
in Edom are sunk in the grossest folly, and regard the ruins 
around them as the work of spirits, Obad. viii. 

Edom lies in the directest route to India: but none "shall 
pass through it for ever and ever," and "even the Arabs," 
says Keith, "are afraid to enter it, or conduct any within its 
borders," Isa. xxxiv. 10. The people who visit it are described 
as a most savage and treacherous race, and so the prophet 
foretold, Mai. i. 4. 

Its desolation is said to be perpetual, Jer. xlix. 7-22, and 
travellers state that the whole country is a vast expanse of 
Band, drifted up from the Red Sea. 

What human foresight could have foretold destinies so 
distinct ? 

We may add one or two examples more : — 

189. One hundred and sixty years before Babylon was 
overthrown, Isaiah 'delivered his prophecy. Juclea Baby , on . 
was then a powerful kingdom. Persia, the native prophecies, 
country of Cyrus, was yet in barbarism, and Babylon itself 
was only rising into notice, its existence being scarcely known 
to the Hebrews. 

One hundred years later than Isaiah, Jeremiah prophesied: 
and at that time Babylon was " the glory of kingdoms," " the 
praise of the whole earth." Nebuchadnezzar had enlarged 
and beautified the city, and through all that region his au- 
thority was supreme. 

Isaiah begins these predictions, foretells the overthrow of 
the citv, calls its conqueror Cyrus by name, a intimating that 
this was his surname, and not given him at his birth. b . He 



a Isa. xliv. 28 : xlv. 1. 
11 



b Isa. xlv. 4. 



122 EVIDENCES— PROPHECY — NINEVEH. 



summons people from Elam (Persia,) and Media, a tells how the 
city will be entered, the river dried up, the two-leaved gates 
left open, and the place taken by surprise during a night of 
revelry and drunkenness. 15 Both prophets add, that the place 
is to be for ever uninhabited, a lair of wild beasts, and a place 
of stagnant waters. 

A century after the first of these prophecies was delivered, 
they began to be fulfilled. Nebuchadnezzar conquered Judea, 
' and in two independent historians, Herodotus and Xenophon, 
(the former of whom lived 250 years after Isaiah, and the 
latter 350,) we have historical proof of the minute accuracy 
of all the predictions. Herodotus states that Cyrus assumed 
that name on his accession to the throne, Bk. i. 114. Xeno- 
phon notes the miscellaneous character of his army, but spe- 
cially mentions the Persians and Medes, Cyrop. v. ciii. 38. 
Both writers have left a careful account of the siege, of the 
diversion of the river, of the capture of the city, and of the 
death of the king. 

Strabo says that in his time the city was a vast solitude. 
Lucian affirms, that "Babylon will soon be sought for and not 
found, as is already the case with Nineveh," c. 16. Pausanias 
states that nothing was left but the walls, c. viii. §• 33 ; Jerome, 
that in his time it was a receptacle for beasts ; and modern 
travellers (including Sir R. K. Porter), testify to the universal 
desolation. "It is little better than a swamp, and I could 
not help reflecting (says one,) how faithfully the various 
prophecies have been fulfilled." 

190. A still larger city, and no less signal as a monument 
of Divine power was Nineveh, a place as ancient as 

NlDBVGJl. 

Asshur, the son of Shem, and at one time nearly 
sixty miles round. This city abounded in wealth and pride. 
"I am," said she, "and there is none beside me," Zeph. ii. 
15. Jonah was therefore sent to foretell her ruin ; and though 

a Isa. xxi. 2; xiii. 4, 5: Jer. li. 27, 28. 

b Isa. xliv. 27 ; xlv. 1 : Jer. li. 39, 57 ; 1. 38. 

*Isa. xiii. 20-22; xiy. 23: Jer. li. 37, 38, 



EVIDENCES — MORALITY. 



123 



she repented, yet, within a few years, Nalium was commis- 
sioned to repeat the message ; a hundred years later still, but 
fifty years before the city fell, Zephaniah again foretold its 
overthrow, with the utmost literalness, the account of the 
prophet, when compared with the narrative of the historian 
(Diodorus Siculus), reading more like history than prediction. 
Lucian, who flourished in the second century after Christ, and 
was himself a native of that region, affirms that it had utterly 
perished, and that there was no footstep of it remaining. 
»jiich is "the utter end" of all its greatness. 

191. It is to such facts God appeals. " Who hath declared 
this from ancient times ? Have not I, the Lord ? . . . 
Look unto me, and be ye saved, all the ends of the ey tK™okT 
earth: for I am God, and there is none else," Isa. ippSSf nt 
xlv. 20, 21, 22. 



192. The evidences of Christianity thus far considered, are 
external and direct, and may be divided into the 
miraculous and prophetic. A larger branch of evi- ividsSce, 
dence remains — the moral, the literary, and the " p S u jl? d 
spiritual ; or, to apply one title to all, the internal. 

193. If the Bible is not of God, it must be a cunningly 
devised rable; and the question which internal evi- T . . • 

. , . . Limit of 

dence has to consider is, — which is the more likely jean's jbiii- 
supposition. Though, therefore, it seems at first on internal 
sight, that we are hardly competent to decide what 
a revelation from God should be, yet we are competent to 
decide on this alternative, and to say, whether what is taught 
in Scripture, is what might be looked for from enthusiasts 
or impostors. This is a question on which all can judge, 
though it requires some experience and knowledge of the 
world, as well as an acquaintance with Scripture, rightly to 
appreciate it. 

194. The first peculiarity of Scripture morality is the im- 
portance which is everywhere attached to holiness. L i mport . 
Judging from what we know of systems of human Kfei. 



124 



EVIDENCES — MORALITY. 



origin, a religion from man would either have spent its 
force on ritual observance, or have allowed active service 
on its behalf to make amends for the neglect of other duties. 
Mohammedanism gives the highest place to those who fight 
and fall in conflict. Hindooism rewards most the observance 
of ritual worship. JeAvish tradition taught that all Jews were 
certainly saved. The Scriptures, on the contrary, bring all 
men into the presence of a Being of infinite holiness, before 
whom the most exalted human characters fall condemned; 8 
and they declare plainly, that nothing we can say or do in 
the cause of Christ can make up for the want of practical 
virtue. Those who have preached in the name of Christ are 
to be disowned if they be workers of iniquity, b and the recep- 
tion of the true faith makes Christian holiness only the more 
incumbent. 

195. The kind of moral duty which the Scriptures teach is 
2. Pecu- n °t such as man was likely to discover or to ap- 
morai ° f prove. When our Lord appeared, the Romans were 
precepts proud of their military glory, and the Greeks of 
their superior wisdom. Among the Jews a pLjiisaic spirit 
prevailed, and the whole nation was divided between opposing 
sects, all hating their conquerors, however, and the Gentile 
world at large. An enthusiast would certainly have become 
a partisan, and an impostor would have flattered each sect by 
exposing the faults of the rest, or the nation by condemning 
their conquerors. Our Lord came, on the contrary, as an in- 
dependent teacher, rebuked all error, condemned all the sects, 
and yet did nothing to court the favor of the people. His 
precepts, bidding men to return good for evil, to love their 
enemies, to be humble and forgiving, to consider every race 
and every station as on a level before God, were acceptable to 
none, and were yet repeated and enforced with the utmost 
earnestness and consistency. 

a Job xl. 4 : Isa. vi. 5 . Dan. ix. 4 : 1 Tim. i. 15. 

* Matt. vii. 22, 23 : Luke vi. 46. 

• 1 Cor. v. 11, 12. 



EVIDENCES — MORALITY. 



125 



196. It may indeed be said that men are always ready to 
commend a greater degree of purity than they are Not only 
prepared to practice, and that ancient philosophers human 
wrote treatises describing a much nobler virtue than bofcon?' 
was found among their countrymen. This is true, trary to **• 
and if the J ewish fishermen had studied philosophy, it would 
not have been wonderful if they had taught a higher morality 
than men generally practised. But they were " ignorant men," 
and their precepts go not only beyond what men practiced, 
but beyond what they approved. The gospel is not only bet- 
ter than human conduct, it is often contrary to it. The endu- 
rance of suffering, the forgiveness of injury, and the exercise 
of a submissive spirit, were not only not practiced, they were 
not admired ; and while the gospel teaches these duties, it ex- 
hibits them in combination with a spiritual heroism of which 
the world knows nothing, and which has ever been supposed 
inconsistent with the patient virtues which the Scriptures 
enjoin. 

197. J^d to these facts another (on which Paley has en- 
larged), namely, that Scripture seeks to regulate the g R to 
thoughts and motives of men, and is content with tion ot 

. motives. 

nothing less than a state of heart which refers all 
our actions to God's will ; and it must be felt that the mo- 
rality of the gospel is not of man. Bad men could not have 
taught such truths, and good men would not have deceived 
the people. 

198. But there is yet another peculiarity in the morality 
of Scripture, equally true in itself and striking. Peculi 
Sin is everywhere spoken of as an evil against God, wtfy in re- 

, , . . v . lationto 

and everywhere it is not the instrument or human Godandsin. 
agent who is exalted, but God alone. The first no- 
tion is inconsistent with all heathen philosophy, and the second 
with the natural tendency of the human heart. "This," says 
Cicero, "is the common principle of all philosophers, that the 
Deity is never displeased, nor does he inflict injury on man," 
De Off. in. 28. 
11* 



126 



EVIDENCES— -MORALITY. 



In Scripture, on the contrary, sin is represented as an evil 
and bitter thing, because it is dishonoring to God. Hence the 
destruction of the Amalekites, a of Sennacherib, b and Belshaz- 
zar.° Hence the abandonment of the Gentile world to a re- 
probate mind. d Hence God's controversy with the Jews 6 and 
with Moses/ Hence Eli's 8 punishment and David's. h Hence 
the death of Nadab and Abihu/ of Uzzah j and Herod.* Hence 
also the calamities of Solomon, the division of his kingdom into 
Israel and Judah, and the captivity and destruction of both. 1 

God alone is honored. The great object of all the writers 
seems to be to lead men's thoughts to Him. The false teacher 
gives out that he himself is some great one (Acts viii. 9), but 
in the Bible it is God only who is exalted. This rule is illus- 
trated in 

Moses, Deut. i. 31; ii. 33; hi. 3; iv. 32-38: Exod. xviii. 8. Joshua, 
Josh, xxiii. 3. David, 1 Chron. xxix. 11, 14. Daniel, Dan. ii. 20, 23, 
30. Ezra, Ezra vii. 28. Nehemiah, Neh. ii. 12. Peter and John, Acts 
iii. 12-16. Paul, Acts xxi. 19 : 1 Cor. iii. 5 : 2 Cor. iv. 7. 

Creation is represented in the same way as God immature : m 
the revolutions and progress of kingdoms as God in history. 11 
199. It is in part with the view of strengthening the feel- 
>th ings which these peculiarities produce, that faith is 
made the principle of obedience and success. In 
relation to God, faith is the confession of our weakness, and 
excludes all boasting; and yet, in relation to success, it is 
oinnijiotent — a truth as profoundly philosophical as it is spirit- 
ually important. And yet it is a truth revealed only in the Bible. 

B Exod. xvii. 16, marg. b 2 Kings, xix. 22-37. 

° Dan. v. 23. d Rom. i. 21, 28. 

° Heb. iii. 19. ' Numb. xx. 12. 

e 1 Sam. ii. 29, 30. h 2 Sam. xii. 9 (Ps. Ii. 4). 

i Lev. x. 1-3, 10. i 2 Sam. vi. 7. 

* Acts xii. 23. 

• 1 Kings xi. 3-14: 2 Kings xvii. 14-20: 2 Chron. xxxvi. 16, 17: 
Luke xix. 42-44: Rom. xi. 20. 

,n Psa. civ. 10: Jer. v. 24: Joel ii. 23, 24: Matt. x. 29. 
n Jer. xvii. 7-10 : Dan. iv. 35 : Jer. xxv. 9 ; Isa. xliv. 28. 



EVIDENCES — MORALITY. 



127 



Rom. iii. 27 : Eph. ii. 8, 9 : 1 Cor. i. 29-31 : John xi. 40 : Isa. vii. 9. 

200. The candor and sincerity of the inspired writers are 
not less remarkable than their moral precepts, and ^ ^ 

are quite incompatible with either enthusiasm or sincerity of 

. Scripture. 

imposture. 

They denounce the sins of the people. " Ye have been rebellious 
against the Lord from the day that I knew you," says Moses (Deut. ix. 
24), and all later writers give the same view. Judges ii. 19 : 1 Sam. 
xii. 12: Neh. 9. 

They speak of themselves, and of those whose characters were likely 
to reflect credit upon their cause, with equal plainness. Moses foretold 
that the Jews would break his law, and that he would be superseded 
by a greater prophet. 

Gen. xlix. 10 : Deut. xviii. 15, 18 : Acts vii. 38. 

He records with all fullness the sins of the Patriarchs, Gen. xii. 
11-13; xx., etc. ; of his grandfather Levi, Gen. lxix. 5-7 ; of his brother 
Aaron, and of his elder sons, Exod. xxxii. : Lev. x. : nor less plainly 
his own sins, Numb. xx. 12: xxvii. 12-14: Deut. xxxii. 51. 

In the same spirit the evangelists notice their own faults and the 
faults of the apostles. Matt. xxvi. 31-56: John x. 6; xvi. 32: Matt, 
viii. 10, 26; xv. 16; xvi. 7, 11; xviii. 3; Xx. 20. Mark and Luke 
speak no less plainly, Mark vi. 52 ; viii. 18 ; ix. 32, 34 ; x. 14 ; xiv. 50, 
32, 35-45; xvi. 14: Luke viii. 24, 25; ix. 40-45; xviii. 34; xxii. 24; 
xxiv.ll. With equal truthfulness the Scriptures record the humiliation 
of our Lord, his sufferings and dejection. Matt, xxvii. 46: Heb. v. 7. 

The apostles record without reserve the disorders of the churches 
which they themselves had planted, and even add that their own apos- 
tolic authority had been questioned among them. 1 Cor. i. 11; v. 1; 
2 Cor. ii. 4 ; xi. 5-23 ; xii. 20. 

It is thus that simplicity distinguishes the Bible, and forces 
on the mind the conviction that its authors had no other 
"object in view tlian by manifestation of the truth to com- 
mend themselves to every man's conscience in the sight of 
God." Lowth on the Study of Scripture. 

201. But no analysis can give a just idea of the morality 



128 



EVIDENCES — MORALITY. 



No analysis of the Bible. "It must be compared in the bulk 
gfveajast with other teaching. Men have praised maxims 
excei° ltS °f virtue, or appealed to the moral sentiments of our 
lencies. nature, or sought to promote holiness by systems of 
morals. But all these are defective. The common maxims 
of virtue are mere dictates of prudence, without authority or 
influence. Our moral sentiments are retiring and evanescent, 
easily corrupted by the strong passions in whose neighborhood 
they dwell, and are feeblest when most wanted; and systems* 
of morals, like all processes of reasoning, depend on the per- 
fection of our faculties, and are too much the subject of dis- 
putation to become powerful motives of holy action. All 
these plans, moreover, are defective in not taking into account 
our fall, and the necessity of providing for our recovery. 
Scripture, on the other hand, teaches the Christian to use 
these helps, only subordinating all to its own lessons. It 
begins its work with a recognition of our ruin, and an intelli- 
gent foresight of its own end ; brings the soul into harmony 
with God and with itself, enlightens and educates the con- 
science, quickens and purifies the feelings, subjects instincts 
to reason, reason to l(3ve, and all to God; and provides an 
instrumentality as effective and practical as the truths it 
reveals and on which it rests are unearthly and sublime. 

202. Among the most decisive moral proofs of the Divine 
_ . origin of Scripture is the character of Christ. It; 

The charac- O I 

ter of cinist. { s a proof, however, rather to be felt than to be 
described, and its force will be in proportion to the tone of 
moral sentiment in the reader. Holy and purer minds will 
feel it more than others, and such as are like Nathanael, the 
" Israelite indeed, in whom is no guile," will exclaim with 
him, " Kabbi, thou art the Son of God; thou art the King of 
Israel." 

Three things are obvious in the history of our Lord. (1.) 
The whole narrative is free from panegyric. (2.) The char- 
acter is wholly unstudied : the story being written by unprac- 



EVIDENCES — CHARACTER. 



129 



tised authors, without learning or eloquence ; and, moreover, 
(3.) the moral character of Christ is unimpeached even by the 
opponents of the gospel. His apostles appeal to all men's 
testimony to his morality, as a fact admitted and notorious. 
His own moral teaching was an appeal of the same kind, for 
had he been guilty of the practices he condemns, his hearers 
would have been sure to detect and reproach his inconsis- 
tency. 

That his holiness was admitted generally will appear from the fol- 
lowing passages: John vii. 46-51; viii. 46; x. 32: Matt. xxvi. 59; 
xxvii. 23, 24 : Luke xxiii. 13-15 : Acts iii. 13-14 : 1 Pet. ii. 21-23. His 
benevolence and compassion are shown in John iv. : Luke ix. 55 ; x. 
30-37 : Mark vii. 26, etc. ; x. 13-21 ; xlv. 52 : Luke xiii. 16 ; xiv. 12 ; 
xxii. 50, 51 : Matt. ix. 36, etc. ; xviii. 11, etc. His kindness and affec- 
tion in Matt. xiv. 27-31 : Luke xix. 5 ; xxii. 61 : John xi. : xix. 25-27. 
His meekness and humility in Matt. ix. 28; xviii. 22, etc; v. 1-12: 
Luke xxii. 24 : John xiii. 4. His moral courage, firmness and resigna- 
tion in Matt. xxvi. 39-46 : Mark x. 32 : Luke iv. 23, etc. ; xiii. 31, 
etc. ; xviii. 29, etc. : John xi. 7 ; xviii. 4, etc. His sincerity and abhor- 
rence of hypocrisy and courting popularity in Matt. vi. 1-18 ; x. 16-39; 

xxii. 18, etc. : Mark xii. 38-40 : Luke xi. 44, etc. : John xvi. 1-6. His 
moderation and the absence of enthusiastic austerity, Matt. viii. 19 ; 

xxiii. 23 : Luke v. 29-35 : John ii. 1, etc. : Mark xii. 17. 

" The character of Christ (says an eminent writer), is a 
wonderful proof of the Divinity of the Bible. The 0rigina | ity 
Hindoo cannot think of his Brahmin saint, other and beauty 

' ol his char- 

than as possessing the abstemiousness and austerity acter - 
which he admires in his living models. The Socrates of Plato 
is composed of elements practically Greek, being a compound 
of the virtues deemed necessary to adorn the sage. A model 
of the Jewish teacher might be easily drawn from the writings 
of the Rabbis, and he would prove to be the very reflection 
of those Scribes and Pharisees who are reproved in the Gospel. 
But in the life of our Redeemer, a character is represented 
which departs in every way from the national type of the 
writers, and from the character of all ancient nations, and is 
at variance with all the features which custom, education, 



130 



EVIDENCES — EFFECTS OF GOSPEL. 



religion and patriotism, seem to have consecrated as most 
beautiful. Four different authors have recorded different 
facts, but they exhibit the same conception, a conception dif- 
fering from all the}'' had ever witnessed or heard, and neces- 
sarily copied from the same original. And more, this glorious 
character, while borrowing nothing from the Greek, or Indian, 
or Jew ; having nothing in common with established laws of per- 
fection, is yet to every believer a type of excellence. He is 
followed by the Greek, though a founder of none of his sects ; 
revered by the Brahmin, though preached by one of the fisher- 
man caste ; and worshipped by the red man of Canada, though 
belonging to the hated pale-race." 

203. One point more remains on the morality of Scripture; 
The influ- ^e e ^ ec ^ 0I> its religion on the character of men 
Scripture Apart from particular facts in support of this 
onindirid- truth, it is generally admitted that the doctrines 
society. f the Bible agree with its precepts, and that they 
contain in their very substance, Urgent motives to holiness. 
It is on this principle that Fuller proceeds in his Gospel its 
own Witness, and Erskine in his Treatise on the Internal 
Evidences. See also 1 Peter ii. 12. 

We confine ourselves, however, to a few facts in illustration 
of the general truth. The effects of the gospel in the first 
age are well known, and are incidentally told us in the Epis- 
tles. Paul has pointed out to us what occurred at Corinth 
and Ephesus, a and Peter, the effects which were produced in 
Pontus and Galatia. b In a dissolute age, and under the worst 
governments, Christians (who had been no better than their 
neighbors), reached an eminence in virtue which has never, 
perhaps, been surpassed. 

Similar appeals may be found in the writings of the early 
apologists. Clement of Rome (A. D. 100), in his Epistle to 
the Corinthians, commends their virtues. " Who," says he, 
"did ever live among you, that did not admire your sober and 



a 1 Cor. vi. 11 : Eph. iy. 19 ; ii. 1. 



b 1 Pet. iv. 3. 



EVIDENCES — EFFECTS OF GOSPEL. 



131 



moderate piety, and declare the greatness of your hospitality. 
You are humble and not proud, content with the daily bread 
which God supplies, hearing diligently his word, and enlarged 
in charity." Justin Martyr (A. D. 165), who had been a pla- 
tonic philosopher, says in his Apology, "We who formerly 
delighted in adultery, now observe the strictest chastity ;• we 
who used the charms of magic, have devoted ourselves to the 
true God; and we who valued money and gain above all 
things, now cast what we have in common, and distribute to 
every man according to his necessities." "You (says Minu- 
cius Felix to a heathen opponent), punish wickedness when it 
is committed; we think it sinful to indulge a sinful thought. 
It is with your party that the prisons are crowded, but not a 
single Christian is there, except it be as a confessor or apos- 
tate." Tertullian, the first Latin ecclesiastical writer whose 
works have come clown to us, (A. D. 220), makes a similar 
appeal, and speaks of great multitudes of the Eoman empire 
as the subjects of this change. Origen in his reply to Celsus 
(A. D. 246), Lactantius, the preceptor of Constantine (A. D. 
325), repeat these appeals: and even the Emperor Julian 
holds up Christians to the imitation of Pagans, on account of 
their love to strangers and to enemies, and on account of the 
sanctity of their lives. 

This influence of the gospel was early seen among ancient 

nations. In Greece, the grossest impurities had 

' D 1 In society- 

been encouraged by Lycurgus and Solon. At generally. 

Rome they were openly practiced and approved. Among 
nearly all ancient nations self-murder was commended. Sen- 
eca and Plutarch, the elder Pliny and Quinctilian, applaud 
it, and Gibbon admits that heathenism presented no reason 
against it. Human sacrifice, and the exposure of children 
were allowed, and even enforced. But wherever the gospel 
came, it condemned these practices, discouraged and finally 
destroyed them. That it was not civilization that suppressed 
them is certain, for they were kept up by nations far superior 
to the Christians in refinement, and the suppression of them 



132 



EVIDENCES — INTERNAL AND LITERARY. 



was always found to keep pace, not with, the progress of hu- 
man enlightenment, but of Divine truth. 

The relief of distress and the care of the poor are almost 
peculiar to Christian nations. In Constantinople there was 
not, before Christianity was introduced, a single charitable 
building : nor was there ever such a building in ancient Rome. 
After the introduction of Christianity, however, the former 
city had more than thirty buildings for the reception of or- 
phans, of the sick, of strangers, of the aged, and of the poor. 
In Rome there were twenty-five large houses set apart for the 
same purpose. With equal certainty it can be established that 
the gospel has abolished polygamy, mitigated the horrors of 
war, redeemed captives, freed slaves, checked the spirit of feu- 
dal oppression, and improved the laws of barbarous nations. 
"Truth and candor," says Gibbon, "must acknowledge that 
the conversion of these nations imparted many temporal bene- 
fits both to the Old and New World, prevented the total 
extinction of letters, mitigated the fierceness of the times, 
sheltered the poor and defenceless, and preserved or revived 
the peace and order of civil society."* 

As therefore the providence of God is seen in the preser- 
vation of the Bible, so also is his grace in its effects : and those 
effects bear strong testimony to its Divine origin, 1 Thess. i. 
4-10: Gal. 5-22. 

204. No work gives a better view of man's need of the 
Lei nd gospel than Lelancl's, On the Advantage and Neces- 
sity of a Christian Revelation, shown from the state 
of religion in the ancient heathen world, with respect to the 
knowledge and worship of the one true God, a rule of moral 
duty, and the state of future rewards and punishments. He 
shows clearly that the representations of Scripture on the state 
of the Gentiles are literally true, and that idolatry gathered 
strength among the nations as they grew in refinement ; that 
the ancient philosophers were profoundly wrong in the first 

a Gibbon's History, chap. 55. For a large collection of similar facts, 
Bee Ryan's Effects of Religion, i. g 3, and App. 



EVIDENCES INTERNAL AND LITEEAEY. 



133 



principles of morality; that the best systems were lamentably 
defective, and that all rules wanted clearness and authority ; 
that as to a future life, most denied it, and that of those who 
professed to believe, none placed it on grounds' satisfactory or 
rational. 

205. On that part of the Scriptural evidence which is called 
the harmony of revealed truth, it is not possible to 

Litersxv 

enlarge: and the subject has been fully discussed evidence. 

_ . . Harmonies. 

by various writers. 

On the agreement between the two Economies, the works of 
Dr. Kidder, and of Dr. W. L. Alexander, will be found highly 
interesting. 

On the agreement between the doctrines and peculiarities 
of Scripture, and the facts of Nature, the Analogy of Bishop 
Butler is unrivalled. 

On the coincidences between sacred and general history, 
the works of Bryant, Lardner, Gray, Prideaux, Shuckford, 
and Kussell may be consulted with satisfaction. 

On coincidences of a minute and statistical character, with 
the geography and natural history of Palestine, ample mate- 
rials may be found in the works of Harmer, Clarke, and 
Keith" 

On coincidences between various parts of the record itself, 
much information may be obtained in the works of Graves, 
Blunt, Paley, and Birks. a 

These coincidences are literally innumerable, and are inter- 
woven with the whole texture of Scripture. Some are ap- 
parently trifling, as when it is said that our Lord went down 
from Nazareth to Capernaum; and Dr. Clarke points out the 
graphic consistency of the phrase with the geography of that 
region. Others are deeply affecting, as when it is said that 
blood and water issued from the side of Jesus ; and medical 
authorities affirm that if the heart is pierced or broken, blood 

a See edition of Paley's Evidences, with Notes, by Birks; also 
Prey's Horse Paulinas, with florae Apostolicee, by Birks, published by 
Keligious Tract Society. 
12 



134 INCIDENTS — INTERNAL AND LITERARY. 

and water flow from the wound. Some are critical, as when 
it is remarked that at no time after the destruction of Jeru- 
salem could any known writers have written in the style of 
the books of the Bible : and that at no one time could these 
various books have been written. They are demonstrably 
the work of different authors, and of different ages. Some 
are historical, as when it is noticed that after the time of the 
apostles all writers applied the name Christian to designate 
the followers of Christ, a name never applied in the New 
Testament by Christians to designate one another: the very 
terms which the apostles employ indicating that the new reli- 
gion was the completion of the old — "chosen" and "faithful." 
Some are religious, founded, that is, on the peculiarities of the 
religious system revealed ; as when it is stated that the religion 
of the New Testament is the only one in which is omitted the 
one ordinance which would have been natural and acceptable 
to both Jews and Pagans, namely, the offering of animals in 
sacrifice : an instructive omission. 

The effect of the whole is highly impressive, and is of itself 
a sufficient proof of the substantial credibility of the narrative, 
and of the honesty of the authors. 

Some idea of Paley's Horse Paulinas may be gathered from 
ofScripture an examination of the following passages, it being 
with itself: p rem i se( i that the books quoted were written either 
by different authors, or at different times, and with altogether 
different purposes. 



Rom. xv. 25, 26. 

Rom. xvi. 21-24. 
Rom. i. 13; xv. 23, 24. 
1 Cor. iv. 17-19. 
1 Cor. xvi. 10; 11. 
1 Cor. i. 12; iii. 6. 
1 Cor. ix. 20. 
1 Cor. i. 14-17. 



Acts xx. 2, 3; xxi. 17; xxiv. 17-19 

1 Cor. xvi. 1-4 : 2 Cor. via. 1-4 ; ix. 2, 
Acts xx. 4. 
Acts xix. 21. 
Acts xix. 21, 22. 
Acts xix. 21 : 1 Tim. iv. 12. 
Acts xviii. 27, 28 ; xix. 1. 
Acts xvi. 3 ; xxi. 23, 26. 
Acts xviii. 8: Rom. xvi. 23: ] Cor. xvi. 15. 



A single instance may be yet more impressive. Barnabas 



EVIDENCES — SPIRITUAL. 



135 



(we are told) was a native of Cyprus, who sold his 
property, and laid the money at the apostles feet 
(Acts iv. 36, 37). We are told, also, quite incidentally, that 
Mark was his nephew (Col. iv. 10). Compare these facts 
with the following passages (where it is stated that John 
Mark went as far as Cyprus, his native country, and soon re- 
joined his mother at Jerusalem, greatly to the dissatisfaction 
of Paul), and how remarkable the consistency of the whole : 
1 Cor. ix. 6, 7: Acts xi. 20, 22; xiii. 4; xv. 37, 39; and xiii. 
13. The harmony pervading everything connected with Bar- 
nabas (says Mr. Blunt) is of itself enough to stamp the Book 
of Acts as a history of perfect fidelity. 

See Birks* Horse Apostolicss, published by the Keligious Tract So- 
ciety, London. 

Compare in the same way the abrupt termination of the 
history in Acts viii. 40 with Acts xxi. 8, 9. 

206. But in addition to the moral evidence of Scripture, 
evidence suggested by the morality of the New Spiritual 
Testament, the character of our Lord, the candor 

and sincerity and self-denial of the first Christians, and the 
moral beauty of Christian principles, as illustrated ii^ the 
lives of consistent believers, there is evidence directly spiri- 
tual. This evidence is partly appreciated by the intellect, but 
still more by the heart and conscience. So far as it treats of 
man as the gospel finds him, it appeals equally to all ; so far 
as it treats of man as the gospel forms him, it appeals only 
to the believer. To the first part of this evidence the apostle 
refers in 1 Cor. xiv. 23-25; and to the second in Bom. viii. 
16 : 1 John v. 20. 

207. This evidence consists, in part, in the agreement be- 
tween what the awakened sinner feels himself, and 

what the Bible declares him to be. The gospel Scripture, ' 
proclaims the universal corruption of human na- pcrienc^of 
ture. It speaks not only of acts of transgression, the Bmner ' 
but of a deep and inveterate habit of ungodliness in the soul, 



136 



EVIDENCES — SPIRITUAL. 



and of the necessity of a complete renewal. If this descrip- 
tion were felt to be untrue, if man were conscious of delight 
in submitting his will to God's will, and in obeying com- 
mands which rebuke his selfishness and pride, he might at 
once discredit the truth of the gospel. But when he finds 
that the description answers to his own state, and that every 
attempt at closer examination only discovers to him the com- 
pleteness of this agreement, he has in himself an evidence 
that this message is true. 

208. The second stage of the evidence is reached when a 
Scripture man ^ nc ^ s that the provisions of the gospel are 
our^ant? adapted to his state. He is guilty, and needs par- 
don. He is corrupt, and needs holiness. He is 

surrounded by temptation, and needs strength. He is living 
in a world of vexation and change, and he needs some more 
satisfying portion than it can supply. He is dying, and he 
shrinks from death, and longs for a clear revelation of an- 
other life. And the gospel meets all these wants. It is a 
message of pardon to the guilty, of holiness to the aspiring, 
of peace to the tried, and of life to them that sit in the 
shadow of death. 

209. And whilst there is perfect adaptation to human 
„ , want, no less striking; is the agreement between the 

Harmony of ' & fc> 

Scripture^ description given in the gospel of its results, and 
perience of the Christian's experience. The effects of the be- 

the Chris- x . 

tian. lief of the truth are repeatedly portrayed in Scrip- 

ture. Each promise is a prediction, receiving daily fulfil- 
ment. Penitence and its fruits, the obedience of faith and 
the increasing light and peace which it supplies, the power of 
prayer, the influence of Christian truth on the intellect, and 
the heart, and the character, the struggles, and victories, and 
defeats even of the new life, all are described, and constitute 
an evidence in the highest degree experimental; an evidence 
which grows with our growth, and multiplies with every step 
of our progress in the knowledge and love of the truth. Such 
insight into our moral being, and such knowledge of the 



EVIDENCES — EXPERIMENTAL. 



137 



changes which religious truth is adapted to produce, could 
never emanate from human wisdom, and they prove that 
God himself is the author of the book in which such quali- 
ties are disclosed. 

210. We repeat the caution, however, that this evidence is 
chiefly of value for the confirmation of the faith of 

J % . Useful for 

a Christian, because none else will appreciate or confirma- 

, . _ ■ n ■ LX . tionoffa'th. 

understand it. To such, however, this evidence is 
so strong as often to supersede every other. To the Chris- 
tian, the old controversy between Christianity and infidelity 
has but little interest ; he already feels the truth which evi- 
dences seek only to prove ; it seems needless to discuss the 
reality of what he already enjoys; he has the "witness in 
himself." 

211. It may be added, too, that the evidence depends not 
so much on Christianity, as adapted to our wants, Christianity 
as on Christianity adapted to promote our holi- mote°our°" 
ness. When Christ appeared, the Jews felt their holiGess - 
want of an earthly deliverer. A Messiah who should make 
the Gentiles fellow heirs, they did not want at all. The 
system of Mohammed, again, is adapted with great skill to 
the desires of a sensual, gross-minded, and ambitious people. 
The Hindoos adhere to a religion that is without evidence, 
because they find it suited to their tastes. All these cases, 
however, are very different from the case of Christianity ; it 
came to us not conformed to our natural inclinations, but 
seeking to conform them to itself ; and when this process 
is begun, then only is its adaptation revealed. Heathen na- 
tions sought a religion conformed to their own corrupt pro- 
pensities : and, on finding such a religion, they embraced and 
believed it. Pagan systems are adapted to man as he is, 
and as he desires to be, while yet in love with sin ; the 
gospel is adapted to man as he is and ought to be. Paganism 
is the adaptation of a corrupt system to a corrupt nature; the 
gospel is the adaptation of a life-giving system to a nature 
that needs to be renewed. The first seeks to conform its 

12* 



138 



EVIDENCES — SUMMARY. 



teaching to our tastes ; the second to conform our tastes to its 
teaching. And it is while this latter conformation is proceed- 
ing that the believer has the evidence of the truth. When he 
believes, he has the hope of faith; then comes the hope of 
experience — experience founded on the sanctifying influence 
of the love of God, Eom. v. 2-5. 

To the physician who is intrusted with the cure of some 
Analogous mortal disease two courses are open. He may treat 
the symptoms, or he may treat the disease itself. If 
in fever he is anxious only to quench the thirst of his patient, 
or in apoplexy to excite the system, his treatment may be said 
to be adapted to the wants of the sufferer ; but it is not likely 
to restore him. A sounder system treats the disease ; and that 
medicine is the true specific which is adapted ultimately to 
remove it. The evidence of the virtue of such a specific is, 
not its palatableness, nor its power of exhilaration, but the 
steady continued improvement of the health of the patient; 
an evidence founded on experience, and strongly confirming 
the proofs which had originally induced him to make the 
trial. 

And so of the gospel. It may exhilarate, and it may please 
the taste ; but the evidence of its truth and of its being truly 
received is its tendency to promote our holiness. 

212. What, then, is the reason of our hope ? is a question 
Summary wn i° a every inquirer may ask and answer. All 
evidence the answers of which the question admits, no one 

intelligible 1 ' 

t° ail. can be expected to give, for a full investigation of 
Christian evidences would occupy a life-time ; but it is easy 
to give such an answer as shall justify our faith. Christianity 
and the Christian books exist, and have existed for the last 
eighteen hundred years. Christian and profane writers agree 
in this admission. The great Founder of our faith professedly 
wrought miracles in confirmation of his message, and gave the 
same power to his apostles. They all underwent severe suffer- 
ing, and most of them died in testimony of their belief of the 
truths and facts they delivered. These facts, and the truths 



EVIDENCES. 



139 



founded on them, the apostles and first Christians embraced 
in spite of the opposing influences of the religious systems in 
which they had been trained. The character and history of 
the 'Founder of the Faith were foretold many hundreds of 
years before in the Jewish Scriptures. He taught the purest 
morality. He himself gave many predictions, and these pre- 
dictions were fulfilled. His doctrines changed the character 
of those who received them, softened and civilized ancient na- 
tions, and have been everywhere among the mightiest influen- 
ces in the history of the human race. They claim to be from 
God, support their claim by innumerable evidences, and we 
must either admit them to be from God, or ascribe them to a 
spirit of most miraculous and benevolent imposition. Add to 
all this, that he who receives them has in himself additional 
evidence of their origin and holiness, and can say from expe- 
rience, "I know that the Son of God is come, and hath given 
us an understanding, that we may know Him that is true. 
"We are in him, even in his Son Jesus Christ. This is the true 
God and eternal life," 1 John v. 20. 

These facts are not abstruse, but accessible to all, and in- 
telligible to the feeblest. For the candid inquirer, any one 
department of this evidence will often prove sufficient : no 
other religious system being founded on miracles and pro- 
phecy, or exhibiting such holiness and love. The whole evi- 
dence combined is overwhelmingly conclusive. 

213. And yet there is, in relation to these evidences, much 
unbelief both among inquirers and professed Chris- Evidence 
tians. Among inquirers there is unbelief, for want eSIs^Vin. 
of candor and teachableness : a fact which is itself doubt - 
an evidence of the truth of Scripture, and in har- ^ e d £f" 
mony with the general dealings of God. In common in< i uirer - 
life, levity, or prejudice, or carelessness will often lead men 
astray, and even make them incapable of ascertaining what is 
really wise and true. And Scripture has expressly declared 
that those who will not love truth shall not understand it. So 
deeply die 1 Grotius feel this consideration, that he regarded. 



140 



EVIDENCES. 



the evidence of Christianity as itself an evidence of bhe Divine 
origin of the gospel, being divinely adapted to test men's cha- 
racter and hearts. 

De Verit, ii. § 19. See, also, Dan. xii. 10: Isa. xxix. 13, 14: Matt, 
vi. 23; xi. 25; xiii. 11, 12: John hi. 19: 1 Cor. ii. 14: 2 Cor. iv. 4: 
2 Tim. iii. 13. 

Among professed Christians, too, there is want of confidence 

. . ,. in the fullness of the Christian evidence, and con- 
Ana the ' 

^hiSfau sequent want of inquiry. Baxter has acknowledged 
that while in his younger days he was exercised 
chiefly about his own sincerity, in later life he was tried with 
doubts about the truth of Scripture. Further inquiry, how- 
ever, removed them. The evidence which he found most con- 
clusive was the internal ; such as sprang from the witness of 
the Spirit of God with his own. "The spirit of prophecy," 
says he, "was the first witness; the spirit of miraculous power 
the second: and now," he adds, "we have the spirit 
of renovation and holiness. " " Let Christians, there- 
fore," he concludes, "tell their doubts, and investigate the 
evidence of Divine truth, for there is ample provision for the 
removal of them all." 

Most of the doubts which good men feel may be thus dis- 
pelled. Others, chiefly speculative, may in some cases remain, 
and are not to be dispelled by the best proofs. Even for 
these, however, there is a cure. Philosophy cannot solve 
them; but prayer and' healthy exercise in departments of 
Christian life to which doubting does not extend can; or, 
failing to solve them, these remedies will teach us to think 
less of their importance, and to wait patiently for stronger 
light. Ours is a complex nature, and the morbid excitability 
of one part of our frame may often be cured by the increased 
activity of another. An irritable faith is a symptom of .defi- 
cient action elsewhere, and is best cured by a more constant 
attention to practical duty. Difficulties which no inquiry can 
remove will often melt away amidst the warmth and vigor 
produced by active life. 



THE BIBLE A REVELATION FROM GOD. 



141 



CHAPTER III. 

PECULIARITIES OF THE BIBLE AS A REVELATION FROM GOD. 

"A man's love of Scripture at the beginning of a religious course, ia 
such as makes the praise, which older Christians give to the Bible, seem 
exaggerated : but after twenty or thirty years of a religious life, such 
praise always sounds inadequate. Its glories seem so much more full 
than they seemed at first." — De. Aenold. 

" To seek Divinity in Philosophy is to seek the living among tho 
dead : so to seek Philosophy in Divinity is to seek the dead among the 
living." — Bacon, Advancement of Learning. 
' " The Old and New Testaments contain but one scheme of religion. 

Neither part can be understood without the other They are like 

the rolls on which they were anciently written It is but one 

subject from beginning to end; but the view which we obtain of it 
grows clearer and clearer as we unwind the roll that contains it." — 
Cecil. 

Sec. 1. — A Revelation of God, and of Human Nature. 

214. There are various aspects in which Scripture may be 
regarded. The most important is that which represents it as 
a revelation of God and man : of God in relation to man, of 
man in relation to God : and of both in relation to the work 
and office of our Lord. 

215. Scripture is a revelation of God, of his character and 
will. That will is indeed written on the works of Scripture a 
his hands, and more clearly on the constitution of oFSo'dTnd 
man : but in the Bible alone is the transcript com- of man - 
plete, and there alone is it preserved from decay. 

216. Or with equal accuracy, the whole may be described 
as the exhibition of human nature, in individuals and in na- 
tions under every form of development; holy, tempted, fallen, 
degenerate, redeemed, believing, rejecting the faith, struggling, 
victorious, and complete. The Bible begins with man in the 
garden of Eden, his Maker as his friend ; and after a wondrous 



112 THE BIBLE A REVELATION OF EELIGIOUS TRUTH. 



history, it exhibits hi m again in the same fellowship, though 
no longer on earth, or in paradise, but in heaven: the whole 
of his forfeited blessedness won back by the incarnation and 
suffering of the Son of God 

217. More generally still, the Bible may be described as 
A store- the great storehouse of facts and duties, and of all 
sphimaf spiritual truth. It gives authentic information on 
tru h ' the history of the world, from the remotest times 
on which all human writings are silent, or filled with fables ; 
the occasion and immediate consequences of the first sin ; the 
origin of nations, and of diversity of language. We thus traoo 
the progress, and mark the uniformity of those principles on 
which men have been governed from the beginning, all bearing 
their testimony to the wisdom and holiness of God, and the 
mercy of the Divine administration. We trace the progress 
and development of human nature, and of the plan of redemp- 
tion : the first, shown in every possible diversity of position, 
and the second, influencing all the Divine procedure, perfected 
in Christ, and exhibited in the gospel. In a word, we find 
all the great questions (whether of fact or duty), which have 
occupied the attention of the wisest men, settled by authority 
and on principles which neither need nor admit of appeal. 
We have given to us the decisions of the infinitely wise God 
as the ground of our opinions and practices, and his promise 
as the foundation of our hope. 

21S. In no part of the Bible, therefore, are these quest: :n? 
inappropriate : — 

Appropriate _££ r . 

questions m \\ hat does it teach concerning man ( or concern- 
ing God ? or concerning the grand scheme of redemp- 
tion? or concerning the restoration of human nature to its 

primeval dignity and blessedness ? 

Sec. 2. — The Bible a Revelation of Spiritual ■•* 
Religious ir.triH. 



219. If this view of the subject of the Ehoie be kept in 



THE BIBLE A EEVELATION OF RELIGIOUS TRUTH. 143 



mind, — God in relation to man, and man in relation Q . , 

' ' Scripture a 

to God, and God and man in relation to the work revelation 

' _ of spiritual 

and office of our Lord, — one peculiarity of Scripture truth, on 

x . God, man, 

(as to its fulness and brevity), will be explained. andsaiva- 

It gives the history of the world, as "God's 
world," and as destined to become the kingdom of his Son. 
It tells us of its origin, that we may know by what God has 
done, the reverence due to him : what is his power whose law 
this book has revealed : whose creatures we are, that we may 
distinguish him from the idols of the heathen, who are either 
imaginary beings, or parts of his creation. 

All the subsequent narrative of the Bible, seems written on 
the same principle. It is an inspired history of religion (of 
man in relation to God), and of other things, as it is affected 
by them. Idolatrous nations are introduced, not as independ- 
ently important, but as influencing the church, or as influenced 
by it : and thus narrative and prophecy continue from the 
first transgression, through the whole interval of man's misery 
and guilt, to a period, spoken of in a great diversity of expres- 
sions and under both economies, when the "God of heaven 
shall set up a kingdom that shall neA r er be destroyed." 

That these historical disclosures supply ample materials for 
inquiry, and (had the narrative been false), for refutation, and 
that, as they have never been refuted, their antiquity and 
extent are strong presumptive evidence of the truth of Scrip- 
ture is obvious : a but it is the principle of selection, and the 
clear scope of the whole which are now noticed. To convey 
religious truth is clearly the author's design. Whatever is 
revealed must be studied with this fact in view, and whatever 
is withheld may be regarded as not essential to the accomplish- 
ment of this purpose. 

220. Lvit it be remembered, too, that it is God as holy in 

relation to a man as a sinner, and God and man in a revela- 
tion of ( 
as holy. 



relation to Christ as the Redeemer, who form the tionofGod ' 



a See these remarks illustrated in Bishop Butler's Analogy, 2d Part. 



144 THE BIBLE A REVELATION OF RELIGIOUS TRUTH. 



great theme of Scripture ; and that what is told us has refer- 
ence to the relation of such Beings. 

o 

Take, for example, the history of the first sin. The object of the 
narrative of the fall is clearly moral. It shows the progress of temp- 
tation, and directs our thoughts to the Saviour. We mark the convic- 
tion of duty, the contemplation of the pleasure which sin may produce, 
the consequent obtuseness of conscience, and the hope that desire may 
be indulged and yet punishment be averted; desire becoming intenser, 
passion stronger, conscience feebler, till at length the will consents and 
the act is done. Such is all transgression. The moral lesson of the fall 
is thus complete, though much is concealed. 

Subsequent portions of Scripture are written on this same principle. 
In the history of Cain, and in the rapid progress of wickedness, we 
notice the consequences of sin, and from the Deluge learn how deeply 
man had fallen. And yet each expression of God's displeasure is so 
tempered with mercy, as to prepare us for the double truth, that God 
had provided a Redeemer to restore us to Divine favor, and a Sanctifier 
to renew us to holiness, and that man needed them both. Hence it is, 
that amidst all this wickedness, facts are recorded which hold out the 
prospect of recovery, and even foreshadow the means of securing it. 
In Abel and Seth, and Enoch and Noah, we find faith in the Divine 
promise, and consequent holiness. They " called upon the name of the 
Lord." They "offered a more excellent sacrifice" than their ungodly 
neighbors, expressive at once of their obligation and their guilt; they 
" walked with God." 

As the world was repeopled, human sinfulness is seen in other forma. 
Men are scattered over the earth, and ultimately the plan of the Divine 
procedure is changed. A particular family is made the depository of the 
Divine will, and its history is given. Of that family, the son of the promise 
is chosen ; and of his sons, not the elder and favorite, but the younger. 
The history of his descendants is then given with a double reference, 
first to their own faith and obedience, and then to the coming of the 
Messiah. There is both an ultimate and an immediate purpose, and 
both are moral. The institutes of this people illustrate the doctrines 
of the cross, and we have, moreover, the record of their sins, for our 
warning, and of their repentance, for our imitation and encouragement. 

Concerning all these narratives, much might have been told 
ah written us, which is withheld. Difficulties might have been 
cipie. 1& Prm " solved ; important physical, or historical, or ethical 



THE BIBLE A REVELATION OF RELIGIOUS TEETH. 145 



questions might have been answered. But we have to seek 
the solution of these questions elsewhere. 

Of Assyria, for example, we read in a single passage of the book of 
Genesis (Gen. x. 11, 12), but not again for 1500 years, till the time of 
Menahem (2 Kings xv. 19) ; and of Egypt we have no mention, between 
the days of Moses and those of Solomon. The early history of both 
nations is exceedingly obscure, perhaps impenetrably so. But the 
knowledge is essential neither to our salvation nor to the history of the 
church, and it is not revealed. 

2 

In the prophetic Scriptures this peculiarity is equally obvi- 
ous. They are all either intensely moral, or evan- soofpro- 
gelical, or both. It might have been otherwise, phecy. 
without injury to prophecy as an outward evidence of Scrip- 
ture. The gifts of prediction and of moral teaching, might 
have been disj oined :■ but in fact they are not. What might 
have ministered to the gratification of natural curiosity only, 
is enlisted on the side of practical holiness. The prophet is 
the teacher, and the history of the future (which prophecy is), 
becomes like the history of the past, the handmaid of evan- 
gelical truth and of spiritual improvement. 

So is it in all that is revealed in relation to Christ. We read 

of the dignity of his person, but it is with a constant 

6 i i • •» -vo i So of Christ 

reference to "us men, and to our salvation. If he 

is set forth as the Light of the world, it is to guide us into the 

way of peace ; if, as the Lamb of God, it is that he may redeem 

us by his blood ; if, as entering into heaven, it is as our pro- ^ 

pitiation and intercessor. We call him justly the "Son of 

God:'' he loved to call himself as his apostles never called him, 

and with a peculiar reference to his sympathy and work, the 

"Son of man." 

Scripture, then, is the revelation of religious truth, and of 
truth adapted to our nature as fallen and guilty. We use it 
rightly, therefore, only as it ministers to our holiness and con- 
solation. It might have revealed other truth, or the truth it 
does reveal may be regarded by us only as sublime and glo- 
rious. But this is not God's purpose. He has given it for our 



146 THE BIBLE A REVELATION OF RELIGIOUS TRUTH. 



instruction, our conviction, our rectification (or correction), and 
our establishment in righteousness. All knowledge may be 
useful, but this knowledge is necessary. "Let it not go, keep 
it, for it is thy life," Prov. iv. 13. 

221. Two practical rules are suggested by these remarks. 
First. We must not expect to learn anything from Scripture, 
except what it is, in a religious point of view, important for ua 
to know. Some seek "the dead among the living," (as Lord 
'Bacon phrased it), and look into the Bible for natural philoso- 
phy and human science; others inquire in it for the "secret 
things" which "belong only to God ;" and both are rebuked by 
the very character and design of the Bible. It is the record 
of necessary and saving truth, or of truth in its religious 
aspects and bearings, and of nothing besides : its histories 
being brief or full, as brevity or fulness may best secure these 
ends. 

222. Secondly. It becomes the Christian to make a practical 
application of every truth which Scripture reveals. He must 
believe and apply the whole. To reject truth is wrong: to 
deny morality is wrong: and it is equally wrong to disjoin 
them. It is only as virtue is moulded on truth that it becomes 
genuine and complete. 

223. But though the Bible is not a revelation of science, it 
Scripture ma y ^ e ex P ec ^ e d to be free from error, and to con- 
not ineon- tain, under reserved and simple language, much 

sistentwith ' . . 

science. concealed wisdom, and turns of expression which 
harmonize with natural facts, known perfectly to God, but 
not known to those for whom at first the revelation was 
designed. 

This expectation is just; and in both respects, the Bible 
presents a striking contrast to the sacred books of heathen 
nations. 

224. All ancient systems of religion, and all eminent phi- 
Ancient and l° S0 P ners °f antiquity, so far as they are known, 
Scripture maintained notions on science no less absurd than 

cosniogo- 

nie *> their theology. 



THE BIBLE A REVELATION OF RELIGIOUS TRUTH. 147 



In Greek and Latin philosophy, the heavens were a solid vault over 
the earth, 3 a sphere studded with stars, as Aristotle called them. The 
sages of Egypt held that the world was formed by the motion of air 
and the upward course of flame : Plato, that it was an intelligent being: 
Empedocles held that there were two suns : Zeucippus, that the stars 
were kindled by their motions, and that they nourished the sun by 
their fires. 

All Eastern nations believed that the heavenly bodies exercised pow- 
erful influence over human affairs, often of a disastrous* kind, and that 
a.U nature was composed of four elements, fire, air, earth, and water, 
substances certainly not elementary. 

In the Hindoo philosophy, the globe is represented as fiat and trian- 
gular, composed of seven stories ; the whole mass being sustained upon 
the heads of elephants, who, when they shake themselves, cause earth- 
quakes. Mohammed taught that the mountains were created to prevent 
the earth from moving, and to hold it as by anchors and chains. The 
" Fathers of the church" themselves teach doctrines scarcely less ab- 
surd. " The rotundity of the earth is a theory," says Lactantius, "which 
no one is ignorant enough to believe." 

How instructive, that while every ancient system of idolatry 
may be overthrown by its false physics, not one of the forty 
writers of the Bible, most of whom lived in the vicinity of 
one or other of the nations who held these views, has written 
a single line that favors them. This silence is consolatory, 
and furnishes a striking confirmation of the truth of their 
message. 

225. The exactness of Scripture statements, and its agree- 
ment with modern discovery, is also remarkable. 

The Scriptures, for example, speak of the earth as a globe, and as 
suspended upon nothing, Isa. xl. 22: Job xxvi. 7-10: Prov. viii. 27. 
In treating of its age, they distinguish between the creation of unor- 
ganized matter, and of the heavens and the earth, Gen. i. 1, 2. They 
give to man a very recent origin, and their accuracy in this respect ia 
attested by the ascertained state of the earth's surface, and by the 
monuments of antiquity. They describe the heavens as boundless 
space, not as a solid sphere ; and light as an element independent of 
the sun, and as anterior to it, anticipating the generally received theory 

a Firmamentum, artpiujuat.. b Jyj <W/>cv, " ill-starred." 



148 THE BIBLE A REVELATION OF RELIGIOUS TRUTH. 



of modern inquirers. When they speak of air, they say that God gave 
it weight, as Galileo proved ; and of the seas, that he gave them their 
measure; a proportion of land and sea, such as now obtains, being 
essential to the health and safety of both animal and vegetable life. 
The waters above "the expanse" have an importance attached to them 
in Scripture which modern science alone can appreciate ; many millions 
of tons being raised from the surface of England alone, by evaporation, 
every day. (See Whewell's "Bridgewater Treatise.") 

When they speak of the human race they give it one origin, and of 
human language they indicate original identity and subsequent division, 
not into endless diversities of dialect such as now exist, but rather into 
two or three primeval tongues ; facts which, though long questioned, 
ethnography and philosophy have confirmed, Gen. xi. 1 ; x. 32. 

When they arrest the course of the sun, that is, of the earth's rota- 
tion, they stay the moon, too : a precaution which could not have been 
supposed necessary but on the supposition of the diurnal motion of the 
earth. When they speak of the stars, instead of supposing a thousand, 
as ancient astronomers did (Hipparchus says 1022, Ptolemy, 1026), they 
declare that they are innumerable ; a declaration which modern tele- 
scopes discover to be not even a figure of speech. "God," says Sir 
John Herschel, after surveying the groups of stars and nebulse in the 
heavens, "has scattered them like dust through the immensity of space.'* 
And when the Scriptures speak of their hosts, it is as dependent, ma- 
terial, obedient things, Isa. xl. 26, 27. 

226. Generally, however, it may be added, Scripture speaks 
Apparent * n Te ^- 3b ^ 0Ii ^° physical facts in the language of corn- 
exception, mon life, and sometimes that language is not strictly 
accurate ; as in Job xxxviii. 6 ; ix. 6 : Psa. civ. S : Prov. iii. 20. 
■ And the reason is plain. If strictly philosophical language 
had been employed, Scripture must have been less intelligible : 
and besides, such language describing natural facts T noi as they 
appear, but as they really are, would have made all such facts 
matters of revelation. It must have excited doubts among 
the ignorant, and prejudice (from the necessary incompleteness 
of Scripture teaching on such questions,) among the philo- 
sophic ; destroying, among all, the unity of impression which 
the Bible seeks to produce. The Bible would have become, in 
that case, a Divine, though incomplete, hand-book of science ; 



THE BIBLE CONSISTENT WITH ETHICAL SCIENCE. 149 



an arrangement as little condncive to the cultivation of a 
truly philosophical spirit as to the interests of religion itself. 

227. Nor less remarkable is the way in which the Bible has 
noticed abstract questions, or great principles of gcriptural 
ethical science. The laws of our moral nature are j^nt^Si 
evidently known to the author of Scripture, but experience, 
they are not formally announced. They are rather involved 
by implication in the truths or precepts which are revealed. 

Independent investigation long ago discovered that the heart 
of man takes much of its complexion from his thoughts, 

_ . 1-i-n iii Attention. 

and that what interests the mind influences the char- 
acter. In harmony with this law is the doctrine of Scripture, 
that habitual and believing attention to the truths of Christi- 
anity is the great instrument of bringing the mind into holy 
states. 

iG 

1 John iv. 10<**5Ei, 19: Gal. ii. 20: 1 Cor. xv. 2: 2 Cor. iii. 18: 1 
Tim. iv. 16 : Psa. cxix. 9-11 : Psa. xix. : 1 Pet. i. 22. 

" How can man regulate his belief?" is a question which 
long occupied the attention of thoughtful men. "By attend- 
ing to evidence, and then by contemplating truth," is the reply 
of philosophy. And Scripture is in direct harmony with her 
decision. Faith and affection are both influenced, not by ana- 
lysing them, or by violently attempting to strengthen or purify 
them, but by examining truth and holding communion with 
the objects that deserve and claim our love. The Bible bids 
us consider and give heed, assuring us that earnest, humble 
consideration will end in faith, and faith be followed by holy 
and appropriate feeling. 

Men believe by "giving heed" to truth, A.cts viii. 6, 8: Heb. ii. 1: 
Prov. iv. 1-4; ii. 1-9: Mark iv. 24, 25: Acts xvii. 11, 12. Their im- 
penitence is a consequence of their neglect, and their neglect, of a wrong 
state of heart, 2 Thess. ii. 11, 12: Mark viii. 18: John iii. 19, 20; v. 
38, 39 : 2 Cor. iv. 3, 4 : Hos. iv. 10. Holy affection is influenced by atten- 
tion and faith, Gal. v. 6 : 2 Cor. v. 11: Heb. xi. 7: 1 John iv. 16-18; 
Kom. vi. 6: Col. i. 22, 23; Josh. xxii. 5. 
13* 



150 



THE BIBLE A PROGRESSIVE REVELATION. 



Scripture embodies these laws and acts upon them ; adding, 
however, the significant fact, that where holiness and salvation 
follow in the train of attention and thoughtfulness, this result 
is to be ascribed throughout every part to the grace and bless- 
ing of the Divine Spirit. 

Attention is the gift of the Spirit, Acts xvi. 14: Zech. xii. 10. Faith 
which follows attention, is his gift, Acts x. 44 (see xi. 17, 18) ; xi. 21. 

The clearer understanding of truth, which follows the believing study 
of it, is his gift, Isa. xlii. 7 : Psa. cxix. 18 : Luke xxiv. 45 : 1 Cor. ii. 
14: 2 Cor. iii. 16: Eph. i. 17, 18. 

The holy feeling that follows an attentive and believing study of 
truth, is his gift, Ez. xxxvi. 27 : 2 Thess. ii. 13 : 2 Pet. i. 2, 3: Gal. v. 22. 



Sec. 3. — The Bible a Gradual and Progressive 
Eevelation. 

228. Another peculiarity of Scripture is, that it is a gradual 
and progressive revelation. 

229. The truths and purpose of God are in themselves in- 
in what capable of progress ; but not the revelation of those 
sense. truths. In nature, the rising sun scatters the mists 
of the morning, and brings out into light first one prominence 
and then another, till every hill and valley is clothed in splen- 
dor. The landscape was there before, but it was not seen. 
So in revelation, the progress is not in the truth, but in the 
clearness and impressiveness with which Scripture reveals it. 

230. In the beginning, for example, God taught the unity 
T of his nature ; while the truth that there is a plu- 

In the reve- » J- 

andThe f Ho- d ra -^y ^ n ^ ne Godhead was taught but indistinctly, 
ly Spirit. Several expressions in the earliest books imply it, 
and are evidently calculated to suggest it. a In the later proph- 

a Such expressions, for example, as, Let us make man in our image 
(see Gen. i. 26 ; iii. 22); and the use of the plural noun, to indicate the 
true God, with a singular verb, Gen. i. 1 ; Psa. lviii. 11 (Heb.) : Prov. 
ix. 10 (Heb.), and several hundred times. 

The expressions in Numb. vi. 22-27, compared with the New Testa- 



THE BIBLE A PROGRESSIVE REVELATION. 



151 



ets, the truth conies out with greater distinctness ; a and in the 
New Testament it is fully revealed. In the same way, the 
work of the Holy Spirit is recognised in the Old Testament, 
and with increasing clearness as we approach the times of the 
gospel. It is in the New alone, however, that we have a dis- 
tinct view of his personality and work. b 

2ol. This gradual disclosure of the Divine will is yet more 
remarkable in the case of our Lord. The first goofch . t 
promise (Gen. hi. 1 5) contained a prophetic declara- 
tion of mercy, and foretold his coming and work, though in 
mysterious terms. The first recorded act of acceptable wor- 
ship (Gen. iv. 4 : Heb. xi. 4) was a type, expressing by an 
action the faith of the offerer in the fulfilment of the first 
prediction. There was to be triumph through suffering, and 
there was to be the substitution of the innocent for the 
guilty. 

These promises and types were multiplied with the lapse 
of time. In the person or worship of Enoch, of patriarchal 
Noah, d of Melchizedek, 6 and of Job/ there was much penocL 

ment benediction, Isa. vi. 3, 8 ; xlviii. 16 : Jer. xxiii. % 6, are very 
remarkable. 

The " angel of the Lord" probably refers in most passages to the 
Messiah, as the Jewish writers generally maintain, regarding him as an 
object of Divine worship. See Gen. xvi. 7 and 13, where the incommu- 
nicable name of Jehovah is given to him: see, also, Gen. xxii. 11-18; 
xxxi. 11-13; xxxii. 28-30: Hos. xii. 4, 5: Gen. xlviii. 15, 16: Ex. iii. 
2-15; xix. 19, 20; xx. 1; xxiii. 20, 21, compared with Acts vii. 38: 
Josh. v. 13-15; vi. 2: Judg. xiii. 3-23: Isa. lxiii. 8, 9: Mai. iii. 1. 

a Isa. ix. 6: Mic. v. 2: Zech. xiii. 7. 

*>Geu. i. 2; vi. 3: Psa. li. 11, 12: Isa. xlviii. 16; lxi. 1; Ezek. iii. 
24, 27 

c Jude m». 

* 1 Pet. iii. 20: Gen. viii. 20. 
« Heb. v. 6. 

' Job xix. 25; i.; xiii. 7. 8. 



152 THE BIBLE A PROGRESSIVE REVELATION. 



that was typical and predictive : still more in the history of 
Abraham* and his immediate descendants. 

Under the Mosaic dispensation, other typical acts or per- 
sons, and places and things, were instituted, and 

Mosaic. . „ , . . . .... 

the design of the institution was most distinctly ex- 
plained. b Prophecies, also, became more clear and frequent/ 
Between the days of Samuel and Malachi — a period of more 
than six hundred years, a succession of prophets ap- 

Prophetic. * ' -, i 

pear, who gradually set forth the person and work 
of the Messiah: they foretell, too, the outpouring of the Spirit, 
and the general prevalence of the truth* — points on which 
the earlier revelation is silent. 

In the extent of their predictions, the prophets have not 
gone beyond the first promise which was intended to give 
hope of complete redemption ; but in their clearness, in the 
detailed account they give of what redemption involved, and 
what it cost, the difference is most marked ; while in the same 
qualities, the Gospels have gone at least as far beyond the 
prophets as the prophets have gone beyond the law. 

232. It is noticeable, too, that the predictions of the old 
Practical economy and its practical doctrines go hand in 
doctrines. ^ Q reve i a ti 0I1 spreads on each point. 

The light that illuminates the living spring, or the harvest- 
field of truth, shows with equal clearness the path that leads 
to them. The law gives Divine precept with more fullness 
than previous dispensations, and the prophets go beyond the 
law, occupying a middle place between it and the gospel. 
They insist more fully on the principles of personal holiness 
as distinguished from rational and ceremonial purity, and 
their sanctions have less reference to temporal promises. 
The precepts of the law are in the law stern and brief : its 
penalties denounced with unmitigated severity. In the pro- 

a Gen. xii. 3 ; xxvi. 4 ; xlix. 10, etc. 
b Lev. i. 4; vi. 2-7; xvii. 11. 

c Numb. xxiv. 17 : Dent, xviii. 15 : Acts iii. 22, 23 
d 1 Pet. i. 11: Psa. lxviii. 18 : Joel ii. 28 : Isa. liii.j lxi. 11: Zech. 
xiv. 9. 



THE BIBLE A PROGRESSIVE REVELATION. 



153 



phets the whole is presented in colors softer and more at- 
tractive ; hues from some distant glory, itself concealed, have 
fallen upon their gloomy features and illumined them into its 
own likeness. The law had said, " Thou shalt love the Lord 
thy God with all thy heart and with all thy strength;" and 
the extent of this command nothing could exceed. The 
prophets, however, expound and enforce, and animate it with 
a new spirit, and direct its application to greater holiness. 
The rule of life thus becomes in their hands increasingly 
luminous and practical. 

233. The Psalms, again, are a great instrument of piety, and 
are so far additions to the institutes of legal worship, which 
contain no specific provision for devotion. 

234. If the reader will compare the precepts of the Penta- 
teuch on repentance with those of the prophets on 

1 . .t . . . /» i n Illustrated. 

the same duty,* or the statements ol both on the 
relation between the Jews, or of the world generally, and Him 
who came to enlighten the Gentiles as well as his people 
Israel* or will mark the increasing spirituality and clearness* 
of the whole horizon of spiritual truth as the dawn of the 
gospel day drew on, he will not fail to understand the con- 
sistency and progressive development of revelation. In both 
he will see evidence of the presence of that God who (as 
Butler expressed it) " appears deliberate in all his operations," 
and who accomplishes his ends by slow and successive stages, 
whether they refer to the changes of the seasons, the move- 
ments of Providence, or the more formal disclosures of his 
will. 

235. This peculiarity of Scripture makes it important that 
the various parts of the Bible should be read in _ 

. . Importance 

the order m which the Spirit revealed them. A of^chrono- 
chronological arrangement of sacred history, the rangement. 

* Dent. xxx. 1-6 : Ezek. xviii. : Isa. lvii. 15, 16 : Psa. xl. 6-8 ; li. 
16, 17. 

b Isa. lxvi. 21. 

* See especially Jer. xxxi. 31-34. 



154 



SUCCESSIVE DISPENSATIONS. 



Psalms, and the Prophets, is essential to the complete expla- 
nation of the several parts : nor is it less so to a clear and 
consistent view of the progressive unveiling of the Divine 
character and plans. a 

236. It deserves to be remembered, too, that even when we 
On other are not contemplating the gradual unfolding of 
grounds. truth, the study of Scripture chronologically is 
often essential to a just appreciation of truth. 

Compare, for example, Paul's first two Epistles with the last, 1 and 
2 Thess. with 1 and 2 Tim., as they lie side by side in the English ver- 
sion; and we shall see what changes several years of labor had pro- 
duced in the apostle's feelings, and in the state of the church. 

Touching as is the enumeration of the apostle's sufferings, given in 
ii. Cor. 11, chronological arrangement reminds us that that chapter 
supplies comparatively little of the evidence we have of his sincerity. 
It was written before his imprisoment in Judea and at Rome. Two 
years of imprisonment, shipwreck, another imprisonment, and finally, 
martyrdom, are to be added to the account. 

Voltaire ridicules the force of the language in which are predicted 
(as he thinks) the fortunes of a people whose narrow strip of country 
did not exceed 200 miles in length. Chronological arrangement woul^ 
have made his remark the more striking, but it might also have sug- 
gested the solution of the difficulty. The prophecy grows most confi- 
dent and comprehensive when the nation is all but annihilated. Is it 
likely, therefore, to have had its origin in national vanity, or to have 
its accomplishment in national revival and success ? 

237. Sometimes this gradual development of the Divine 
Various dis- will is spoken of as successive dispensations : — the 
pensations. Adamic, the Patriarchal, the Mosaic, and the Gospel: 
Dispensation meaning the way in which God deals with men, 
or (in this connection) the truth revealed, the ordinances and 
subsequent conduct which are enjoined. 

The Adamic dispensation continued only during man's 
innocency. The Patriarchal lasted more than 2500 years, 
and the history of it is given in Gen. hi. — Exod. xx. It ia 



a For a chronological arrangement of the whole of the Bible, see 
Part II. 



SUCCESSIVE DISPENSATIONS. 



155 



so called from the fact, that the heads of families were the 
governors and teachers of men — (Patriarchs), such as Adam, 
Seth, Enoch, and Noah, before the flood, and Job, Melchizedek, 
Abraham, and his immediate descendants after it. They were 
the depositaries of the Divine will, the guardians of prophecy, 
and some of them furnished in their history types of our 
Lord. There were, during this period, but few predictions, 
though there are distinct intimations of preparation for the 
coming of the Messiah, as in the distinction between clean 
and unclean animals, in reference to sacrifice, Gen. viii. 20, in 
sacrifice itself, and in the covenant with Abraham, Gen. xv. 20. 
In the Patriarchal dispensation, too, may be traced many of 
the first principles of the Mosaic. 

The covenant made with the Jews through Moses — the Mo- 
saic dispensation — lasted for about 1,500 years, and abounds 
with typical persons, places, and things. The J ewish people 
were in truth a type, both in their institutions and history. 

See Lev. vi. 2-9 ; xvi. 21 ; xvii. 11 : Eph., Heb., and 1 Cor. 10. 

The Gospel dispensation, the great principles of which may 
be traced in the previous economies, is founded on the facts 
given in the Gospels, the life and death of our Lord. In the 
Acts we see truth in action, both among individual believers 
and in the church ; in the Epistles, the doctrines founded on 
these facts are developed and enforced ; and in the Revelation 
we have in prophetic visions, the history of truth in its strug- 
gles with error, and of the church till the end of time. 

238. These books constitute the dispensation of the gospel, 
and with them, the development of evangelical truth Deveiop- 
(so far as the present state is concerned), ends. ^tl^Scrfp- 
There may be passages in the Bible, whose full ture ' 
meaning is not yet discovered, and which are perhaps " re- 
served," as Boyle expressed it, "to quell some future heresy, 
or resolve some yet unformed doubt, or confound some error 
that hath not yet a name," or prove by fresh prophetic evi- 
dence that it came from God. Scripture, moreover, is like 



156 THE UNITY OF THE BIBLE. 

the deep sea ; beautifully clear, hut immeasurably profound. 
There is, therefore, no definable limit to our insight into its 
meaning. But we are to look for no further revelation : nor 
are we to regard as developments of Scripture doctrine, the 
additions of men. 

Examples of the abuses of this truth it is not necessary to 
Thedevei- multiply. Popery is the standing illustration. It 
enSfin pleads for the development of truth out of Scrip- 
Scripture. ture ^ an( j - n ^ c ] lurc ] li The blessedness of the 

dead who die in the Lord, for example, is said on its theory 
to be the natural germ of saint worship". Christ's presence 
in the supper is, in the same way, the germ of the adoration 
of the host, and the salutation of the angel, of the deification 
of the virgin. But all this is abuse. The gradual develop- 
ment of truth in /Scripture, is one thing. An accretion which 
overlays the truth, is another; and it is for the former only we 
contend. 

Sec. 4. — The Unity of the Bible. 

239. Nor less instructive is the unity of the sacred volume. 
It has the first requisite of a great book — a single purpose, 
and that purpose kept in view throughout every page. 

240. This unity is not owing (it will be observed) to the 

circumstance, that the volume is the work of one 

Not of style, 

but of doc- author, or of one age. As many as forty different 

trine 

writers (including the authors of smaller portions,) 
composed it. The style is now history, now song, now argu- 
ments or dialogue, now biography, or prophecy, or letters. 
Deeper than these causes of diversity and sufficiently strong 
to counteract their influence, must be the secret of this mar- 
vellous harmony. It is found, in fact, in the superhuman 
care of One who is infinite in power and wisdom. The entire 
building which was 4,000 years in rearing, is symmetrical 
throughout, and must have had a Divine founder, who first 
planned and then superintended the whole. * 



THE UNITY OF THE BIBLE. 



157 



241. Look again, for example, at the uniformly moral pur- 
pose of the volume. It is the ptory of human beings ^ 

in relation to God : first of man, as man : then of moral pur- 
pose. 

families : then of a nation : then of the wider society 
of the church. In all other professed revelations, the writers 
dwell at length on the origin of the universe (as in the shas- 
tras of the Hindoos), or on the physical theory of another life 
(as in the pretended revelations of N Mohammed), or on topics 
which cannot even be imagined, to be of any practical impor- 
tance (as in the fables of the Talmud, the legends of the 
Romish, church, and the visions of Swedenborg). All that the 
Bible teaches, on the other hand, refers to God as connected 
with man, singly or socially, or to man as connected with 
God: and is moral and practical. It contains no. Cosmogony, 
no mythology, no metaphysics, no marvels which are not 
moral : no ideal which is not also a reality. In its histories, 
biographies, prophecies and psalmody, it has but one aim, to 
knit together the broken relations between God and man, and 
between man and man : — to redeem and sanctify our race. 

242. If we look at the doctrines which were believed and 
taught, we find a unity no less remarkable. Under 

every dispensation, the great principles of Chris- 
tianity have been recognized by all holy men. Religion, 
"subjectively" regarded, has ever been faith and obedience. 
And as a system of truth (" objective religion"), it has never 
changed. From the earliest times we find a belief in the 
unity of God ; in the creation and preservation of all things 
by Divine power ; in a general and particular providence ; in 
a Divine law, fixing distinctions between right and wrong ; in 
the fall and corruption of man ; in the doctrine of atonement 
through vicarious suffering ; in the obligation and efficacy of 
prayer ; in direct Divine influence ; in human responsibility ; 
and in the necessity of practical holiness. 

The law, as given by Moses, abounds in ceremonv and Gos P el > 
i • i .i i i and of hu ~ 

and was evidently adapted to the peculiar circum- man nature. 

stances of one people. The Gospel has but few ceremonies, 
14 



158 



THE UNITY OF THE BIBLE. 



remarkable for their simplicity, and the whole is of uni- 
versal application. But though at first sight so dissimilar, 
the two systems are essentially one. They present the same 
views of God and of man, suggest or plainly teach the same 
truths, and are adapted to excite the same feelings. 

One example more : we have in Scripture several successive 
portraits of human nature ; one taken before the deluge, an- 
other soon after it : one probably 800 years later, and pre- 
served in the book of Job; another 500 years later still, by 
David ; a fifth, 500 years later, by Jeremiah ; and a sixth, 500 
years later still, by Paul. Let the reader compare these pic- 
tures with one another and with experience, and he will feel 
that each description had really the same origin, and that the 
inspired writers had one purpose — the elevation of our nature 
by humiliation, and penitence and faith. 

Gen. vi. 5; viii. 21: Job xv. 16: Psa. xiv. 2, 3: Eom. i. 19; iii. 

243. This unity comprehends doctrines entirely beyond 
its doc numan knowledge. The Bible reveals everywhere 
trines be- the same God, holy, wise, and good : it speaks of 

yond hu- . 

man know- his designs m governing the world, and of the final 
issue of the present struggle between good and evil* 
It treats of human nature and of true happiness ; b analyses 
with matchless skill the secret motives of human action, and 
points out the grand source of human misery : subjects which 
have engaged the thoughts of the wisest men, whose views 
are as remarkable for their vagueness and variety as are those 
of the Bible for their consistency and clearness. 

244. Two remarks are suggested by these facts — 

First. The Bible must be regarded, not as a series of dis- 
tinct revelations, but as one and indivisible. Doctrines which 
are clearly revealed in the New Testament depend for many 
of their evidences, and yet more for their illustrations, on the 
Old. The one dispensation is the completion of the other. 

a Gen. iii. 15: Dan. vii. 14: 1 John iii. 8. 

*>Gen. i. 26: Eom. iii. 23: Eccl. xii. 13 : Matt. v. iii, &c. 



THE UNITY OF THE BIBLE. 



159 



The first is tlie type, or earthly figure ; the second, the hea- 
venly reality. The nature of the "good things to come" may 
be gathered from " the shadow," as well as from the things 
themselves. The ancient record, moreover, has many his- 
torical and precious associations. It fostered in the ancient 
church the same graces as are required now. It exhibits 
holy men struggling with our temptations. Above all, it 
must be remembered, that in the history of individuals and 
of nations, as of the race, there is a time when the delivery 
of truth, in forms as elementary and, comparatively, rude as 
those found in the Old Testament, seems to be essential to 
the spiritual training of character. To this day, it is known 
that some of the narratives and practices of the old economy 
give to heathen nations a clearer idea of the Divine holiness, 
and of human duty, than even the more full disclosures of 
the new. 

245. Secondly. Hence an important test of truth, and of 
the relative value of truth. If it be said, for example, that 
the sacrifice and priesthood of Christ are not revealed in the 
Gospel, or are subordinate truths, we look to the law, or to 
earlier dispensations; and if it be maintained that in the 
Gospel there is no priesthood or sacrifice, we have then in the 
law a series of shadowy observances, without reference or 
meaning. The blood, the altar, the holy place, the propitia- 
tory intercession, are all types of nothing, and the previous 
economy is robbed of its significance. If it had significance, 
but is now abolished, the substitution of the Gospel in its 
place implies a change in the very principles of the Divine 
government. Under that dispensation, law was inexorable ; 
now it is yielding and remiss. Then repentance alone was 
powerless to save, now it is mighty and efficacious. At first, 
man was pardoned through an atonement, at least, by prero- 
gative. As it is, the mystery is solved. Eevelation is a con- 
sistent whole. The doctrines of the later manifestation 
unfold their meaning, and instruct with increased impressive- 



160 



THE BIBLE NOT A SYSTEM. 



ness and consistency, when studied amidst the patterns of the 
earlier. 

Sec, 5. — Not a Revelation of Systematic Truth or, op 
Specific Rules. 

246. Another of the peculiarities of Scripture, no less strik- 
ing than those named, is the absence of all systematic form in 
the truths revealed. There is no compend of Christian doc- 
trine, nor are there specific rules on the duties of the Chris- 
tian life : an omission the more marked, as in the books of 
most false religions (the Koran and Shastras, for example) the 
description of the "faith" is most precise, and the minutest 
directions are given concerning fasts, ablutions, and other 
points of religious service. 

247. This peculiarity is both natural and instructive. In 
This fact na- ^ e ®^ Testament, the earlier part (and much of 
turaiandin- the later) is purely historical. Moral truth tran- 

structive. . J . J 

spires exclusively through narrative, and the narra- 
tive is fragmentary and concise. God had been in communi- 
cation with man for more than 2,000 years before he gave "the 
law." What he had revealed, or how he revealed it, cannot 
be fully gathered from the record. The very object, indeed, 
of a large portion of the Bible, seems to be not so much 
the disclosure of truth, as the embodiment of truth already 
disclosed. 

The New Testament, again, was written for those who had 
received instruction in the Christian faith, and had embraced 
it. It can hardly be expected, therefore, to contain regular 
elementary instruction, or an enumeration of articles of faith. 
When the Epistles were written, the churches had been formed 
under Divine teaching and on a Divine model; while the Gos- 
pels are clearly historical, and rather imply or suggest religious 
truth, than systematically reveal it. 

248. Religion is objective, or subjective; a sy&tem of holy 



THE BIBLE NOT A SYSTEM. 



161 



doctrine, or of active holy principles. The first is how truth 
truth, and the second is piety. In Scripture both lsrevealed - 
are revealed ; but it is rather in the form of examples, or of 
incidental illustrations, than of systematic teaching. 

Let us notice, for example, how the Bible speaks of the 
character of God, as a moral governor, and of man, illustrated 
both as sinful and as holy. mSu d and 

By the character of God is meant his power, his wisdom, his holi- 
ness ; and by his moral government, his superintendence of the concerns 
of the universe on fixed and holy principles. 

Everywhere, throughout the Bible, his perfections are revealed; but 
they are revealed in his works. They are never defined or mentioned 
even, without reference to some practical end. 

When Abraham, through Sarah's impatience or unbelief, had taken 
Hagar, hoping to see an early fulfilment of the Divine promise, Jehovah 
rebuked him, and for the first time spoke of himself as the "Almighty 
God," Gen. xvii. 1. When Israel exclaimed, "My way is hid from the 
Lord," the answer was given, "Hast thou not known . . . that the 
everlasting God fainteth not, neither is weary: there is no searching 
of his understanding," Isa. xl. 28. 

Considering his government, we find its principles embodied in facts, or 
in practical precepts, exclusively. His dispensations are unchangeable 
like himself. In every nation and age, he that worketh righteousness 
is approved. He judges according to every man's work. a He controls 
what seems most accidental. b He brings about his ends by means 
apparently trifling or contradictory. He makes even the wicked the 
instruments of his will. d He forgives, and is ready to forgive." 5 He 
hears and answers prayer. f He marks the motives of men, as in the 
case of Lot's wife, and of Joash.s He chastises those whom he most 
loves, as in the case of Moses, of David, and of Hezekiah. h He 

a Deut. £17: 2 Chron. xix. 7: Rom. ii. 11: Gal. ii. 6: Eph. vi. 9: 
Col. hi. 25 : 1 Pet. i. 17. 

b Jer. xxxviii. 7-13 : Acts xvi. 23. 

* 1 Sam. ix. 3, 15, 16 : Judges vii. 13-15. 

d Neh. xiii. 2 : Acts ii. 23. 

e Dan. ix. 24: 2 Chron. vii. 14. 

f 2 Chron. xxxiii. 12, 13: Gen. xxiv. 12. 

e Gen. xix. 26 : 2 Kings xiii. 9. 

h Numb. xx. 12: 2 Sam. xxiv. 11, 15 : 2 Chron. xxxii. 25. 
14* 



162 



THE BIBLE NOT A SYSTEM. 



preserveth the righteous, and none that trusteth in Him shall be 
desolate* 

Man is set before us in lights equally instructive. If we would ana- 
lyze and describe our sinfulness, we may find scoffing infidelity in the 
antediluvians ; b envy in the brethren of Joseph, and in Cain ; c malice 
in Saul ; d slander in Doeg and Ziba . e contempt for Divine teaching in 
Korah and Ahab ; f covetousness in Achan and Balaam, in Gehazi, and 
Judas ;s ambition in Abimelech and the sons of Zebedee ; h pride in 
Hezekiah and Nebuchadnezzar." 

To set forth the inconsistencies of human nature, it shows us, in 
Ahithophel, the friend and the traitor ;•>" in Joab, the brave soldier and 
faithful servant, k yet "a doer of evil," and one who opposed God's 
appointment and sided with Adonijah in Jehoram, a destroyer of the 
images of Baal, who yet cleaved to the sin of Jeroboam ; m in Herod, 
reverence for John, and a spirit of hardened disobedience; 11 in Agrippa, 
belief of the prophets, and a rejection of the gospel; in many of the 
chief rulers, a faith in Christ, combined with a readiness to join in the 
sentence of the Sanhedrim, that he was "guilty of death. "p 

We see the power of self-deceit in David and Balaam ;q of prejudice, 
in Naaman, in Nicodemus, in the people of Athens and of Ephesus ; r 
of habit, in Ahab, who humbled himself before Elijah, and yet re- 
turned to his idols ; s and in Felix, of whom we read that he trembled 
once, though we never read that he trembled again.* 

The danger of ungodly connections is seen in the antediluvians and 
Esau, who married with those who were under the curse of God ; n in 
Solomon;' in Jehoshaphat's connection with Ahab (through Athaliah);" 
and in Ahab's connection with Jezebel ; x of worldly prosperity in Re- 
hoboamy and Uzziah. 2 

a 1 Sam. xvii. 37: Phil. iv. 12, 18. b Jude xiv, 15. 

c Gen. iv. 5; xxxvii. 11. d 1 Sam. xviii. 28, 29. 

« 1 Sam. xxii. 9 : 2 Sam. xvi. 1. f Nurnb. xvi. 3 : 1 Kings, xx^ 22v 

g Josh. vi. 19, etc. h Jud. ix. 1-5: Mark x. 35. ■ 

i 2 Kings xx. 13 : Dan. iv. 30. i Psa. Iv. 13:2 Sam. xvi. 15. 

k 2 Sam. xii. 28 ; xxiv. 3. 1 2 Sam. iii. 27-39. 

m 2 Kings iii. 1-3. n Mark vi. 16-20. 

° Acts xxvi. 27, 28. p John xii. 42 : Matt, xxvi 66, 

q 2 Sam. xii. 5-7 : Numb, xxxii. . v/jv 

r 2 Kings v. 11, 12 : John iii.: Acts xvii. 18? 1% 28. 

» 1 Kings xxi. 27 ; xxii. 6. 1 Acts xxiv. 

« Gen. vi. 1-3 ; xxvi. 34. * Neh. xiii. 25, 26. 

w 2 Kings viii. 18-26. * 1 Kings xxi. 

? 2 Chron. xii. 1. * 2 Chron. xxvi. 16. 



THE BIBLE NOT A SYSTEM. 



163 



If we seek for the exhibitions of Christian excellence, again, we have 
it not denned, but illustrated : faith in Abraham ; a patience in Job : b 
meekness in Moses ; c decision in Joshua ; d patriotism in Nehemiah 
friendship in Jonathan/ In Hannah, we have a pattern to mothers 
in Samuel, and Josiah, and Timothy, to children; 11 in Joseph, and 
Daniel, to young men ;> in Barzillai, to the aged ;j in Eliezer, to ser- 
vants ; k in David, to those under authority in our Divine Lord, to all 
of every age and in every condition, whether of duty or of suffering. 

To make the truth taught in these examples (except in the last) com- 
plete, we must trace the evidence of their weakness. They failed in 
the very parts of their character which were strongest. Abraham 
through fear, m Job through impatience, 11 Moses through irratibility ar/i 
presumption. 

If we attempt, again, to ascertain from Scripture what Paley has 
called the "devotional virtues" of religion, veneration towards God, a 
habitual sense of his providence, faith in his wisdom and dealings, a 
disposition to resort on all occasions to his mercy for help and pardon, 
we shall find them rather illustrated than defined, embodied, that is, 
in character and example, and not in propositions ;P the whole adapted 
with admirable skill, and by the very form they assume to our wants. 

It is this presence in Scripture of men like ourselves, that 
brings it home to our business and bosoms. There is felt to be 
something human in it, as well as Divine. It meets us at every 
turn. We feel, as we look, that it has a power, which, like the 
eye of a good portrait, is fixed upon us, turn where we will. q 

See Miller's Bampton Lectures, p. 128. 

a Gal. iii. 7-9. b James v. 11. 

c Numb. xii. 3. d Josh. xxiv. 15. 

e Neh. i. 4 ; v. 14. f 1 Sam. xix. 2-4, etc. 

g 1 Sam. i. 27, 28. h 1 Sam. iii.: 2 Chron. xxxiv. 9: 2 

Tim. iii. 15. 

* Gen. xxx ix. 9. i 2 Sam. xix. 34, 35. 

k Gen. xxiv. 1 1 Sam. xxiv. 6-10, etc. 

m Gen. xx. 2. n Job. iii. 1. 

Deut. xxxii. 51. 

p Taley has some admirable remarks, applying these principles tv 
the character (given in Scripture) of our Lord. " Evidences," p. 231. 
Keiigious Tract Society's ed. 

<J Besides answering this moral purpose, it is worthy of remark that 
the style of Scripture, consisting of. figures and specific examples, or 



164 



THE BIBLE NOT A SYSTEM. 



249. What an essential quality in a volume designed for all 
. , countries and for every age ! If articles of faith, 

Si ripture . - 

adapted to or m ^ nu ^ e ru l es of practice had been given, they 
aiicoun- must have been retained for ever, and with them 

tries. 

the heresies and errors which they were intended to 
condemn. Either they must have been very general, and 
therefore useless for their avowed purpose, or they must have 
been so minute as not to be practicable in all countries, and 
comprehensible by all Christians. The Koran, for example, 
places the utmost importance on the offering of prayer at sun- 
rise . and sunset : a rule which proves that the religion of the 
false prophet was never designed for Greenland or Labrador, 
where for several months the sun never sets. A summary of 
doctrine, too, perfectly intelligible to a matured Christian, 
might be nearly all mysterious to the converted Hottentot. 

250. And even if such a summary could have been made 
Comparison g enera ^y intelligible, its effects upon the minds of 
and reflec- Christians would have been disastrous. They would 

tion impor- _ _ J 

tant - have stored their memory with the very words of 

the Creed, without searching the rest of Scripture. There 
would have been no room for thought, no call for investigation, 
and no excitement of the feelings or improvement of the heart. 
The creed being, not that from which the faith is to be learned, 
but the faith itself, would be regarded with indolent and use- 
less veneration. It is only when our energies are roused and 
our attention awake, when we are acquiring or correcting, or 
improving our knowledge, that knowledge makes the requisite 
impression upon us. God has not made Scripture like a gar- 
den, "where the fruits are ripe and the flowers bloom, and all 
things are fully exposed to view ; but like a field, where we 
have the ground an I seeds of all precious things, but where 
nothing can be brought to maturity without our industry ; " a 

"singular terms," is the kind of diction least impaired by translation. 

See Whateley's Rhet., part. iii. chap. ii. \ 2. 



a Mores Mystery of Godliness. 



THE BIBLE NOT A SYSTEM. 



165 



nor then, without the dews of heavenly grace. "I find in the 
Bible," says Cecil, "a grand peculiarity, that seems to say to 
all who attempt to systematize it, I am not of your mind .... 
I stand alone. The great and the wise shall never exhaust 
my treasures : by figures and parables I will come down to the 
feelings and understandings of the ignorant. Leave me as I 
am, but study me incessantly." 

251. Even good men, too, have undue preferences. If all 
truth of the same order were placed together in 
Scripture, men would read most what they most and duties 
loved, to the neglect of what may be as important 
though less welcome. But as truth is scattered throughout 
the Bible, we learn to think of doctrine in connection with 
duty, and of duty in connection with the principles by which 
it is enforced. 

252. These facts rebuke the system of the Eomish church : 
she condemns the study of the Bible, fostering Not Theolo . 
man's aversion to the investigation of truth, and J™* ^ 

° , ' Bible to be 

his indolent acquiescence in what is ready prepared studied, 
to his hand : a propensity against which the very structure of 
the Christian Scriptures seems designed to guard. 

They suggest, too, a lesson to those who regard the Bible as 
influential only when made a treasury of intellectual truth. 
Systematic Divinity, founded upon the Bible, is perhaps the 
last perfection of knowledge, but not necessarily of character. 
A man may be drawn to the sacred page by its pictures of 
Divine goodness, and may love it with a return of affection 
for all its mercy, or of hope for its promises, or may feed his 
soul with its provisions, or direct his life by its counsel, and 
yet do nothing to systematize its doctrines, or at all under- 
stand the technical phrases of theological truth. This life of 
devotion, with its acknowledgment of Providence, and imita- 
tion of Christ, is the chief thing : combined with systematic 
thinking, it makes a man profoundly holy and profoundly 
wise ; but without the systematic thinking there may be both 
holiness and wisdom. 



166 



THE BIBLE NOT A SYSTEM. 



253. They suggest a third lesson. Systematic catechetical 
treatises on doctrine are of use, chiefly in defining 

Scripture . . . ° 

the book for or preserving unity 01 iaitn; but must not be re- 
ie young. ^ T ^ e ^ ag instruments of religious training, or 
as the store-houses of effective knowledge. They address the 
intellect only, and that, too, in logical forms, without narrative, 
or example, or feeling, or power. They contain no patterns of 
holiness ; no touches of nature. Use them, therefore, in their 
right place ; but remember that the Divine instrument of 
man's improvement is that book which abounds in examples 
of tenderness, of pity, of remonstrance ; which gives forth tones 
and looks, and words, at once human and Divine, ever the 
same, and yet ever new — the Bible. 

[On the subjects of this section, see "Errors of Romanism 
traced to their Origin in Human Nature," and " Essays on 
Borne of the Peculiarities of the Christian Religion," by Arch- 
bishop Whately.] 



V 



INTEEPEETATION — STUDY. 167 



CHAPTER IV. 

ON THE INTEEPEETATION OF SCEIPTUEE. 

" Man can weary himself in any secular affair, but diligently to search, 
the Scripture is to him tedious and burdensome. Few covet to be mighty 
in the Scriptures, though convinced their great concern is enveloped in 
them." — Locke, Commonplace Booh, Pre/. 

"The generality of Scripture hath such a contexture and coherence, 
one part with another, that small insight into it will be gained by read- 
ing it confusedly. Therefore, read the whole in order." — De. Fraxcis 
Roberts. 

" The tropical sense is no other than the figurative s«nse. As we say 
in language derived from the Greek, that a trope is turned from its lit- 
eral or grammatical sense, so we say in language derived from the Latin, 
that & figure is then used, because in such cases the meaning of the word 
assumes a new form. The same opposition, therefore, which is expressed 
by the terms literal sense and figurative sense, is expressed also by tho 
terms grammatical sense and tropical sense." — Marsh, Lectures, Partiii. 

Sec. 1. — On the Necessity of Caee in the Study of 
Sceiptuee. 

254. The importance of carefully studying the Bible with 
every accessible help may be gathered from the cir- gcriptnreg 
cumstances connected with the preparation of the j^J®£Sr- 

Sacred books. cumstances 

in which 

They were written by different writers, of everv they were 

J J . " written. 

degree of cultivation, and of different orders — 

P ' Writers of 

priests as Ezra, poets as Solomon, prophets as different 
Isaiah, warriors as David, herdsmen as Amos, 
statesmen as Daniel, scholars as Moses and Paul, fishermen, 
"unlearned and ignorant men," as Peter and John. 

The first author, Moses, lived 400 years before the siege of 
Troy, and 900 before the most ancient sages of ~ . 

J . ° Dates and 

Greece and Asia, Thales, Pythagoras, and Confucius; places, 
and the last, John, 1,500 years later than Moses. 

The books were written in different places ; in the centre 
of Asia, on the bands of Arabia, in the deserts of Judeea, in 



168 CIRCUMSTANCES IN WHICH THE BIBLE WAS WRITTEN. 



the porches of the temple, in the schools of the prophets at 
Bethel and J ericho, in the palaces of Babylon, on the idolatrous 
banks of Chebar , and in the midst of the western civilization ; 
the allusions, and figures, and expressions, being taken from 
customs, scenery, and habits, very different from each other, 
and from those of modern Europe. 

Some of the writers, as Moses, frame laws ; others sketch 
Have differ- history, as Joshua ; some compose psalms, as David; 
es^MidS" or P rover °s, as Solomon. Isaiah writes prophecies; 
ent S eharae" ^ e evan g e hsts, a biography; several of the apos- 
' ters. ties, letters. 

Whole books, and parts of books, refer to the heathen, as 
in Isaiah and Nahum ; while parts are addressed to the Jews 
only : one Gospel was intended for Hebrew converts and 
another for Gentiles. The Epistles to the Corinthians are 
addressed to men who had little respect for authority, and 
were unwilling to be bound, except by the fewest possible 
ties. The Epistle to the Galatians is addressed to those who 
wished to bring their converts under the bondage of the law. 
That to the Bomans addresses (in part,) the pharisaically self- 
righteous; the Epistle of James, the nominal and careless 
professor. 

The time, the place, the employment and previous history, 
the character and aim of the various writers, and even the 
position of those they addressed, all need to be considered; 
as these circumstances must have exercised an influence, if 
not upon the thoughts embodied in the language of Scripture, 
yet upon the language itself. 

255. The importance of a careful study of Scripture will 
Scripture J e ^ more a ppear, when we consider the difficulty of 
needs study, communicating to men, and in human language, any 

from imper- p \ & ° ' J 

fection of ideas of religious or spiritual truth. 

language. . 

256. Most of the language which men employ in 

Use of anal- . . . 

ogy in men- reference to spiritual things, is founded on analogv 

tal science. x , ° " 

or resemblance. This is true of all language which 
speaks of the mind or of its acts ; and especially of the lan- 



ANALOGICAL LANGUAGE OF SCRIPTURE. 169 



guage of early times. In the infancy of races, language is 
nearly all figure, and describes even common facts by the aid 
of natural symbols. The very word " spirit," means in its 
derivation, " breath." The mind is said to see truth, because 
the act of the mind by which it is perceived, bears some 
resemblance to the act of the eye. To "reflect," is literally 
to bend or throw back, and so to look round our thoughts. 
"Attention" is a mental exercise, analogous to the stretching 
of the eye in the examination of some outward object. It is 
the necessity of man's state, that scarcely any fact connected 
with the mind, or with spiritual truth, can be described, but 
in language borrowed from material things. To words exclu- 
sively spiritual or abstract, we can attach no definite conception. 

257. And God is pleased to condescend to our necessity. 
He leads us to new knowledge by means of what is 
already known. He reveals himself in terms pre- a 
viously familiar. If he speak of himself, it must be in words 
originally suggested by the operations of the senses. If he 
speak of heaven, it is in figures taken from the scenes of the 
earth. 

We say that God "condescends to our necessity." This is 
true : but it might be said with as much truth, that God having 
stamped his own image upon natural things, employs them to 
describe and illustrate himself. " The visible world is the dial- 
plate of the invisible." Spiritual thoughts were first embo- 
died in natural symbols; and those symbols are now employed 
to give ideas of spiritual truth. To the devout man, espe- 
cially, the seen and the unseen world are so closely blended, 
that he finds it difficult to separate them. The world of na- 
ture is to him an emblem, and a witness of the world of spirits. 
They proceed from the same hand. In his view, 

Earth 

Is but the shadow of heaven, and things therein, 
Are each to other like. 

It is impossible to avoid the conviction, that many of the 
15 



170 



EXPRESSIONS TAKEN FROM MAN. 



figures of the Bible have originated in such a habit, and are 
the offspring of exquisite taste and devout piety. 

Nor is it only from the nature of spiritual truth, or from 
the marvellous connection which subsists between material 
and spiritual things, that the inspired writers employ the lan- 
guage of figure. Such language is often most appropriate, 
because of its impressiveness and beauty. It conveys ideas 
to the mind with more vividness than prosaic description. It 
charms the imagination, while instructing the judgment, and 
it impresses the memory, by interesting the heart. 

258. (1.) Sometimes, for example, common things are asso- 

ciated in Scripture with what is spiritual. 

Common 
things sug- 
gest reli- God dwells in "light." He sets up his "kingdom." 
gious eims. -g eaven - g ^ « throne." The Christian's faith is described 
in the same order of terms. He " handles" the word of life. He "sees" 
him who is invisible. He "comes" to Christ, and he "leans" upon him. 

259. (2.) Sometimes the Bible, borrowing comparisons from 

ourselves, speaks of God as having human affections, 
and performing human actions. 

Hands, eyes, and feet are ascribed to God ; and the meaning is, that 
he has power to execute all such acts, as those organs in us are instru- 
mental in effecting. He is called "the Father," because he is the creator 
and supporter of man, and especially because he is the author of spir- 
itual life. He "lifts up the light of his countenance" when he mani- 
fests his presence and love (Psa. iv. 6). and " he hides his face " (Psa. x. 
1) when these blessings are withheld. 

In Gen. vi., it is said, " It repented the Lord that he had made man," 
i. e., he had no longer pleasure in his work, so unpleasing and unprofit- 
able had man become by transgression. 

In Gen. xviii. 21, he says, " I will go and see," to imply that he should 
examine the doings of men before he condemned them. 

In Jer. vii. 13, he says, "I spake unto you, rising up early and speak- 
ing," to imply the interest he felt in their welfare, and the care he had 
taken to instruct them. 

In Dan. iv. 35, it is said "he doeth according to his will," i.e., not 
capriciously, but independently of men, and so as justly to require our 
entire submission. 



EXPRESSIONS TAKEN FKOM JEWISH EITES. 171 



It may be observed generally, that though there is some analogy 
between the love and wisdom, the knowledge and holiness, which we 
ascribe to God, and those same faculties in men, there is a great differ- 
ence between them. The faculties in God are infinitely more noble, 
though there is enough of resemblance in the expressions of each, to 
justify the application of the same terms. 

Two remarks, in reference to the employment of this ana- 
logical language, are important. 

260. (1.) The figures which are used in speaking of spiritual 
truth are not used, as in common description, to give such terms 
an unnatural greatness or dignity to the obj ects they ag&^rat?" 
describe. The things represented have much more truth ' 

of reality and perfection in them than the things by which we 
represent them. It is so in all such language. The mind 
weighs arguments, and that action is more noble than the me- 
chanical habit from which the expression is taken. God sees 
much more perfectly than the eye : and the light in which he 
dwells is very feebly represented by the material element to 
which that name is applied. When it is said that the church 
is the bride of Christ, the earthly relation is but a lower form 
of the heavenly ; in the same way as earthly kingdoms and 
earthly majesty are but figures and faint shadows of the true. 
The figurative language, then, which we are compelled to em- 
ploy when speaking of spiritual things, is much within the 
truth, and never beyond it. 

261. (2.) It is a necessary result of the employment of such 
language, that figurative expressions are sometimes 0ften used 
used in different senses. in different 

senses. 

If God is said, for example, to repent, and to turn from the evil which 
he had threatened against sinners, and in other places it is said that God 
is "not a man, that he should lie; neither the son of man, that he should 
repent"' (Numb, xxiii. 19), in the first it is meant that God changes his 
dealings with sinners when they change : and in the second, that there 
is no fickleness or untruthfulness in him. 

In Psa. xviii. 11, God is said to make "darkness his secret place," and 
in 1 Tim. vi. 16, he is said to dwell in light. In the first case, darkness 
means inscrutableness, and in the second, light mean? purity, intelli- 



172 



EXPRESSIONS TAKEN FBOM JEWISH KITES. 



gence, or honor. In Exod. xxxiii. 11, it is said that God "spake unto 
Moses face to face," and in ver. 20 he declares that no man can see his 
face and live. In the first passage, the expression means to have inter- 
course without the intervention of another; in the second, to have a 
full and familiar sight of the Divine glory. 

-The same word (it has been remarked) expresses in Hebrew "to 
bless" and "to curse," and this dissimilarity of meaning has excited 
surprise. The word originally means "to bend the knee," and that a<;t 
was equally appropriate in asking a favor for others and in denouncing 
them. 

262. (3.) It may be remarked, further, that the Bible often 
speaks of spiritual truth in terms suggested by the 
jSShhia- facts of Jewish history, or by rites of Divine insti- 
tory ' tution. 

The idea of holiness, e. g., for which in its Christian sense the heathen 
have no word, was suggested to the Jews by means of a special institu- 
tion. All animals, common to Palestine, were divided into clean and 
unclean. From the clean, one was chosen without spot or blemish: a 
peculiar tribe, selected from the other tribes, was appointed to present 
it; the offering being first washed with clean water, and the priest him- 
self undergoing a similar ablution. Neither the priest, nor any of the 
people, nor the victim, however, was deemed sufficiently holy to come 
into the Divine presence, but the offering was made without the holy 
place. The idea of the infinite purity of God was thus suggested to the 
mind of observers, and holiness in things created came to mean, under 
the law, " purification for sacred uses," and under the Gospel, freedom 
from sdn, and the possession, or spiritual intelligences, of a ''Divine 
nature." 

The demerit of sin and the doctrine of an atonement were taught in 
words taken from equally significant rites. The victim was slain, and 
its blood (which was the life) was sprinkled upon the mercy seat, and 
towards the holy place ; and while the people prayed in the outer court, 
they beheld the dark volume of smoke ascending from the sacrifice, 
which was burning in their stead. How plainly did this suggest that 
God's justice was a consuming fire, and that the souls of the people 
escaped only through a vicarious atonement ! The ideas thus suggested 
were intended to continue through all time, and we find them often ex- 
pressed in terms borrowed from these ancient institutions. 

Under the law. a sain, the priests were clothed in white linen, and 
dressed in splendid apparel. Expressions taken from these customs are 
hence employed to indicate the purity and dignity of the redeemed. 



FIGURATIVE EXPRESSIONS. 



173 



The whole of Jewish history is in the same way suggestive 
of spiritual truth and of analogous expressions. 

Men are the "slaves" of sin. Their road is through the "desert." 
They cross the " Jordan " of death. They enter the " rest " that remains for 
the people of God. They have their "forerunner:" their prophet: their 
priest, who is also called in prophecy after the days of Saul, their king. 

263. (4.) It may be remarked again, that many of the ex- 
pressions of the New Testament are employed in Manyterm * 
senses entirely unknown to the common writers of used iu new 

J senses. 

the Greek tongue. 

The New Testament term for humility meant, in classic Greek, mean- 
spiritedness, and though Plato has used the word once or twice, to indi- 
cate a humble spirit, this is confessedly an unusual meaning, De leg. iv. 
The Greeks had no virtue under that name, and even Cicero remarks, 
that meekness is merely a blemish. De Off. iii. 32. Grace in the sense 
of Divine unmerited favor: Justification as an evangelical Dlessing: God 
as a holy, self-existent merciful Being : Faith as an instrument of holi- 
ness, and essential to pardon: all these terms are used in Greek, and 
in all versions of the New Testament, with peculiar meaning. To us 
all, they are old words in a new sense. All language exhibits similar 
changes: "calamity " meant originally, in the language from which it is 
taken, the loss of standing corn (calamus): "sycophant" meant fig- 
informer, and "sincerity," without wax, alluding to the practice of the 
potter in concealing the flaws of his vessels: but in Scripture, such 
changes are unusually numerous. Happily, however, there need be no 
misapprehension concerning the terms which are thus employed, as 
Scripture itself has defined the ideas they convey, sometimes by a refer- 
ence to the old dispensation, sometimes by a formal or indirect explana- 
tion of the terms themselves. 

264. It may aid the reader in interpreting Scripture, to 
know how the various figures which our condition Figures 
compels us to use in speaking of spiritual truth, are classi fie<*. 
classed and named by grammarians. A knowledge of the 
names is not essential, but a knowledge of the differences on 
which the classification is founded may often prove so. 

265. When a word, which usage has appropriated to one 
thing, is transferred to another, there is a trope or 

figure: and the expression is tropical or figurative. no v e > etc ' 
15* 



174 



ALLEGORICAL NARRATIVES. 



If, however, the first signification of a word is no lvmgei ased, ' 
the tropical sense becomes the proper one. The Hebrew 
word "to bless," for example, meant originally "to bend the 
knee," but it is not used in Scripture with that sense, and 
therefore "to bless" is said to be the proper, and not a figura- 
tive meaning. 

When there is some resemblance between the two things to 
which a word is applied, the figure is called a Metaphor, aa 
" Judah is a lion's whelp," Gen. xlix. 9. " I am the true Vine," 
John xv. 1. 

When there is no resemblance, but only a connection between 
them, the figure is called Synecdoche: as when a cup is used 
for what it contains, 1 Cor. xi. 27 : or as when a part is put 
for the whole, " my flesh" for " my body," in Psa. xvi. 9. 

When the connection is not visible, or is formed in the 
mind, as when the cause is put for the effects, or the sign for 
the thing signified, the figure is called Metonymy, as in John 
xiii. 8. " If I wash thee not, thou hast no part with me," 
where by wash is meant purify or cleanse. Sometimes the 
figure is explained in Scripture itself, as in 1 Pet. iii. 21, where 
baptism is explained as there meaning " the answer of a good 
conscience toward God." 

All the foregoing figures refer to single words. The follow- 
ing refer to several words, as they make a continued represen- 
tation or narrative. 

266. Any statement of supposed facts which admits of a 
A.iiegories literal interpretation and requires or justly admits 
classified. a mora i r figurative one, is called an Allegory. 
It is to narrative or story what trope is to single words, adding 
to the literal meaning of the terms employed a moral or spir- 
itual one. Sometimes the allegory is pure, that is, contains 
no direct reference to the application of it, as in the history 
of the prodigal son. Sometimes it is mixed, as in Psa. lxxx., 
where it is plainly intimated (ver. 17) that the Jews are the 
people whom the vine is intended to represent. 

When the allegory is written in the style of history, and is. 



ALLEGORICAL NARRATIVES. 



175 



confined to occurrences that may have taken place, ^ rables ' 
it is called a Parable. 

When the allegory contains statements of occurrences, 
which, from their very nature could not have happened, it 
is called a Fable. (Judges ix. 6-21 : 2 Kings xiv. 9 : 2 
Chron. xxv. 18.) 

When the resemblances on which an allegory is founded are 
remote and abstruse, it is called a Riddle. Nothing, however, 
need be said of Scripture riddles, as their hidden meaning is 
always explained. (Judges xiv. 14: Prov. xxx. 15-21.) 

When the resemblance between two persons or things is 
represented, not in words, but in some action or object, the 
object or action, which has, so to speak, the double meaning, 
a literal and a spiritual one, is called a Type. It is a double 
representation in action, as an allegory is a double represen- 
tation in words. 

When the act or thing which is represented is present, or 
past, or near at hand, the act which represents it is called a 
Symbol, and is said to be symbolical. Baptism is thus an 
outward and visible sign of an inward and spiritual grace; 
and the bread we eat in the holy supper, and the wine we 
drink, are symbolically the body and the blood of Christ. 
(Seej also, 1 Kings xi. 30 : 2 Kings xiii. 14-19 : Jer. xxvii. 
2-8 ; xiii. 1-7 ; xviii. 2-10.) Some things, as the Passover, 
are both symbols and types. They commemorate one event, 
and they prefigure another. Language drawn from types 
and symbols is subject to the same rules as ordinary figures 
of speech. 

267. Tropical, or figurative, then, is a general term, applied 
to words or single expressions, and includes meta- ^ . 
phor, synecdoche, and metonymy; allegorical, again, anlaiie- 
is a general term, applied to continuous narrative, gonca " 
and is used whenever the narrative (whether it be a riddle, or 
fable, or parable, or common history) has, or receives, a double 
meaning. Typical refers to an action with a double meaning, 
and generally relates to something future ; symbolical refers 



176 



STUDY NEEDED. 



to actions with a double meaning, and relates generality to 
something past or at hand. 

268. These figures of speech, it may be noticed, are not 
Common in P ecu li ar to the language of the Bible. They are 
aiiianeuase. f oun( J i n a ll languages; but, as they are most com- 
mon in those which are most ancient, and are necessary to 
enable us to speak impressively or intelligibly even, of spir- 
itual truth, they are very frequent in Scripture. To compre- 
hend parts of Scripture, therefore, and to avoid error in inter- 
preting it, it is specially important that we should understand 
them. 

269. Let, then, these various facts be combined. Scripture 

was written by different persons, at remote periods, 

Summary. . ,'. 

m distant countries, amidst manners and customs 
altogether unlike our own, on subjects of the greatest extent 
and variety — civil, ecclesiastical, historical, prophetic ; the 
latter, especially, requiring terms both precise and ambiguous, 
and the whole expressed in dead languages, and in terms to a 
great degree analogical and figurative. Be it remembered, 
also, as we have seen, that the grand theme of Scripture ex- 
tends through all time, involving truths and precepts (the 
former both physical and moral), with which our reason and 
experience are but little conversant ; that it is not confined 
to time, but includes in its connections both worlds ; that all 
its disclosures are comprehended in a narrow space, and 
treated with much brevity ; and it will at once be clear how 
much learning is needed to make these things plain. There 
is, in fact, in Locke's definition of theology, a literal truth. 
It. is the direction of all knowledge to its true end, the glory 
of the eternal God, and the everlasting welfare of the human 
race. 

Sec. 2. — Of the Spirit in which the Bible should be 
Studied. 

" God has determined that Divine things shall enter through the heart 
Unto the' mind, and not through the mind into the heart. In Divine 



SPIRIT OF STUDY. 



177 



things, therefore, it is necessary to love them, in order to know them, 
and we enter into truth only through charity." — Pascal (Pt. i., \ 3). 

" He who has not believed will not experience, and he who has not 
experienced cannot know." — Anselm. 

" The theologian must himself believe the doctrines which he studies. 
Without this moral qualification, it is impossible to obtain a true insight 
into theological truth." — Tholuck (Lectures on Methodology, Bibl. 
Rep., 1844). 

" An inward interest in the doctrines of theology is needful for a Bib- 
lical interpreter. The study of the New Testament presupposes as an 
indispensable requisite, a sentiment of piety and religious experience. 
The Scripture will not be rightly and spiritually comprehended unless 
the Spirit of God become himself the interpreter of his words ; the 
angelus interpres to open to us the true meaning." — Hagesbach. 

" Pectus est quod facit theologum." — Neander's Motto. 

270. The first place is due, when we speak of the study of 
t]ie Bible, to the exercise of a humble and devout Teachab]Q 
mind. It becomes us, first of all, to cherish the s P irit - 
habit of earnest and reverential attention to all it reveals, and 
to seek that inward teaching of the Holy Spirit which God 
has promised to them that ask him. This is, perhaps, not 
strictly a rule of interpretation, but it is essential to the appli- 
cation of all rules. An analogous truth is admitted in relation 
to every other subject of inquiry. To appreciate true poetry, 
there must be a poetic taste. The study of philosophy requires 
a philosophic spirit. An inquirer into the processes of na- 
ture needs, above all, to be imbued with the temper of the 
inductive system which Bacon taught ; nor should this truth 
be questioned when it is applied to the study of the Bible. 

271. Men need Divine teaching, not because of the peculiar 
difficulty of Scripture language, nor because of the Grigin of 
incomprehensibility of Scripture doctrine — for the this need - 
things most misunderstood are the things which are revealed 
most clearly — but because, without that teaching, men will 
not learn, nor can they know those truths which are revealed 
only to those who feel them. When Christ appeared, the light 
shone in the darkness, and the darkness comprehended it not. 
Unholy affection had surrounded the mental eye with the very 
opposite of clear, " dry light," and had impaired the organ 
itself. Blindness of heart produced ignorance ; and alienation 



ITS 



SPIRIT OF STUDY. 



"from the life of God" was at once the cause and 
and how the aggravated effect of an "understanding dark- 
supplied. enec ^" Eph. iv. 18. The source of this teaching is 
clearly revealed: Christians are "all taught of the Lord;" 
and he who gave to the Ephesian Church " the spirit of wisdom 
and revelation," was "the God of our Lord Jesus Christ, the 
Father of glory," Eph. i. 17. The means of securing this 
teaching is equally revealed. " The meek will he guide in 
judgment, the meek will he teach his way." He that is will- 
ins to do His will " shall know of the doctrine, whether it be 
of God," John vii. 17. " If any of you lack wisdom, let him 
ask of God . . . and it shall be given him." A child-like do- 
cility, an obedient heart, a dependent and prayerful frame, are 
evidently essential to the successful study of Divine trutH 
"Bene orasse est be?ie studuisse" is, therefore, an aphorism, 
subordinately, indeed, of Luther's, but really of God's. 

272. It is necessary L however, in order to complete this 

truth, to add, that the spirit of God does not com- 

A teachable . r . 

spirit dis- mumcate to the mind of even a teachable, obedient, 
revealed and devout Christian, any doctrine or meaning of 
Scripture which is not contained already in Scrip- 
ture itself. He makes men wise up to what is written, but not 
beyond it. When Christ opened the understanding of his 
apostles, it was "that they might understand the Scripture?," 
Luke xxiv. 45. When he opened Lydia's heart she attended 
to the things that were spoken by Paul: David prayed that 
God would be pleased to open his eyes, that he might behold 
wondrous things out of the Divine laiv, Psa. cxix. IS. " The 
Bible, and through the Bible," indicates, therefore, at once, 
the subject and the method of Divine wisdom. Whatever is 
taught contrary to it, or in addition, or without its aid, is to be 
ascribed to the spirit of darkness, or to ourselves. 

273. This first principle of Bible interpretation is taken 

from the Bible itself. It occupies the 'same place, 

This order r . . 

sanctioned -j- 00 m the teaching of our Lord, who, in his first 

by our Lord. ' ° 

recorded discourse, assured Nicoclemus that "ex- 



RULES OF INTERPRETATION — FIE ST RULE. 179 

cept a man be born again, lie cannot see" — can neither under- 
stand the nature nor share the blessedness of — " the kingdom 
of God," John iii. 3. 

Compare, also, 1 Cor. ii. 14 : 1 Cor. xii. 8 : 1 Cor i. 21 : 1 John ii. 20, 
27: 2 Cor. iv. 1-6: 1 Pet. ii. 1: James i. 21: Psa. xxv. 4, 5; cxix. 12, 
IS : 2 Tim. iii. 13, etc. 

Sec. 3. — Of Eules of Interpretation. 

" Strict grammatical analysis, and the rigid observance of exegetical 
rules, lead to the same views of truth as are entertained by the theolo- 
gians, who bring to the study of the Bible strong sense and devout 
piety." — Tholuck. 

" The various controversies among interpreters have commonly led 
to the admission that the old Protestant views of the meaning of the 
Bacred text are the correct views."- — Winer. 

" He that shall be content to use these means, and will lay aside the 
prejudices . . . which many bring with them to every question, will be 
honored to gain an understanding of Scripture ; if not in all things, 
yet in most ; if not immediately, yet ultimately." — Whitakee (Disput. 
of Scrip., p. 473). 

" The most illiterate Christian, if he can but read his English Bible, 
and will take the pains to read it in this manner, will not only attain 
all that practical knowledge which is essential to salvation, but, by 
God's blessing, he will become learned in everything relating to his 
religion in such a degree that he will not be liable to be misled, either 
by the refuted arguments, or the false assertions of those who endeavor 
to engraft their own opinions upon the oracles of God." — Hoesley. 

274. Whether words are used literally or tropically, the first 
rule of interpretation is to ascertain the sense in 

i-i i i i a tit First rule: 

wmcn general usage employs them. As all the usage of 

r ,i i oi • i language. 

writers ol the sacred bcriptures wrote or spoke to 
be understood, we must interpret their language as we inter- 
pret the language of common life. 

They tell us, for example, that " there is none that doeth good ;" a 
figuratively, that "all flesh has corrupted his way ;" b affirm- 
ing the same truth in two different forms. They state that Examples * 
repentance is necessary to forgiveness ; c and that both repentance and 
forgiveness are the gifts of Christ. d All the great doctrines of the Gos- 



a Rom. iii. 12. 
c Isa. lv. 7. 



b Gen. vi. 12. 
d Acts v. 31. 



180 



FIEST RULE — HEBRAISMS. 



pel are stated in language equally simple and decisive : the existence 
and perfections of God ; the unity of Jehovah, of God the Father, the 
Son, and the Holy Spirit ; the fall of man ; the corruption of human 
nature ; our moral responsibility ; redemption through the atonement of 
Christ ; the renewal of the heart by the influence of the Holy Spirit ; 
the freeness and sovereignty of Divine grace ; the progressive holiness 
of Christians, and their final and eternal blessedness. If language have 
meaning, these doctrines are taught in innumerable passages of the 
Bible, and in terms incapable of mistake. 

275. Simple, however, as this rule is, it is often broken in 
This rule the interpretation of the Scriptures. 

violated. 

Origen, for example, reading that Abraham married Keturah, in his 
old age, and learning that Keturah meant, in Hebrew, "sweet odour," 
and that "sweet odour" is specially applicable to such as have the fra- 
grance of righteousness in their character, thought that one most 
important meaning must be, that in his old age Abraham became emi- 
nently holy. 

276. A kindred error changes the plainest history into 
fable, and teaches us to regard the whole of the miracles of 
Christ as common occurrences, obscurely described. On this 
principle, Scripture history means nothing that is definite, or 
it means anything which a vivid fancy can imagine it to mean. 
In either case, the meaning is not in the Bible, but in the 
mind of the inquirer. 

277. But while, as a general rule, we are to understand the 

words of Scripture in their common sense, there are 
Hebraisms. gQme p ecu ij ar ities which need to be noticed. Being 
translated from the Hebrew with great literalness, the Eng- 
lish version often employs the idioms and expressions of that 
tongue, and those are to be understood, not according to the 
English, but according to the Hebrew idiom. 

(a.) The Jews, for example, frequently expressed a qualifying thought 
by the use, not of an adjective, but of a second noun; a 
how °ex- eS ' practice which may be traced in the Hebrew Greek of the 
pressed. ^ ew Testament. "Your work of faith, and labor of love, 
and patience of hope," means, "your believing work, and loving labor, 



FIRST RULE — HEBRAISMS. 



181 



and hopeful patience," 1 Thess. i. 3. So in Eph. i. 13, the "Spirit of 
promise" means the "promised Spirit." It must be carefully noted, 
however, that the second noun is not always to be regarded as an adjec- 
tive. Thus Rom. viii. 21, " the glorious liberty," should rather be "the 
liberty of the glory," v. 18. 

(b.) It was a common idiom of the Hebrew to call a person 
having a peculiar quality, or subject to a peculiar Q Ualities 
evil, the child or son of that quality. 

In 1 Sam. ii. 12, Eli's sons are called " sons of Belial," that is, of 
wickedness. In Luke x. 6, a " son of peace," means a person of gentle 
and attentive mind, disposed to give the gospel a willing reception. In 
Eph. v. 6-8, " children of disobedience," and " children of light," mean 
respectively, disobedient and enlightened persons. 

So Matt. xxiv. 15: Mark xiii. 14: Rom. vii. 24: 1 John iii. 10: Jas. 
ii. 4: Heb. i. 3: Rev. iii. 10. In some of these passages, however, the 
idiom is, perhaps, emphatic. 

(<?.) Comparison, again, is very peculiarly ex- c rigon> 
pressed in Hebrew. 

To love and to hate, for example, is a Hebrew expression for pre- 
ferring one thing to another. Thus it is said in Luke xiv. 26, " If any 
man come to me, and hate not his father;" for which we find, as in 
Matt. x. 37, " He that loveth father more than me." The same ex- 
pression is used in John xii. 25: in Rom. ix. 13 : in Gen. xxix. 18, 30, 
31 : and in Deut. xxi. 15. 

Comparison is sometimes intimated by the use of adverbs 
of negation. 

Thus in Gen. xlv. 8, "not you sent me hither, but God;" it was God 
rather than you. So Ex. xvi. 8: 1 Sam. viii. 7: Prov. viii. 10: Hos. 
vi. 6: Jer. vii. 22, 23. So in Mark ix. 37, "Whosoever shall receive 
me, receiveth not me, but him that sent me;" not so much, or not only 
me, but him. So in Matt. v. 39: Luke xiv. 12: John v. 22, 30, 45; 
vi. 27: Acts v. 4 : 1 Cor. i. 17: Eph. vi. 12: 1 Thess. iv. 8. 

(d.) Plural nouns are sometimes used in Hebrew to imply 
that there are more than one, though it may be to 

, , c . . , D J Plurals, 

one onlv that reierence is made. how used. 

16 



182 FIRST RULE — HEBRAISMS. 

Gen. viii. 4; xix. 29: Judges xii. V: Neh. iii. 8: Matt. xxiv. 1, where 
"his disciples" means one of them: Mark xiii. 1: Matt. xxvi. 8, and 
John xii. 4: Matt, xxvii. 44: Mark xv. 32, and Lnke xxiii. 39: Luke 
xxiii. 36, and Matt, xxvii. 48. In some of these instances, however, all 
or several shared in the sentiment, John xiii. 4. "Garments," i. e., one 
of them, the upper ; see Mark v. 27, 30 (original). 

(e.) The names of parents, or ancestors, are often used in 
Scripture for their posterity. 

Names r 
of ances- 
tors, etc. Thus in Gen. ix. 25, it is said, "Cursed be Canaan," i. e.; 

his posterity. This curse, it will be remembered, did not 

affect those of his posterity who were righteous ; for both Melchizedek 

and Abimelech were Canaanites, as was the woman who came to Christ, 

and whose daughter was healed, Gen. xiv. 18-20; xx. 6: Matt. xv. 22- 

28. In the same way Jacob and Israel are often put for the Israelites, 

as in Ex. ii. 24: Psa. xiv. 7 : 1 Kings xviii. 17, 18. 

(/.) The word " son" is sometimes used, by a Hebraism, 
Son. (common, indeed, to nearly all languages), for a 

remote descendant. 

The priests are called the sons of Levi. Mephibosheth is called the 
son of Saul, though he was the son of Jonathan, 2 Sam. xix. 24 : so 
Gen. xlvi. 22. Zechariah, the grandson of Iddo (Zech. i. 1), is called 
his son, Ezra v. 1. "Son" is thus used for any descendant, as "father" 
is used for any ancestor, 1 Chron. 1. 17. 

"Brother" is used in the same way for any collateral relation. It 
^ is thus applied by Abraham to Lot, who was his nephew* 

In one instance, too, the descendants of a man who mar- 
ried a daughter of Barzillai are called, from the name of their maternal 
ancestor's father, the children of Barzillai. b In the same way, Jair 
is called the son of Manasseh, because his grandfather had married 
the daughter of one of the heads of Manasseh. Mary is also thought 
to have descended from David in this way ; so that our Lord was 
David's son, not only through his reputed father, but by direct descent 
through his mother. 



a Gen. xiv. 16; xxix. 12, 15: so the word is probably used in John 
vii. 3 : Gal. i. 19. 
b Ezra ii. 61 : Neh. vii. 63. 



FIEST RULE — HEBRAISMS. 



183 



278. A knowledge of these last rules of speech will often 
correct apparent contradictions. Athaliah, for ex- Apparent 
ample, is called in 2 Kings, viii. 26, the daughter of Sons radlC * 
Omri, and in ver. xviii. she is called the daughter of corrected - 
Ahab. She was really Ahab's daughter, and Omri's grand- 
daughter. See, also, 1 Kings xv. 10, and 2 Chron. xiii. 2, and 
1 Chron. iii. 15, compared with 2 Chron. xxxvi. 9, 10. 

279. There are other peculiarities, semi-Hebraisms, which 
need to be named. 

(a) . Some numbers in Hebrew are used for an haruleffuse 
indefinite number. ofnumbers. 

" Ten," for example, means " several," as well as that precise num- 
ber, Gen. xxxi. 7 : Dan. i. 20. 

"Forty" means "many." Persepolis is called in Eastern language, 
"the city of forty towers;" though the number is much larger. This 
is probably the meaning in 2 Kings viii. 9, where Hazael is said to 
have brought as a present to Elisha forty camels' burden of the good 
things of Damascus. This is probably the meaning, too, in Ezek. xxix. 
11, 13. 

"Seven" and "seventy" are used to express a large axd complete, 
though an uncertain number, Prov. xxvi. 16, 25: Psa. cxix. 164: Lev. 
xxvi. 24, etc. We are commanded, for example, to forgive till seventy 
times seven, to indicate that, if our brother repent of his sin, there 
must be no end of our forgiveness. The seven demons cast out of 
Mary of Magdala indicate her extreme suffering, and, perhaps, her 
great wickedness. 

(b) . The Scriptures sometimes use a round number when 
not perfectly accurate. 1 

From Numb. xxv. 9, and 1 Cor. x. 8, we learn that between 23,000 
and 24,000 were slain by the plague. The first passage mentions 
24,000, and the second 23,000. In Judges xi. 26, 300 years is put for 
293. See Josh. iv. 19: Numb, xxxiii. 3: and compare xiv. 33: Judges 
xx. 46, 35: ix. 5, 18, 56. 

(c) . Occasionally, in Scripture, verbs denoting simple being 
or action are used, when only a declaration is in- 
tended, or even a mere supposition that the act is or ySSsof 
will be done, or regarded as done. action. 



184 



FIRST RULE — PROPER NAMES. 



In Lev. xiii. 3, 13, for example, where the priest is said to cleanse 
the leper; i. e., he declares him to be clean. The letter killeth ; that 
is, declares death as a consequence of sin, Eom. v. 20: Phil. iii. 7. 
See, also, Rom. iv. 15 ; vii. 9 ; 2 Cor. iii. 6. So, in prophecy, the 
speaker is said to do what he only foretells, Jer. i. 10: Ezek. xliii. 3: 
Isa. vi. 10. 

(d). In interpreting the words of Scripture, it needs to be 
Use of pro- noticed, that the proper names are used very pecu- 

per names. 

Different persons have often the same names. 

PharaoJi, (or ruler, from Phre, the sun) was the general name of the 
kings of Egypt from the time of Abraham till the invasion of Egypt 
by the Persians, as Ptolemy was the common name of their kings after 
the death of Alexander. Abimelech (meaning my father, the king) 
eeems to have been the common name of the kings of the Philistines ; 
Agag was the name of the kings of the Amalekites ; as was Benhadad 
(the son of the sun) of the kings of Damascus. Among the Romans, 
Augustus Csesar was the common title of their emperors. The Augus- 
tus mentioned in Luke ii. 1 was the second of that name. The Cassar 
who reigned when Christ was crucified was Tiberius. The emperor to 
whom Paul appealed, and who is called both Augustus and C^sar, was 
Nero, Acts xxv. 21. The Egyptian and the Philistine kings seem to 
have had, like the Romans, a proper as well as a common name. We 
read, for example, of Pharaoh Necho and of Pharaoh Hophra; and 
the Abimelech mentioned in Psa. xxxiv. is called Achish in 1 Sam. 
xxi. 11. 

In the New Testament, several very different persons are known 
^ k under the common name of Herod. Herod the Great, as 
he is called in profane history, was he who slew in his old 
age the young children at Bethlehem. It was he who rebuilt and de- 
corated the Temple, and enlarged Csesarea. Pie was notorious for his 
jealousy and cruelty. On his death, the half of his kingdom (includ- 
ing Judcea and Samaria) was given to his son Archelaus ; most of Gali- 
lee was given to his son Herod the Tetrarch, or king, Luke iii. I: Matt, 
xiv. 9 ; and some other parts of Syria and Galilee to his third son, 
Philip Herod. It was Herod the Tetrarch who beheaded John, and 
mocked our Lord in his last sufferings. His conduct towards Herodias, 
his niece and sister-in-law, ended in his being banished to Gaul. The 
dominions of both Herod and Philip were ultimately given to his 
nephew, the brother of Herodias, Herod Agrippa, who is called m 



FIRST RULE — PROPER NAMES. 



185 



Scripture, Herod only. In the end, he possessed all the territory in 
Palestine which had belonged to his grandfather, Herod the Great. 
He was the murderer of the apostle James, and died miserably and 
suddenly at Oaesarea. His son was Herod Agrippa, called in the New 
Testament Agrippa only. It was before him that Paul was brought 
by Festus. The character of this man was very different from that of 
his father, and a knowledge of the fact that they were not the same 
man is essential to a clear understanding of the history. 

Different places have often the same name. 

Csesarea is the name of two cities ; one called Csesarea Philippi, in 
Galilee ; the other on the shore of the Mediterranean. The one men- 
tioned throughout the Acts of the Apostles was the port whence travel- 
lers generally left Judfea for Rome. 

Antioch, in Syria, again, is the place where Paul and Barnabas 
commenced their labors, and where the followers of Christ were first 
called Christians. The Antioch of Acts xiii. 14, and of 2 Tim. iii. 11, 
is in Phrygia. 

There is a Mizpeh ("watch-tower") in Mount Gilead, where Jephtha 
resided where Jacob and Laban made their covenant, Gen. xxxi. 49: 
Judges xi. 34; a Mizpeh of Moab, 1 Sam. xxii. 3, perhaps the same aa 
the previous ; a Mizpeh of Gibeah, where Samuel resided, and where 
Saul was chosen king, 1 Sam. vii. 11 ; and there is also a Mizpeh in the 
tribe of Judah, Josh. xv. 38. 

Sometimes the same name is applied to a person and to a 
place. 

Magog, for example, is the name of a son of Japheth, and it is also 
the name of the country occupied by a people called Gog, probably the 
Scythians, or, as they are now called, the Tartars, Ezek. xxxviii.: Rev. 
xx. 8. The Turks have sprung from the same stock. 

The same persons and places have sometimes different 
names. 

The father-in-law of Moses, for example, is called Hobab and Jethro, 
Judges iv. 11: Ex. iii. 1. Reuel was perhaps his wife's grandfather, 
though called her father, Ex. ii. 18. Levi is the same as Matthew. 
Thomas and Didymus are the same person; the words meaning a twin. 
Thaddeus, Lebbseus, and Judas, are all names of the apostle Jude. Syl- 
vanus, Lucas Timotheus, are Latin forms of Silas, Luke, and Timothy; 
the last throe belong to our translation, not to the original. 
16* 



186 



FIRST RULE — PROPER NAMES. 



Horeb and Sinai are names now and anciently applied to different 
peaks of the same range of mountains ; and both names are sometimes 
applied to the whole range. 

Cesaroea (of Galilee) was called Laish, and then Dan, 1 Kings xii. 29 • 
Judges xviii. 29. 

The Lake of Gennesareth was anciently called the Sea of Cinnereth, 
afterwards the Sea of Galilee, or the Sea of Tiberias, Matt. iv. 18 : John 
xxi. 1. 

The modern Abyssinia is called Ethiopia, and sometimes Cush ; the 
latter name, however, being applied generally to Arabia or to India ; 
hence, probably, Chusistan. Greece is called Javan and Greece, Isa. 
lxvi. 19: Zech. ix. 13. Egypt is called Ham and Rahab, Psa. lxxviii. 
51 : Isa. li. 9. 

The Dead Sea is called the Sea of the Plain, from its occupying, or 
adjoining, the plain on which the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah once 
stood ; the East Sea, from its position in relation to Jerusalem ; and 
sometimes the Salt Sea, 2 Kings xiv. 25 : Gen. xiv. 3. 

The Nile is called in Scripture Sihor, Josh. xiii. 3, but more com- 
monly the River ; both names, however, being applied also to other 
streams. 

The Mediterranean Sea is sometimes called the Sea of the Philistines, 
who resided on its coasts ; or the Utmost Sea; or, more commonly, the 
Great Sea, Ex. xxiii. 31 : Deut. xi. 21: Numb. xxxh r . 6, 7. 

The Holy Land is called Canaan; the Land of Israel, of Judaea; 
Palestine, or the Land of the Shepherds ; and the Land of Promise, Ex. 
xv. 14: 1 Sam. xiii. 19: Isa. xiv. 29: Heb. xi. 9. 

280. The careful recognition of the different application of 
proper names is of great moment, especially in reconciling 
apparent contradictions in sacred Scripture. 

Ahaziah, for example, the son of Jehoram, is called Azariah and 
Jehoahaz, 2 Kings viii. 29: 2 Chron. xxii. 6; xxi. 17. 

Jehoahaz, the son of Josiah, is called Johanan and Shallum, 2 Kings 
xxiii. 30 : 1 Chron. iii. 15 : Jer. xxii. 11. 

Jehoiada, the priest, is called Johanan and, probably, Barachias, 2 
Chron. xxiv. 20 : 1 Chron. vi. 9 : Matt, xxiii. 35. The meaning of all 
these names is similar. 

Uzziah is called Azariah ; Nathaniel, Bartholomew. In such instances, 
the different names have often the same meaning. 



281. It is obvious, however, that a word has often various 



RULES OF INTERPRETATION — SECOND RULE. 



187 



senses, each of which is sanctioned by general ^fusage, 
usage. We need, therefore, a second rule of inter- If^dby 
pretation ; to fix the meaning of a word, it is rest of 
necessary to mark the meaning of the other words tence. 
with which it is connected in the sentence; i. e., we must 
ascertain the sense in which general usage employs it in its 
particular connection. 

Faith, for example, sometimes means the gospel (of which faith in 
Christ is the great doctrine), as in Gal. i. 23, "he now 
preacheth the faith which once he destroyed." And so in J-j£2' ra " 
1 Tim. iii. 9 ; iv. 1 : Acts xxiv. 24. It means, again, truth 
or faithfulness, as in Rom. iii. 3, "shall their unbelief make the faith 
of God without effect?" An so in Titus ii. 10 (orig.), and probably in 
Gal. v. 22. It means, further, in one passage, proof of evidence, Acts 
xvii. 31 (Gr.) It means a conscientious conviction of duty, as in Rom. 
xiv. 23 ; or, most comprehensively, that exercise of the mind and heart 
which receives spiritual and Divine truth (Heb. xi.); or, more specifi- 
cally, the repose of the mind and heart in the work of Christ as the 
ground of our pardon and the means of our holiness (Rom. iii. 28). 

Flesh means sometimes what is tender and teachable, as in Ezek. 
xi. 19, "I will give you a heart of flesh;" where it is opposed to a heart 
of stone. It means, also, human nature, without any reference to its 
sinfulness, John i. 14 : Rom. i. 3 ; ix. 3 ; or, more commonly, human 
nature as corrupt and sinful, Rom. viii. 5: Eph. ii. 3. Another mean- 
ing is, all that is outward and ceremonial in religion, as distinguished 
from what is inward and spiritual, as in Gal. vi. 12; iii. 3; where it 
refers more especially to the ceremonies of the Mosaic ritual (compare 
Phil. iii. 3). 

Salvation means in some places outward safety and deliverance, as 
in Ex. xiv. 13: Acts vii. 25 (orig.); or healing, as in James v. 15; 
where, in the case of a sick Christian, the prayer of faith is said to 
save, i.e., heal, the sick. Its more common meaning, however, is in 
reference to spiritual blessing; when it sometimes includes justification 
for as much of our salvation as is completed on earth; as in Enh. ii. 
8 : Luke i. 77 ; or, more frequently, the whole of the blessing which 
Christ has secured for believers, beginning with forgiveness, and ending 
in eternal glory, Rom. xiii. 11. Sometimes it means simply the Gospel, 
as in Heb. ii. 3, where it is said to be "spoken by the Lord, and con- 
firmed unto us by them that heard him." 

In the same way, blood is used in Scripture with several meanings : 



188 



SECOND RULE — FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 



God "liath made of one blood all nations of men," Acts xvii. 26, i.e., 
they have a common origin or nature. To give the wicked blood to 
drink, is to place in their hands the cup of death. In Matt, xxvii. 25T 
"His blood be on us, and on our children," means, the guilt of having 
put him to death : " his death" (that is, the guilt of it) be upon us. In 
Rom. v. 9, the Christian is said to be justified by the blood of Christ; 
and in Heb. ix. 14, the blood of Christ is said to "purge our consciences 
from dead works." The robes of the redeemed are made white in the 
blood of the Lamb. In these passages, the blood of Christ means his 
"obedience unto death," "the offering of himself " on the cross, the 
ground of our justification, the instrument and motive of our holiness. 

The general meaning of the word geace is "favor." As applied to 
God, it means the unmerited favor exercised by him towards men, as in 
2 Tim. i. 9, "According to His own purpose and grace." It means, 
moreover, all the different gifts of that grace: justification, as in Rom. 
v. 15 ; strength and holiness, as in 2 Cor. xii. 9, "My grace is sufficient 
for thee;" and eternal glory, 1 Pet. i. 13." The "word of his grace" is 
the Gospel, in Acts xiv. 3. So in Heb. xiii. 9, it means doctrines of the 
Gospel, and not meats or rites. 

" In nearly all these passages, the meaning of the words is fixed by 
the position in which they stand. The general ideas which the words 
suggest are defined by their particular connection. 

282. The rule which thus helps us to select, out of the many 
Ruieap- meanings of a word, the single meaning which is 
Egurative appropriate to the place, helps us also to determine 
language, whether the word is used literally or figuratively. 
If, on reading the sentence, it is found that the words, in their 
proper sense, involve a contradiction or an impossibility, it 
becomes plain that there is a figure of speech. 

In 1 Pet. ii. 5, for example, Christians are called " living stones." In 
Rom. xiii. 12, they are exhorted to "put on the armor of light." In 1 
Pet. i. 13, they are said "to gird up the loins of their mind." In all 
these passages, the connection of each word shows it to be figurative. 
Taken alone, it may be figurative, or it may be literal ; but in its pre- 
sent connection, the literal interpretation would be incongruous. Thus, 
again, the washing which the apostle states Christians to have received 
(1 Cor. vi. 11) is clearly figurative; for it is "by the Spirit of our God." 
The command of our Lord, "Let the dead bury their dead" (Matt. viii. 
22), must be understood figuratively, and means, let the worldly-minded 



THIRD RULE— CONTEXT. 



189 



attend to worldly concerns. The words of Christ, " This is my blood," 
are figurative ; the literal interpretation of them being repugnant to 
reason and Scripture. 

In the use of figurative language, the inspired writers seem 
to have selected their expressions on the principle N t f 
of resemblance. figurative 

language 01 

What is grand in nature is used to express what is digni- Scil P ture - 
fied and important among men : the heavenly bodies, mountains, stately 
trees, designating kingdoms, or those in authority ; the lower ground, 
the branches, and the earth generally, designating the mass of the 
people. 

Political changes are represented by earthquakes, tempests, eclipses, 
the turning of rivers and seas into blood, Jer. iv. 23-28 : Isa. xiii. 10, 
13: Matt. xxiv. 29: Acts ii. 19. 

Things which have a fertilizing influence, as dew, showers, streams, 
are used to represent spiritual blessings, Isa. xxv. 6 : John iv. 13, 14. 

The qualities of animals are referred to in figurative expressions ; 
beasts and birds of prey being emblems of oppressors. 

A horn signifies power, Dan. viii. A rod, the exercise of power in 
chastening. Light and darkness express joy and sorrow, knowledge 
and ignorance, prosperity and adversity, holiness and sin. a Marriage 
often denotes a covenant with God ; adultery, the violation of that 
covenant by idolatry. A vineyard often denotes a church ; if it bear 
wild grapes, it is unfruiiuil; if its enclosures are broken down, it is 
afflicted or corrupt, Isa. v. 1-7. 

This rule will not determine, in all cases, whether words 
are to bo understood literally or figuratively ; but it will go 
far to decide m most. Other rules will be found noticed 
below. 

283. But, while the words employed, or their connection in 
the sentence, will often suggest the meaning, it is Thirdrule . 
sometimes necessary to look beyond the words, and the context, 
even the sentence, to the context; and there we find — ■ 

284. (1.) Words and passages explained in the language of 
the inspired writers themselves, sometimes by definitions, and 

by examples; sometimes by expressions which limit 
the meaning. 



Esthe 



r viii. 16: Isa. v. 20: Psa. xcvii. 11: Eph. v. 14. 



190 



THIED EULE — CONTEXT. 



In Heb. xi., for instance, Faith is first described, and then illus- 
trated. It is said to be a confident expectation of things 
Examples. ^oped f or . a perfect persuasion of things not seen : and 
then examples are given of both parts of the definition. In Noah, il 
was perfect persuasion of the truth of God in regard to the Deluge. In 
Abraham it was confident expectation of the fulfilment of the promise 
made to himself, and to his seed. If the Divine word speak of mercies, 
faith hopes for them ; if of things purely spiritual and future, faith 
believes in them. 

Perhaps no passage illustrates better than this the difficulty of mak- 
ing a good translation ; and the wisdom of God in giving us a Bible 
of examples, rather* than of definitions. The word "substance' is a 
literal translation of the original ; and means, whatever stands under 
and sustains all that is attached to it, whether subjects or qualities. 
No one word could have expressed more completely the idea of the 
original : and yet it is not clear. In Heb. i. 3, the same word is trans- 
lated "person," and in 2 Cor. xi. 17, "confidence" (of boasting): and 
both translations are correct. The full idea is that of well-founded or 
confident expectation. Faith is therefore, as to things hoped for, a 
thing on which real or substantial confidence may rest. It is, more- 
over, the evidence of things not seen. The full idea here, again, is, 
such evidence of things not seen as silences doubt and refutes opposi- 
tion ; or rather, it is the conviction which such evidence produces. 
All this extent of meaning is found in the original words : but no one 
word can express it. If the Bible were made up of definitions, a 
translation without a paraphrase would be impossible. We may well 
feel thankful, therefore, that it is a book of examples chiefly : and that 
it illustrates its principles rather in the lives of believers than in logi- 
cal and abstruse terms. 

Pebfection, again, is defined in several parts of the Bible. 

In Psa. xxxvii. 37, it is used as synonymous with uprightness or sin- 
cerity, a real unfeigned goodness : and this is its general meaning in 
the Old Testament, 1 Chron. xii. 33, 38. In the New Testament it 
means either the possession of clear and accurate knowledge of Divine 
truth, or the possession of all the graces of the Christian character, in 
ahi-h er or lower degree. The first is the meaning in Heb. v. 14, where 
strong meat is said to belong "to them that are of full age (marg. per- 
fect) : even to those who by reason of use have their senses exercised 
to discern both good and evil." So in 1 Cor. ii. 6 : Phil. hi. 15. The 
second is the meaning in James i. 4 : where "perfect" is defined as 
entire, wanting nothing." In 2 Pet. i. 5-7, the graces which make 
up the perfect Christian are enumerated. 



THIRD RULE — CONTEXT. 



191 



In Eph. iii. 4, 5, Mystery is defined by example, as the truth, that 
the Gentiles should be partakers of the promise in Christ by the Gospel. 

The course of this world, means man's natural state and life, as 
opposed to the kingdom of Christ : it is the outgoing of the spirit that 
worketh in the children of disobedience. 

In Gal. iv. 3, the expression, the elements of this world is used ; 
and is explained in ver. 9, 10, of the same chapter. See, also, Heb. ii. 
5; vi. 5: 1 Cor. x. 11. 

Not unfrequently the. meaning is limited, or explained by 
the context, even in simple narrative. 

Compare Gen. vi. 19, 20; vii. 2, 3, where "pairs," and the number of 
pairs are spoken of respectively : so from Gen. xlviii. 8, 10, we gather 
that Jacob's blindness was partial. From Exod. vi. 3, and Gen. xiii. 4, 
(Heb. Jehovah), it may be concluded that the faithfulness of Jehovah 
in giving effect to his promises, was not revealed to the Israelites till 
the Exode. From Exod. ix. 6; ix. 20, it is "dear that "all," means all, 
with specified exceptions. The Levites spenv five years on probation 
before fully entering upon their office, hence Numb. iv. 3 ; viii. 24. 
Modify in the same way, Numb. xiv. 30, by Josh. xiv. 1 : and Josh. xi. 
19, by xv. 63. 

285. (2.) Sometimes, where there is no formal definition, 
the meaning is made clear by the use of some analo- w , 

£> J Words ex- 

eous or similar expression ; or by the use of opposite pinned by 

° r > J ii analogous 

Ones. or opposite 

expres- 

In Gal. iii, 17, the "covenant with Abraham" is explained sions. 
as the promise which God made to him. 

In Rom. vi. 23, the meaning of the word death (the wages Exam P Ies - 
n of sin), is gathered from the opposite: "the gift of God is eternal life, 
through Jesus Christ our Lord." 

In Col. ii. 7, the expression, "rooted and built up in Christ," is ex- 
plained as meaning, "established in the faith." 

In Rom. iv. 5, it is said, that "to him that worketh not, faith is 
counted for righteousness;" the expression "worketh," being explained 
in several places in the same chapter. In ver. 2, the phrase is " justified 
by works." From the same verse we learn that it means the contrary 
of "believing in Him that justifieth the ungodly." So in James ii. 14, 
the faith that cannot save, is the faith that spends itself in words, and 
not in deeds. It is a faith that is without obedience: it is a faith such 
as devils feel (ver. 19), and it is not such as Abraham felt (ver. 23). To 



192 



THIRD RULE — PARALLELISMS. 



be "justified by works," therefore, expressly includes in Paul, the rejec- 
tion of Christ as the Saviour of the guilty, and an adherence to the 
whole covenant; while the "works" of which James speaks imply faith 
in Christ. The same truth is taught by our Lord in John iii. 36 ; where 
it is said, " He that believeth on the Son hath everlasting life : and he 
that believeth not the Son shall not see life :" where the word "believeth 
not" is in the original, "is not obedient to;" showing, as Doddridge 
well observes, that the faith to which the promise of eternal life is an- 
nexed, is a principle of unreserved obedience. 

In 1 John iii. 9, it is said, "Whosoever is born of God doth not com- 
mit sin." But, on comparing this expression with other parts of the 
Epistle, we find that to commit sin, means " to walk in darkness," i. 6: 
"to keep not the commandments," ii. 4: "to hate his brother," ii. 9: 
' to love the world," ii. 15: expressions that bespeak settled habit; a 
habit alien to the spirit of a Christian. 

286. To this class of expressions belong the parallelisms or 
. metres of the original Scriptures, in which one 

Words ex- t> r ' 

P Sniiei by P ar * °^ a sen t' ence answers more or less accurately 
isms. to another. 

Sometimes the parallelism is synonymous or GRADATIONAL, 
Synony- 8'^ n S precisely the same thought, or the same 
mousorgra- thought with some addition. 

dationjil. ° 

The first Psalm is a beautiful instance of this gradual extension of 
thought : 

Blessed is the man 

That walketh not in the counsel of the ungodly, 
Nor standeth in the way of sinners, 
Nor sitteth in the seat of the scornful. 



The gradations are obvious — 

Walketh — has casual! Counsel — has public 

intercourse. | resort. 

Standeth — has close j Way — chosen path . 

intimacy. 

Sitteth — has perma-!Seat — habitual rest- 
nent connection. ' ing place. 



Ungodly — negative- 
ly wicked. 

Sinners — positively 
wicked. 

Scornful — profanely 
wicked. 



Similar instances may be found in Psa. xxiv. 3, 4: Isa. lv. 6, 7. 
Prov. xvi. 32, is an instance of the synonomous parallel. He that is 
alow to anger is commended, not because he is listless or indifferent, but 



THIRD RULE — PARALLELISMS. 



193 



because he"ruleth his own spirit;" the one expression defining the 
meaning of the other. 

Occasionally these parallelisms extend over -whole chapters, or over 
books of Scripture. In this case the similarity of thought needs to be 
traced with some care. Thus in Psa. cxxxii., 

Ver. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, is answered by ver. 12. 
Ver. 7, . " by ver. 13. 

Ver. 8, . . . " by ver. 14. 
Ver. 9, . , . ° . " by ver. 15, 16. • 
Ver. 10, . 7 . " by ver. 17, 18. 
In Psa. cxxxv. 15-18, there is a similar instance. 

An attention to these parallelism? is often necessary to bring out the 
meaning of Scripture. In Luke xii. 47, 48, for example, the compari- 
son of the expression, "he who prepared not, neither did according to 
his will," with the expression, "he that did commit things worthy of 
stripes," suggests the reason that acts of omission, in spite of know- 
ledge, are to be vanished with many stripes, while sins of commission, 
without knowledge, are to be punished with few. 

Sometimes the Parallelisms are antithetic, containing op- 
posite terms, and sometimes opposite sentiments. Antithetic. 

In Prov. x. 7, for example, it is said that " the memory of the just is 
blessed;" where the meaning of the word "memory" is fixed by the 
following line: "but the name of the wicked shall rot." "Name" and 
"memory" are synonymous. In Prov. xi. 24, the scattering which 
tends to increase, is not the scattering in which extravagance may in- 
dulge, but the exercise of a wise generosity : for the following clause 
opposes it to the withholding of more than is meet, which tends to 
poverty. 

In Hosea xiv. 9, it is said, "The ways of the Lord are right, and the 
just shall walk in them: but the transgressors shall fall therein:" 
where the just are obviously the obedient. 

Other kinds of metrical parallelism are also frequent in 
Scripture : but as they are parallelisms of construe- Construc . 
tion only, (called, therefore, synthetic or construc- tive - 
TIVE,) and refer only to the form of the sentence, it is not 
necessary here to notice them. Psa. xix. 7-11 : Psa. cxlviii. 
7-13 : Isa. xiv. 4—9, are instances. 
17 



194 



INTERPBETATION — CONTEXT. 



287. (3.) Very often the meaning is decided by the genera- 
reasoning, or allusions of the context, 
plained by (a.) Sometimes the meaning is defined by the 
ingorai- allusions of the context: and the words are to be 
usions. -k a k en i n a limited sense. 

In Psalm vii. 8, for example, David prays, "Judge me, O Lord, ac- 
cording to my righteousness ;" i. e., according to bis innocency, in refer- 
ence to the charge of Cush, the Benjamite. He often uses the same 
expression with similar limitations. The word "righteous," or "more 
righteous," is even applied to wicked men : as in 1 Kings ii. 32, and in 
2 Sam iv. 11. In the second instance, Ishbosheth is said to be righteous 
(though he had opposed what lie knew to be God's promise in referent 
to David), merely to imply that he had done no injury to his murder- 
ers. The same phrase is applied to Sodom and Gomorrah, because they 
were less guilty than Jerusalem, Ezek. xvi. 52. The counsel of Ahi- 
thophel is called good, and the conduct of the unjust steward wise, not 
because they were absolutely so, but because they were likely means 
of accomplishing the ends of each. 

In John ix. 3, it is said, "Neither hath this man sinned, nor his pa- 
rents." The meaning is simply, that his blindness was not the punish- 
ment of any particular sin. 

In James v. 14, the elders of the church are commanded to anoint the 
sick, and to pray over him; "and the prayer of faith shall save him." 
The church of Rome founds on this one passage the doctrine of extreme 
unction ; which they say is to save the soul of the dying. But from ver. 
15, 16, it is plain that by "save" is meant "heal." So that, whatever 
this practice implied, it was to be observed, not with the view of saving 
the soul ; but in the case of one already a Christian, with the view of 
restoring; his health. 



Opposite 



(b.) The context, or general arrangement of a 
times iii me " P assa g e > ma y even prove that words are to be un- 
tended. derstood in the very opposite of their usual sense. 

In 1 Kings xxii. 15, "Go, and prosper" was spoken ironically, and 
meant the reverse. In Numb. xxii. 20, "Rise up, and go" appears from 
ver. 12, 32, to imply "If, after all I have told you, your heart is set 
on violating my command, do it at your own risk." The use of this 
form of speech may be seen in 1 Kings xviii. 27: Judg. x. 14: Mark: 
vii. 9: 1 Cor. iv. 8. 



INTERPRETATION — CONTEXT. 



195 



288. The general reasoning of the various massages of 
Scriptures is, commonly, sufficiently plain to indi- 
cate the meaning of the words employed. Great ing of 
attention, however, needs to be paid to the use of parentheses 
parentheses and of particles; the particles connect- cFes import- 
ing different branches of a sentence, or argument, ant ' 
together, and the parentheses withdrawing from the direct 
line of argument the words which are included in them. The 
latter interrupt the grammatical construction of the sentence, 
and the former perfect, or complete it. 

289. When the parenthesis is short, it creates no difficulty, 
and can scarcely be said to interrupt the reasoning, p are n- 
as in Phil. iii. 18, 19 : Acts. i. 15. When it is long, theses - 

it seems to embarrass the argument, and often ends in the 
repetition of the words of the preceding clause. Eph. iii. 2 
to iv. 1 (first clause) is all in parenthesis ; so in Phil. i. 27 to 

ii. 16, and perhaps iii. 2 to iii. 14. In the first and last of 
these cases, "therefore" is an evidence of the end of the pa- 
renthesis. 

The parenthesis is often indicated in the argumentative parts of Scrip- 
ture by the use of the word "for." as in Bom. ii. 11-16, or 13-16: 2 
Cor. vi. 2 : Eph. ii. 14-18. 

290. Attention to particles is often important. 
Then, for example, is often emphatic ; sometimes as an 

Particles 

adverb of time, as in Mai. iii. 4, and 16. And again in 1 
Thess. iv. 16, " The dead in Christ shall rise first. Then, we which are 
alive, and remain, shall be caught up together with them in the 
clouds." It is not said here that the dead in Christ rise before the rest 
of the dead, but that the dead rise before the living are changed. But 
it is much oftener used as an equivalent for therefore. Therefore, 
itself, generally expresses an inference or conclusion from what pre- 
cedes : but it sometimes indicates that the sentence has been interrupted 
by a parenthesis, or is repeated: and means "As I before said," or " to 
resume." Matt. vii. 24 (see ver. 21): 1 Cor. viii-. 4 (see ver. 1): Mark 

iii. 31 (see ver. 21) : John vi. 24 (see ver. 22) : Gal. iii. 5 (see ver. 2). 
Through means sometimes " by means of:" as in John xv. 3. " Through 
the word I have spoken unto you:" and sometimes "for the sake of," 



196 



INTERPRETATION — CONTEXT. 



Bom. v. 1 ; or "in the midst of," as in Gal. iv. 13. Now is sometimes 
an adverb of time : sometimes it means " as the case is," contrasting an 
actual with a supposable one, John xviii. 36, where "then" means "in 
that case," and asserts the consequence; Luke xix. 42: Heb. viii. 6 
(ver. 4). "Rather" means "on the contrary," Rom. xi. 11; xii. 19: 
Eph. v. 11. The comparison implied in the modern use of the word is 
expressed in Scripture by " and not." See \ 277 (c). 

291. The connection is sometimes obscured through the use 
other of a covert dialogue ; objections, responses, and re- 
diffiSmy in phes not being distinctly marked. 

the connec- 

See Rom. iii. 4, etc., where we have a dialogue between the 
apostle and an objector. Isa. Iii. 13; liii. 54, a dialogue between God, 
*-he prophet, and the Jews. 
Psa. XX'. 15 ; xxiv.- 104, are responsive. 

The abruptness of transition in historical narrative, and 
especially in prophecy, creates difficulty. Different, and 
often distant events are joined in what seems to be the 
same paragraph. 

Frequently a difficulty arises from the fact that the con- 
clusion of an argument is omitted, or a premise is suppressed, 
or an objection is answered, without our being told what the 
objection is. 

The Epistle to the Romans furnishes examples of all these difficulties. 
Rom. iii. 22-24; viii. 17, 18; ix. 6: chapters 3 and 4. 

292. Attention to the context is of great moment in ascer- 
Context taining the meaning of the figurative language of 
fr£pret° Scripture, and in determining whether the language 
figures. i s figurative or literal. That the expressions are 
figurative is sometimes stated or implied, and then the mean- 
ing is appended. Sometimes it is necessary to look to the 
general argument or allusions of the passage. 

In 1 Pet. iii. 21, the baptism which saves us is denned. It is "not 
the putting away of the filth of the flesh, but the answer of a good 
conscience towards God." "To bear one's sin" is a figurative expres- 
sion, meaning to suffer the punishment of it. Hence the synonymous 



INTERPRETATION — SCOPE, 



197 



expressions to be cut off, and to die, are connected with it, Exod. xxviii. 
43 : Lev. xix. 8. 

In Hosea iv. 12, and elsewhere (especially in Ezekiel), a spirit of las- 
civiousness is said to have drawn the Israelites astray ; but then it is 
immediately added, " They sacrifice upon the tops of the mountains, 
and burn incense upon the hills;" to show that it is spiritual unfaith- 
fulness of which the prophet is speaking. 

When Christ said " He that eateth me, even he shall live by me," 
John vi. 57, the Jews misunderstood his meaning, but he had himself 
already explained it : for in the same discourse he had repeated the 
truth in literal terms, " He that believeth on me hath everlasting 
life." This text is understood literally by most Eoman Catholic wri- 
ters; though our Lord expressly gave it this figurative interpretation; 
and the ordinance of the Supper, to which they suppose it to refer, had 
not then been instituted, and was entirely unknown to his hearers. 

In Matt. xxvi. 28, Christ calls the wine his blood: and again, in ver. 
29, he calls the same cup the fruit of the vine : implying, that his first 
expression was figurative. The expression in 1 Cor. iii. 15, " He him- 
self shall be saved, yet so as by fire," is the passage in Scripture gene- 
rally quoted in favor of the popish doctrine of purgatory. Attention 
to the context will show that the whole is figurative. The wood, hay, 
stubble, which man may build on the foundation, are expressions con- 
fessedly figurative. The foundation itself is figurative, and means 
Christ; and the expression "so as by fire," must be understood in a 
sense consistent with the general argument of the passage. 

Similarly figurative expressions may be seen in 1 Cor. v. 8 : Matt, 
xvi. 6, 12. See also Isa. li. 1 : Eph. v. 32, where the union of Christ 
and his church (and not marriage) is spoken of as the mystery. 

293. When the words, the connection of the sentence, and 
he context, fail in removing all ambiguity, or in Fourth rule 

giving the full meaning of the writer, it is then tationYgen- 
necessary that we look at the scope or design of eral scop6, 
the book itself, or of some large section, in which the words 
and expressions occur. The last preceding rule touches this ; 
and, indeed, all the rules of interpretation glide by degrees 
into one another. 

294. Sometimes the scope of a section, or of the scope 



book itself, is mentioned. 



sometimes 
mentioned. 



In Rom. iii. 28, for example, St. Paul tells us that the conclusion to 
17* 



occasion, 
Psalms. 



198 INTERPRETATION — SCOPE. 

which his reasonings, up to that point, had brought 1 im: namely, that 
man is justified by faith, without the deeds of the law. 

The principal conclusions of the Epistle to the Ephesians are stated, 
the first doctrinal in ii. 11, 12, that the Gentiles were no longer aliens; 
the second practical in iv. 1-3, exhorting Jews and Gentiles to exerciro 
the spirit and temper which become their new relation. Subordinate 
conclusions are expressed in iii. 13; iv. 17, 25; v. 1, 7; vi. 13, 14, 
where the words "therefore," or "wherefore," generally indicate the 
result of each successive argument. 

The design of the Proverbs is told us in i. 1-4, 6 ; of the 
Tho^Bible Gospels in John xx. 31 ; of the Bible itself in Rom. xv. 4: 
2 Tim. iii. 16, 17. 

295. The design of some parts of the Bible can be gathered 
_ . only from the occasions on which they were written. 

Design J J 

gathered 

from the The 90th Psalm was probably written by Moses, at the 
time when God sent back the children of Israel to wander 
in the wilderness. The scope of Psa. xviii., xxxiv., iii., li., 
is illustrated by their inscriptions. The Psalms which are headed 
"Songs of Degrees," cxx.-cxxxiv., were written for the Jews, to be 
sung during their annual journeys to Jerusalem. Many of the verses 
will be seen to have additional meaning from the knowledge of this 
fact. 

The Epistles to the Colossians, the Ephesians, and the Galatians, 
c j were all written to illustrate the peculiar doctrines of the 
sians, Ep. Gospel, and to answer the misrepresentations of the Judai- 
E^Gala" 3 ' z * n §> teachers °f the church. Many expressions will be ex- 
tians. plained by a reference to the Acts of the Apostles, and 

especially to the 15th chapter, where we have the history of the whole 
uestion which these Epistles discuss. 

296. The great means, however, of obtaining a knowledge 
Scope gath- °^ SC0 P e °f the various books of the Bible, or of 
repeated" particular passages, is the repeated and continuous 
study of study of the bt)oks themselves. When once this 

Scripture. J 

knowledge is gained, it will throw great light on 
particular expressions, and illustrate other parts of the Bible 
in a way both instructive and surprising. 

To understand the precept of our Lord, Matt. xix. 17, " If thou 
Examples W ^ en ^ er n ^ e ' ^ ee P t ne commandments," we look to 

the ecope. An inquirer, proud of his own righteousness 



INTERPRETATION — SCOPE. 



199 



asks what he must do to obtain eternal life, and our Lord refers him to 
the law, to rebuke and humble him 4 

The subjects of the predictions, Isa. are generally indicated. 

The subjects of subsequent chapters are less marked, and the connec- 
tion can be traced only by repeated perusal. When traced, it throws 
light upon the meaning. Chapters li.-iv., for example, form one pro- 
phecy; li. 1-8, containing an earnest, thrice-repeated appeal to the 
people to hear, verses 1, 4, 7; li.f)*Kr*dii. 12, contains an earnest appeal 
to God and to Zion ; verses 9, 17 ; lii. 1; lii.j xm.-liii. 12, is a glorious 
description of the work of the Messiah, and forms the centre of the 
prophecy ; liv. describes the results of his work on the destiny of the 
church, and lv. on the destiny of the world. 

297. Sometimes it is difficult to tell whether the immediate 
scope of the passage, or the general scope of the Scopeof 
book, is to be regarded. ofbofk and 

sometimes 

In Luke xv., for example, there are several parables ad- d ' fferent - 
dressed to the Pharisees, who complained that our Lord received sin- 
ners : and among those parables is that of the prodigal son. It is cer- 
tain thai the scope of the Gospel of Luke is to exhibit and recommend 
the Gospel to the Gentiles: and the question arises, who is meant by the - 
elder son, and who by the younger ? Some say the Pharisee and the 
sinner ; others say the Jew and the Gentile. The first interpretation is 
sanctioned by the scope of the context ; and the second by the general 
scope of the Gospel. It will be seen that both interpretations are con- 
sistent and probable. A due regard to the scope of the parables is of 
great importance. 

It has been doubted whether the "rest" (or the keeping of a rest or 
Sabbath, as it may be translated,) spoken of in Heb. iv. refers to the 
literal Sabbath, to heaven, or to the peace which the Gospel brings, end- 
ing however in eternal life : a question that can be decided only by the 
argument. Comp. verses 3, 9, 10. 

In the same Epistle, the description of Melchisedec as without descent 
has created some difficulty. It will be noticed, however, that the 
apostle is comparing his priesthood with that of Christ ; and it is said, 
that both are alike in this, that they are equally without succession ; 
and so differ from that of Aaron. The limited, and not the universal 
meaning of the words, is therefore the only one required by the argument. 

In the same way, if we need further light on the apparent contra- 
diction between St. Paul and St James, we look at the scope of their 
Epistles. That to the Romans is designed to prove, that by the per- 



200 



INTERPRETATION — SCOPE. 



Comparison formanco of the duties of the law, no man is justified, 
of Epistles 6 because his obedience is imperfect. The object of the 
apparent 8 Epistle of James is to prove that no man can be justi- 
contradic- fied by a faith which does not tend to holiness. If these 
designs be kept in view, it will be found that the ap- 
parent contradictions cease. The object of the first Epistle of John 
is defined in chap. ii. 1, as similar to the object of the Epistle of 
James. 

The scope of the Romans, as compared with the scope of the Gala- 
tians, explains an apparent contradiction between these Epistles. In 
the one, the observance of days is allowed, Horn. xiv. 5. In the other,' 
it is forbidden, Gal. iv. 10, 11. The permission is given to Jewish 
converts who had a tender conscientious scruple about setting aside the 
precepts of the law in which they had been trained. The prohibition 
is addressed to Gentile converts, who supposed that the cross could not 
save them, but through circumcision. Their observance of days was 
owing to that feeling and therefore condemned. 

298. The most comprehensive rule of interpretation yet 
Fifth rule • remams - Compare Scripture with Scripture ; 
S P <SthS n " tmn g s spiritual with spiritual," 1 Cor. ii. 13. It 
parts of is by the observance of this rule alone that we 

Scripture. J 

become sure of the true meaning of particular 
passages; and, above all, it is by this rule alone that we 
ascertain the doctrines of Scripture on questions of faith and 
practice. A Scripture truth is really the consistent explana- 
tion of all that Scripture teaches in reference to the question 
examined ; and a Scripture duty is the consistent explanation 
of all the precepts of Scripture on the duty examined. It isj 
in studying the Scripture as in studying the works of God. 
We first examine each fact or phenomenon, and ascertain iis 
meaning ; and then classify it with other similar facts, and 
attempt to explain the whole. Such explanation is called a 
general law. 

299. The importance of studying Scripture in this way is 
importance strikingly manifest from the mistakes of the Jews. 

paJsSi C ° m " " We tave heard out of the law " ( saicl tne 7) "^at 
Christ abideth forever," Isa. ix. 7: Dan. vii. 14, 
" and how say est thou the Son of man must be lifted up?" 



INTERPRETATION — PARALLEL PASSAGES. 



*201 



The everlasting duration of his kingdom was often foretold ; 
but that he should be lifted up and cut off, though not for 
himself, had been foretold too, Isa. liii. : Dan. ix. 26. A com- 
parison of these passages would have removed the ground of 
their objections. 

300. (1). Sometimes we compare the words of Scripture 
with one another, with the view of ascertaining Parallelism 
their meaning. of words. 

David, for example, is called in 1 Sam. xiii. 14, and in Acts xiii. 22, 
"a man after God's own heart:" and the question has been asked, 
whether this expression is meant to exhibit David as a model of 
perfection. On referring to 1 Sam. ii. 35, however, it will be found 
that the phrase is again used, "I will raise me up a faithful priest, 
who shall do according to that which is in mine heart:" and this 
suggests the primary meaning ; namely that David, especially in 
his public official conduct, should fulfil the Divine will, and maintain 
inviolate the laws which God had enjoined. 

From the Psalms and history, we gather that David was also an 
eminently devout man, but it was in reference to his kingly office, 
primarily, that this description was given ; however applicable it may 
also be to the general spirit of piety which David evinced, and 
to the unfeigned penitence which he manifested after having been be- 
trayed into sin. 

In reading Gal. iii. 27, we find the expression "As many as have 
been baptized into Christ have put on Christ:" and we Put on 
turn to Rom. xiii. 14 ; and there find, that to put on Christ- 
Christ, is opposed to making provision for the flesh ; and then again 
to Col. iii. 10, where the same phrase of "putting on" the new man, 
implies renewal in knowledge after the image of the Redeemer, 
(ver. 12,) kindness, humbleness, meekness, and, above all, charity, the 
bond of perfectness. In Gal. vi. 17. the apostle says, "From henceforth, 
let no man trouble me," (by such calumnies, as if I were a friend of 
the ceremonial law) ; "for I bear in my body the marks of the Lord 
Jesus." We turn to 2 Cor. iv. 10, where we find a similar phrase 
"bearing about in the body the dying of the Lord Jesus:" and, turn- 
ing again to 2 Cor. xi. 23-27, we gather that these marks of the Lorft 
Jesus, were simply the scars of his sufferings for Christ; not (as sonu 
interpreting the passage literally have supposed,) the marks ?>r stigmata 
of the cross. 



202 INTERPRETATION — PARALLEL PASSAGES. 



The comparison of the words of Scripture is often essential 
to the right understanding; of Scripture truth, 

Importance ° ox 

of compari- especially in reference to proper names. 

son in refer- r J 
ence to 

names. T n Psa. cvi., for example, it is said, " They make a call 

in Hoeeb :" i. e., as appears from Exod. xxxii., in the very place where 
God had taken them into covenant, and immediately after they had 
pledged themselves to renounce all idolatry. 

In Numb. xxii. 24, we have an account of the character of Balaam : 
and his position as a prophet makes us question at first whether he was 
not a good man, though greviously mistaken. On turning to the New 
Testament, however, we find the question decided. The apostle Peter 
tells us that covetousness was his snare. The apostle Judo classes hira 
with Cain and Corah : and in Rev. ii. 14, we are told that it was 
at his suggestion that Balak threw a temptation in the way of the 
children of Israel, which caused the destruction of 23,000 of them in 
one day. 

301. A close attention to Scripture will show that there are 
Verbal par- at least three kinds of verbal parallels. First, 
threcidnds. where the same thing is said in the same words, 
as Ex. xx. 2-17: Deut. v. 6-18: Psa. xiv. ; liij.: Isa. ii. 
2-4: and Micah. iv. 1-3. Here one passage may be used 
to prove the accuracy of the other, or the occasion or applica- 
tion of the passage may throw light on the passage itself. Isa. 
vi. 9, 10, is referred to, for example, six times in the New 
Testament, and a comparison of all the passages will illustrate 
the text. Secondly, where the "same facts are narrated in 
similar and some identical words, as in Exod., Lev., and 
Deut. ; Sam., Kings, and Chron. ; and in the Gospels. In this 
case, plain expressions illustrate difficult ones. One passage 
explains or modifies the other, as in Matt. ii. 1, and Luke ii. 
1-4. Thirdly, where the words or idioms are used in different 
connections; "sound doctrine," for example, is an expression 
used in 1 Tim. i. 10 ; vi. 3 : 2 Tim. i. 13; iv. 3 ; Tit. i. 9 ; ii. 1, 
2, 8 : and from a comparison, it will be seen that the phrase 
means, the grand simple doctrines of the Gospel, as opposed 
to subtlety, and as. sanctifying in their influence. In refer- 
ence to such cases, the signification of words, in a passage 



INTERPRETATION — PARALLEL PASSAGES. 



203 



where it is fixed by the connection, should be applied to in- 
terpret passages where there is nothing that can fix it. In 
Eom. vii. 18, the word " flesh" means a natural unholy state, 
as is ascertained from chap. viii. 8, etc. 

Sometimes the phrases employed, though in themselves 
alike, are used in altogether different senses, as in the follow- 
ing passages : John i. 21 : Matt. xi. 14 : John v. 31 ; viii. 14 : 
Acts ix. 7 ; xxii. 9 : Luke i. 33 : 1 Cor. xv. 24. 

Apparently different expressions are thus harmonized. 
God's offer, for example, of seven years' famine, 2 Sam. xxiv. 
13, includes the three preceding years during which that 
palamity had continued, 2 Sam. xxi. 1. In 1 Chron. xxi. 11, 
12, there is no reference to the preceding famine, and the 
offer is therefore of three years only. So 2 Sam. xxiv. 24 : 1 
Chron. xxi. 25. 

302. In considering verbal parallelisms, two general rules 
are important. Ascertain, first, the sense which c au t,j 0ns in 
the words to be examined bear in other parts of bS^Jaiiei- 
the same author, and then in other writings of the isms - 
same date, and then throughout the Bible. The meaning of 
words often changes ; and all writers do not use the same 
word in the same sense. And, secondly, no meaning can be 
admitted from an apparently parallel passage, if that meaning 
is inconsistent with the context, or with the reasoning of the 
author. In the Epistles to the Komans and the Galatians, 
for example, "works," when used alone, means the opposite 
of faith, namely, the performance of legal duties as the 
ground of salvation. In James, the expression always means 
the obedience and holiness which flow from faith. In the 
one case, works are inconsistent with salvation ; in the other, 
they are essential to it. But it is impossible to explain the 
one by the other. So, in John i. 1, the term word" cannot 
be explained by 2 Tim. iv. 2, where the same term is em- 
ployed, but in a different sense. The "word" means the 
Gospel in Timothy, but that meaning cannot be applied to 



204 INTEBPRETATION — PARALLEL PASSAGES. 



the passages in John, so as to give any consistent sense to the 
context. 

303. (2). Sometimes we compare the facts or doctrines of 
Parallelism Scripture i n order to gain a complete view of 
of ideas. Scripture truth. This is the parallelism of ideas, 
and not of words only. 

If, for example, we wish to know whether, m the Lord's supper, the 
cup is to be received by all the faithful, or only by the priest, we turn 
to Matt. xxvi. 27, and we find the command, " Drink ye all of it." 
And if it be asked whether " all" means the apostles only, or all in its 
most comprehensive sense, we turn to 1 Cor. xi. 28, where the same 
topic is treated of. There we find that in each case (six in all) the 
eating of the bread and the drinking of the cup are mentioned together, 
and enjoined on all Christians indifferently. The charge given to all is, 
"Let a man examine himself; and so let him eat of that bread, and 
drink of that cup." 

If we are investigating the meaning of Matt. xvi. 18, " Thou art 
Peter, and upon this rock I will build my church," and desire to know 
its meaning, we turn to 1 Cor. iii. 11, and find that the only foundation 
of the church is Christ. In the sense, therefore, of being the foundation 
on which the salvation of the church is to rest, the passage in one sense 
of it is at variance with other parts of Scripture. We turn, again, 
to Acts ii. 41, and to Acts x., xv. 7, and we find that Peter's preaching 
was the means of the first conversions, both among Jews and Gentiles. 
His labors, therefore, commenced the building, and in this sense he 
might be the foundation of the church. Or the statement may refer to 
Peter's confession, as Augustine and Luther held, and then the parallel 
passages are Gal. i. 16 : John vi. 51 : 1 John iii. 23 ; iv. 2, 3. 

The most important rule in reference to this order of paral- 
lelism is, that a passage in which an idea is ex- 

What is ob- i i • • 

scuremust pressed briefly or obscurely is explained by those 
ed by what in which it is fully or clearly revealed; and that 
is piam. difficult and figurative expressions are explained 
by such as are proper and obvious. 

The doctrine of justification by faith, for example, is explained 
briefly in Phil. iii. 9, and fully in the Epistles to the Romans and the 
Galatians. 

" A new creature" is a figurative expression, used in Gal. vi. 15, and 
is explained in chap. v. 6, and in Cor. vii. 19. 



INTERPRETATION — ANALOGY OF FAITH. 



205 



The charity spoken of in 1 Pet. iv. 8, is " brotherly love," and it is 
said to cover " a multitude of sins;" not because it extinguishes them 
and so justifies the sinner, but (as shown in Prov. x. 12) because it 
quenches contention and strife. 



304. When any passage is explained by a reference, not to 
any one or more texts, but by a reference to the parallelism 
general tenor of Scripture, it is then said to be analogy of 
interpreted according to the analogy, or rule of faith - 
faith. We have examples of this kind of reference in Gal. 
v. 14, and again in 1 Cor. xv. 3-11, where the apostle states 
the facts and doctrines connected with, the death and resur- 
rection of Christ, and then proceeds to prove other facts and 
doctrines from them. 

This analogy of faith is called in the Bible, " the Scriptures," 
1 Cor. xv. 3, 4; "all the law," as in Gal. v. 14; Meaningof 
and "the mouth of all the prophets," Acts iii. 18. this term - 
" The analogy of faith" is the expression used by the apostle 
Paul, in Rom. xii. 6, where he exhorts those who expound the 
Scriptures (or prophesy) to do it according to the proportion 
or analogy, the measure or rule of faith. 

The expression, therefore, is identical with "the whole tenor 
of Scripture ;" and the doctrine which is founded upon it is 
taken from all the texts relating to one subject, when im- 
partially compared ; the expressions of each being restricted 
by those of the rest, and the whole explained in mutual con- 
sistency, 

(1) . God is set forth in Scripture, for example, as a Spirit, 
omniscient, and holy, and supreme. All passage^ 
therefore, which seem to represent Him as material, 

local, limited in knowledge, in power, or in righteousness, are 
to be interpreted agreeably to these revealed truths. 

(2) . If, again, any expositor were to explain the passages 
of Scripture which speak of justification by faith as if it freed 
us from obligations to holiness, such an interpretation must 

18 



206 INTERPRETATION — PARALLEL PASSAGES. 



be rejected, because it counteracts the main design and spirit 
of the Gospel. 

(3). In Prov. xvi. 4, it is said, " The Lord has made all 
things for himself: yea, even the wicked for the day of evil." 
The idea that the wicked were created that they might be 
condemned, which some have founded upon this passage, is 
inconsistent with innumerable parts of Scripture (Psa. cxlv. 
9 : Ezek. xviii. 23 : 2 Pet. iii. 9). The meaning therefore is, 
as determined by the analogy of faith, that all evil shall con- 
tribute to the glory of God, and promote the accomplishment 
of his adorable designs. 

305. It is thus that philosophy interprets natural appear- 

ances. When once a general law is established, 

General . ° . 

laws applied particular facts are placed under it, and any ap- 

in this way ^ 1 . . x 

in natural pearance that seems contradictory is specially ex- 
phiiosophy. am | ne( j. an( j Q £ £ WQ eX pl ana tions of the apparent 

anomaly, that one is selected which harmonizes best with the 
general law. 

306. The use of the parallel passages of Scripture in deter- 
Paraiiei- mining whether language is figurative or literal is 

isms ap- ° 

figures °^ S rea ^ moment. God, for example, often repre- 
Exampies. sents himself as giving men to drink of a cup which 
he holds in his hand : they take it, and fall prostrate on the 
ground in fearful intoxication. The figure is used with much 
brevity, and without explanation, in some of the prophets. a 
In Isa. li. 17-23, it is fully explained, and the meaning of the 
image becomes clear. The intoxication is desolation and 
helplessness, more than can be borne ; and the cup is the fury 
(or righteous indignation) of Jehovah. 

In reading Acts ii. 21, we find it said, that "whosoever shall 
call on the name of the Lord shall be saved;" and the 
question may be asked, What is meant by calling upon the 
name of the Lord? Matthew tells us, that "not everyone 
that saith Lord ! Lord ! shall enter into the kingdom of 



a Nahum iii. 11 : Hab. ii. 16 : Psa. lxxv. 8, etc. 



INTERPRETATION — PARALLEL PASSAGES. 207 



heaven :" so that the passage is not to be understood in its 
literal and restricted sense. On referring to Rom. x. 11-14, 
and ] Cor. i. 2, we find that this language, which is quoted 
from the prophet Joel, implied an admission of the Messiah- 
ship of Christ, and reliance on the doctrines which he re- 
vealed. 

307. It is obvious that, while the figurative meaning of a 
word has generally some reference to its literal 
meaning, it must not be supposed to include in the tof^. 110 * 
figurative use all that is included in the literal; j£{.f dt00 
similitude in some one respect, or more, being, suffi- 
cient to justify the metaphor. 

Christ calls his disciples his sheep, and the points of com- 
parison are, clearly, his affection for them, his care over them, 
and their confidence and attachment to him. Common sense 
discovers and limits the application of the terms. Christ 
himself is called, with smaller limits, the Lamb, with special 
relation to his character and sacrifice. So sin is called in 
Scripture a debt; atonement, the payment of a debt; pardon, 
the forgiveness of a debt. But we must not hold these terms 
so rigidly as to maintain that, because Christ died for man's 
sin, therefore all will be finally saved ; or that, because he 
has obeyed the law, therefore sinners are free to live in sin. 
Men are dead in sin, but not so dead as to be free from the 
duty of repentance ; nor are they guiltless if they disregard 
the Divine call. These principles are sufficiently obvious 
when applied to passages which contain figures founded upon 
material objects. They are even more important, though less 
easy, when applied to passages which contain figures taken 
from human nature or common life. More errors, probably, 
have arisen from pushing analogical expressions to an extreme 
than from any other single cause ; and against this tendency 
the sober, earnest student of the Bible needs to be specially 
upon his guard. 

308. To ascertain, therefore, the meaning of any passage of 



208 



INTERPRETATION — SUMMARY. 



summary Scripture, whether the words be employed figu- 
ruies. ratively or literally, we must ask the following 
questions: What is the meaning of the terms? If they 
have but one meaning, that is the sense. If they have several, 
we then ask, Which of those meanings is required by other 
parts of the sentence? If two or more meanings remain, 
then, What is the meaning required by the context, so as to 
make a consistent sense of the whole ? If; still, more than 
one meaning remains, What then is required by the general 
scope? And, if this question fail to elicit but one reply, 
What then is required by other passages of Scripture ? If, in 
answer to all these questions, it is found' that more than one 
meaning may still be given to the passage, then both inter- 
pretations are true ; and we must fix on the one which best 
fulfils most of the conditions, or must look elsewiiere for some 
further guide. 

309. It is important to observe that, whether the language 
These rules we exam i ne ^ e figurative or literal, and whether it 
in?er ir rethi ^ e use ^ * n n ^ s ^ or y or i n prophecy — in allegory or 
aifparts o?^ * n plain discourse — these rules are equally applica- 
Scnpture. "ble. There is not one rule for tropes, and another 
for words m their proper sense ; nor is there one rule for in- 
terpreting the words of the parables of Scripture, and another 
for interpreting the words of its historical statements. It is 
true that in history or narrative we expect to find words used 
in their literal sense ; while in poetry and allegory the figura- 
tive may be expected to predominate. We apply, however, 
the same rules, needing some, indeed, more in one case than 
in the other; but still taking the sense which the words 
express, as that sense is defined and limited (if it be so) by 
the whole of the sentence, by the context, by the scope of the 
writer, and by other parts of the Bible. 

Nor is it less important to observe that these rules are 
And of com- squired not only in interpreting Scripture, but in 
moniife. interpreting all language that is used in the inter- 
course of life. 



APPLICATION OF EULES. 



209 



Sec. 4. — Of the Utility and Application of Rules in 
Interpretation. 

It must have occurred to the reader that, underneath the 
rules of interpretation which we have given, there are some 
general principles common to all language, which regulate the 
application of them. Those principles it is important to 
state, as they "both justify the rules we have given and aid us 
in applying them. 

310. To perceive the meaning of most parts of the Bible 
which teach the fundamental truths of the Gospel, a . L 

Scripture 

it is only necessary to know the su eject and the generally 
language employed. If the Bible be in our own 
tongue, and we understand what the topic is of which it 
treats, the meaning will generally be plain. No instance can 
be given in Scripture of an obscure passage concerning which 
a man may rationally suppose that there is any doctrinal truth 
contained in it, which is not elsewhere explained. 

The great advantage of rules of interpretation is not to 
discover the meaning of plain passages of Scripture, Useofruleg 
but to ascertain the meaning of such as are ambigu- 
ous or obscure. 

Yet, as on many points of importance we need to compare 
Scripture, in order to ascertain and prove its meaning, and as 
such comparison is itself part of our discipline, promotes our 
holiness, and is adapted to unfold the treasures of Divine 
truth, it is of great moment that the humblest Christian 
should understand these rules and apply them. Revelation 
is to be the study of our lives, and it is plainly the will of 
God that all the resources of learning, industry, and prayer, 
should be employed in the search. 

So dependent is man for his knowledge of the Divine will 
upon the motive and temper of his inquiries, and Adevou * 
the teaching of the Spirit of God, that a prayerful spirit - 
and humble Christian, with few advantages, will often gain a 
18* 



210 



APPLICATION OF RULES. 



more accurate and extensive acquaintance with Scripture than 
one of higher mental attainments, but of feeble piety. The 
exercise of a teachable and prayerful spirit, therefore, is among 
the most important principles of Biblical interpretation. 
The true meaning of any passage of- Scripture is not every 
sense which the words will bear, nor is it every 

True mean- m _ ' ... 

in s of sense which is true in itself, but that which is in- 

words. 

tended by the inspired writers, or in some cases by 
the Holy Spirit, though imperfectly understood by the writers 
themselves. 

The sense of Scripture is to be determined by the words : 

a true knowledge of the words is the knowledge of 
Is the sense. ; 
the sense. 

The meaning of words is fixed by the usage of language. 
Fixed by Usage must be ascertained, whenever possible, from 
usage. Scripture itself. 

The words of Scripture must be taken in their common 
Common meaning, unless such meaning is shown to be in- 
meanmg consistent with, other words in the sentence, with 
preferred. ^ Q ar g Umen t r context, or with other parts of 
Scripture. 

Of two meanings, that one is generally to be preferred 
which was most obvious to the comprehension of the hearers 
or original readers of the inspired passage, allowing for those 
figurative expressions which were so familiar as to be no ex- 
ception to this general rule. 

The meaning attached to the words of Scripture must al- 
Meaning ways agree with the context. When the common 
^tfcon- 66 meaning is inconsistent with the context it must be 
text abandoned, and such other meaning adopted as 
fulfils the requirements and conditions of the passage, and 
can be proved to be sanctioned by usage, either in common 
writers, or in the Bible. 

Scope use- The scope of a passage, or the reasoning of the 
when it writer, can be employed to determine which of two 
meaning, senses is to be adopted only, as the scope or reason- 



ETUDY OF ORIGINAL SCRIPTURES. 



211 



ing is clear ; nor will the scope fix the meaning, unless a par- 
ticular meaning is required by the scope. 

The parallel passage that fixes the meaning of words must 
either contain the same words used in a somewhat p ara iiei 
similar sense, or it must evidently speak of the same P ab&a s es - 
thing, or of something so similar as to afford occasion for com- 
parison. 

No doctrine founded upon a single text belongs to the ana- 
logy of faith. The analogy of faith is chiefly of use Analogy of 
in teaching us to reject an interpretation which is qufrefseve- 
not Scriptural. If both the supposed meanings of ral texts " 
a passage are consistent with this analogy, the rule cannot be 
applied, so as to decide the meaning. In contro- i s use fui in 
versial reasoning, this rule is only applicable on the j3f£ 
supposition, that the doctrine to be applied for the P retatlon - 
purpose of interpretation is admitted to be Scriptural. If it 
is not admitted, we cannot apply it in the interpretation of a 
disputed text. 

311. Theology is the whole meaning of Scripture, or it is 
the sense taught in the whole of Scripture, as that 

The sense 

sense is modified, limited, and explained by Scrip- or Scripture 
ture itsell. bcripturai theology is not one thing, logy one 
and the meaning of Scripture another. It is a con- 
sistently interpreted representation of the statements of the 
Bible, on the various facts, doctrines, and precepts, which the 
book of God reveals. 

b Sec. 5. — Application of these Kules to the Study 
of' the Original Scriptures. 

" As I shall not exact the study of the original Scriptures from those 
whose want of parts or leisure dispenseth them from it ; so I cannot 
but discommend those who, wanting neither abilities nor time to range 
through I know not how many other studies, can yet decline this: and 
who, sparing no toil nor watches to put it out of the power of the most 
celebrated philosophers to deceive them in another doctrine, leave 
themselves obnoxious to the ignorance, fraud and partiality of an in- 

a See Preface. 



212 



STUDY OF ORIGINAL SCRIPTURES. 



terpreter, in that of salvation ; and thereby seem more shy of taking 

any opinions upon trust than those in whose truth or falseness, no less 
than God's glory, and peradventure their own eternal condition, is con- 
cerned. Methinks those who learn other languages should not grudge 
those that God hath honored with speaking to us, and employed to 
bless us with that heavenly doctrine that comes from him, and leads to 
him." — Boyle. 

" The habit of reading the Scriptures in the original throws a new 
light and sense over numberless passages." — Cecil, Remains, p. 199. 

312. The rules of interpretation which have been applied 
Previous ^ n t ,ne previous section to the English version, are 
cable to pli " e( l ua ^y applicable to the study of the original 
study of Scriptures. The importance of such study is ob- 

origmal ->- J- J 

Scriptures, vious, from the fact that all versions are more or 
less accurate as guides to the meaning of the inspired writ- 
ings. On referring to Sec. 6, Chap, i., it will be seen that the 
meaning of particular words, the connection of arguments, 
and the significance of parallel passages, are all liable to be 
obscured in even the best translations. 

313. In studying and explaining a living language, we de- 
But others ^ ermme the usage by a reference to our expressions 
needed, m common life ; but in the case of the languages of 

because on- ... do 

ginai lan- the original Scriptures, we are dependent for a 

guages of o j. j. 

Scripture knowledge of their meaning almost entirely upon 

not spoken. . • • ° . ° . ■ -. * 

books : grammars, lexicons, and versions are our 
authority, and for most purposes their authority is sufficient. 

314. But in saying that our knowledge of the meaning of 
We depend dead languages rests upon authority, an expression 
raauthori- 8 * s em pl°y e( l which it is important to explain ; we 
ties. speak of the authority of law, and of the authority 
of a witness, or of a manuscript, but the word is used in these 
two cases in very different senses. By the authority of law 
Authority is is meant its rightful power; by the authority of a 
testimony. w ^ ness [ s mean t his testimony, which we deem to 
be more or less credible in relation to the question in hand. 
Now it is in the second sense only that we speak of the au- 
thority of lexicons. A good lexicon has great weight attached 
to it, because it professes to give both carefully examined 



ORIGINAL SCRIPTURES — GRAMMARS. 



213 



meanings of the words it contains, and also a 'summary of the 
evidence upon which those meanings rest. If we doubt its 
explanations, we either examine other lexicons, from the days 
of Hesychius (A. D. 400) downwards, if the word be Greek, 
or examine the passages where the word is found, and then 
weigh for ourselves the evidence they supply. Whenever, 
therefore, we have to interpret a Divine precept addressed to 
us in a dead tongue, we ascertain the meaning of the precept 
through the medium of human authority, i. e., testimony; we 
obey the precept because it has the authority of God. This 
difference of the two meanings of the word is important. 

If, then, there be reason to question the meaning given to a 
word or phrase, in any lexicon or grammar, we proceed to 
investigate that meaning for ourselves, and various plans may 
be adopted. 

315. i. We may consult other authorities, grammars or 
lexicons. We may turn (if the phrase be Hebrew) Hebrew 
to the grammar and lexicon of the earlier Hebrew and 1C ° nS 
writers, Juda Ohajug (1040), and Jona ben Gannach Grammars - 
(1121), preserved in manuscript, in the Bodleian library; to 
the grammar of Moses Kimchi (12th century), or to the gram- 
mars and lexicons of his brother, D. Kimchi, or of Elias Levita, 
all of which have been published. We may examine the 
grammar and lexicon of Gesenius, the founder of the modern 
empirical school of Hebrew, or the grammar of Ewald, the 
founder of the scientific school, or the concordance of Furst, 
and the Hebrew works of his pupil, Delitisch, the founder of 
the historical school ; the first, making great use of examples, 
and a moderate use of the Arabic and cognate tongues, the 
second, investigating too exclusively the philosophy of the 
language, and the third, the founder of historical investiga- 
tion, and applying Sanscrit to the interpretation of Hebrew, 
For a knowledge of cognate dialects, we may turn to the 
Pentaglot of Schindler (Ham. 1612), the Heptaglot of Oastel 
(Lon. 1669), to Hottinger's grammar of Heb., Ohald., Syr., 



214 



ORIGINAL SCRIPTURES — VERSIONS* 



and Arab., (1649), or to the Hebrew grammars (Institutiones, 
1737, Origines Hebrsese, 1723), of Schultens. 

316. In the case of the Greek language we may use either 
Greek a general Greek grammar, that for example, of 
and 1 C ° nS Buttman, or of Matthias, or of Jelf, and a general 
Grammars. i ex i con> Stephens' Thesaurus, for example, or the 
hand-lexicon of Liddell and Scott, or we may use a Hellen- 
istic or New Testament grammar and lexicon. Winer's gram- 
mar is rich in the illustration of New Testament idiom ; and 
Schleusner's lexicon is invaluable from the light it throws on 
the New Testament, from the version of the LXX. The 
lexicons of Bretschneider, and of Robinson, are also well 

.known and highly useful. ^ 

317. ii. We may examine the versions of the Bible. They 

give the translator's views of the meaning of the 

Versions. ° . 

words of Scripture, 
The first in value for purposes of interpretation, are the 
Oriscenand fragments of Origen and Jerome, both of whom 
Jerome. j. Q0 ^. great pains to ascertain the exact meaning of 
the original Scriptures. 

Next to these are the Greek versions. The LXX, however, 
lxx a l° ne remains in a perfect state : it is of great 
value, but often fails to be of service in difficult 
passages, from the freeness of the translation * the careless- 
ness or ignorance of the translators , b and the want of fixed 
rules of translation. 'tyJ/tfoVftfj 

Next in value are the Targums, (See Part ii.), and inferior 
to these, the comments of the Talmud, and the 
argums. of ^ Masorets. <J| (q , T»ZtIL .) ' 

* Isa. i. 21 ; iv. 4 ; xlii. 1 : Exod. vi. 12, 30 • Deut. xxxii. 8 ; xxxiii. 

2: Numb. xii. 8: Exod. xviii. 7. 

b Esth. vii. 4 : Lev. xix. 26 : Psa. lxxviii. 69 : Exod. xiv. 2. Compare 
Numb, xxxiii. 7: Isa. xxiii. 1, 10, 14: Ezek. xxvii. 12 ; xxxviii. 13: 
compared with Isa. ii. 16 ; lx. 9 : (See further illustrations in Carpzov's 
Critica Sacra, New Testament, p. 513.) 



ORIGINAL SCRIPTURES — VERSIONS. 



215 



Ainsworth on the Pentateuch, and Gill's Commentary, throughout, 
generally give the interpretations of the Targums, etc., whenever they 
are important. 

Last of all among the ancient versions are the Peschitp 
and the Vulgate. The former is, on the whole, 

. Peschito 

well translated, but not unfrequently disfigured by and 
additions and omissions. The latter is lessened in 
value, from the fact (which Jerome acknowledges) that it was 
translated hastily, that he retained many of the old render- 
ings, though deeming them inaccurate, from a desire not to 
offend the popular ear (Preface to Pent., and Commentary on 
Eccl.), from the very free use which has been made of the 
LXX, and also from the general inaccuracy of the modern 
Vulgate text. 

The portions of the Vulgate translated by Jerome are bet- 
ter helps to interpretation than the other books : but for the 
settlement of the Hebrew text, the other books (which belonged 
to the Old Italic versions,) are the more important. 

Of modern versions the merits are very various. Latin 
versions made by Romanists are generally ex- Modern 
tremely literal, and often obscure: such are the ^ons. ver ~ 
versions of Pagninus (1528), Arias Montanus Romanist - 
(1584), Cajetan (1639), and Malvenda 1650). Some (as the 
version of Olarius) are founded on the Vulgate, which they 
merely correct. Houbigant (1753) gives an elegant version 
of his amended Hebrew text. The New Testament has been 
translated by Erasmus and Sebastiani. 

Among Protestants, Munster (1534) gives an intelligible 
version from the Hebrew preferable to the versions 

pt> • -i-ivr tt n n 1 Protestant 

oi ragnmus and Montanus. He ioilows, however, 

the same text, and does not widely differ in principles of 

translation from those authors. 

Leo Juda (1543-4) began another version of the Hebrew 
and LXX, which was published by Bibliander, the New 
Testament being added by others. This version is both free 
and faithful. 



216 



ORIGINAL SCRIPTURES — VERSIONS. 



Castalio (1573) gives a version from the original, in which 
he studied to give the sense in elegant classical Latin. It is 
wanting, however, in simplicity and force. 

The version of Junius and Tremellius (1590) is deemed by 
M. Poole among the best. They expressed the article by the 
demonstrative pronoun. The version of the Osianders, like 
that of Clarius, is founded upon the Vulgate. The version of 
Schmidt (1696) is extremely literal, and that of Dathe {1773— 
99) remarkable for fidelity and elegance. The New Testa- 
ment of Beza is highly esteemed. 

Among modern versions into vernacular tongues, that of 
Vernacular Luther is one of the best (1517-30). it is the 
LuS; basis of the Swedish (1541), the Danish (1550), the 
etc- Icelandic (1584), an early Dutch version (1560) and 
the Finnish, with its cognate dialects (1642, etc.). A German- 
Swiss translation was also made by Leo Juda (1525-29), and, 
in 1667, a new or revised version for the same church was 
published at Zurich. Luther's version was also revised and 
published by the Zuinglians in 1679. 

The Scriptures were translated into French by E. P. 
j Olivetan (1535), with a considerable number of 
references from the LXX placed in the margin. 
This version was corrected, chiefly as to the language, by 
Calvin (1540) ; again, by Bertram, Beza, and others (Geneva, 
1588) ; and has since, from time to time, undergone other 
alterations of the same sort ; the revision of Ostervald is best 
known. A French version by Beausobre and L'Enfant 
(1718) was published at Amsterdam, and is highly esteemed 
for its accuracy. 

By order of the Synod of Dort, a version was made into the 
Dutch language, in place of a version made from 

Dutch. o o ' i 

Luther's, which had been used till then. This 
version was printed in 1637, and is highly valued for its 
fidelity. 

There are two versions of the Old Testament into Spanish ; 
Spanish. the one made by a Bomanist (Reyna), Basil, 1569, 



ORIGINAL SCRIPTURES — ETYMOLOGY. 



217 



and the other by a Protestant (Valera), Amsterdam, 
1602. They are founded chiefly on the Latin version of 
Pagninus, and the second partly on the Genevan-French 
Bibles. There are also three Spanish versions made from the 
Vulgate (1478, 1793-4, 1824). 

The best Italian version is that of Diodati (afterwards 
translated into French), 1607. It follows both the , 

y , Italian. 

LXX and the Hebrew, and is free, accurate, and 
clear. e 
In opposition to the vernacular versions of Protestants, 
Popish versions have been made into nearly all the preceding 
languages, generally from the Vulgate. 

318. All these versions, however, and especially the earliest 
of them, are inferior to a good modern lexicon. Thejr , 
Most of them were made under peculiar influences p^tatfon 
and amidst many difficulties. A modern lexico- 
grapher has larger helps, a more certain text, and the very 
apparatus which these versions themselves supply. So that, 
not to excel with all these advantages on his side would prove 
him to be incompetent or careless. 

319. iii. In further investigating the meaning, we may 
seek for help from the words themselves, their 
etymology, the analogy of speech, and the meaning the words 

p..-, -i , 1 • i j themselves. 

oi similar words m cognate dialects. 

320. (1.) Etymology traces the progress of the meaning of 
words, the changes of form which they undergo, 

and points out the significance of their several Etymolog7, * 
parts. It often gives the true meaning, explains the allu- 
sions of the context, and accounts for the rendering of ancient 
versions. 

In Genesis, the "firmament" should be translated "expanse" con- 
trary to the Septuagint, Vulgate, and English ; the root meaning to 
beat or spread out. 

The Hebrew phrase for "making a covenant," refers to the stroke 
that smote the victim, whose death confirmed it. 

lep&jc, a priest, is so called, from the fact that he attends to sacred 
19 



218 



ORIGINAL SCRIPTURES — ETYMOLOGY. 



things, or because he sacrifices to God, Upd */>*£«v, in the sense of 

So facere, for sacrificare, Virgil Ec, iii., 77, and nil33>- asa, for "offer" 

Lev. ix. 6, 16: Numb, xxviii. 24. 

The original word for "minister," in Heb. viii. 2, means, in classic 
Greek, one who performs a public work at his own cost; or, regarding 
the whole phrase as a Latinism (Antistes Sacrorum), it indicates that 
our Lord presides over the worship of the church, and presents it ac- 
ceptably through his intercession. 

The Hebrew word for "to make atonement" (^©5 kipper) means, 
properly, to "cover over" sin, or expiate; and, secondarily, to propi- 
tiate, i. e, to remove the displeasure of another in relation to it. The 
corresponding word in the LXX and New Testament (iWac^usu) means, 
first, to propitiate, and secondarily, to atone for. Both ideas are 
involved in each word, and are sometimes fully expressed 

The Greek word for " to sacrifice" means, in Homer, to burn 

wine or food in the fire as an offering, and in later writers, to sacrifice, 
properly so called. From this double meaning we have two sets of 
Greek words, the one referring to the slaying of victims, &uu, $u<rU, and 
the other to the sweet odors, or incense, which were offered to God 
(Sv/utay.*, thus), and sometimes both ideas are combined, Lev. iv 31: 
Eph. v. 2. Hence, also, 3-va» is used to translate two different Hebrew 
words, meaning, respectively, to sacrifice and to burn sweet incense, 1 
Sam. iii. 14: 2 Chron. xxv. 14; xxviii. 3 : Jer. i. 16; xliv. 5. 

Nearly all the names in Hebrew are significant, and a knowledge 
of their meaning throws light upon the context. The prophecies 
of Jacob concerning his sons refer m a great degree to their names, 
chap. xlix. compared with chaps, xxix , xxx. See also Kuth i. 20; 
Gen. iv 16. 

So the meaning of Prov xxv. 21, 22, and Eom. xii. 20, "heap coak 
of fire," is explained by the fact, that fifi, chatha, means, etymology- 
cally, to apply fire, and thence to soften. 

The rendering of the LXX and Vulgate in Psa. vii. 14, etc., is owing 
to their translating etymologically , and so elsewhere, Ivargo/ucu is an 
etymological translation of the Hebrew word "p^n, heezin, Lev. xiv. 
52, as Tpijutptets, rcj^Ej, shillesh, Deut. xix. 3. " To stir up," in 2 Tim. i. 
6, means, in the Greek, to blow fire into a flame, o.va^avnjpw. 

In the use of the English version, of course, etymology is 
allowable as a guide to the sense only when the etymology of 
the English corresponds with the etymology of the original: 
Gospel, for example, = tvctyy&w, crucify == artmfm^ pre- 



ORIGINAL SCRIPTURES — ANALOGY. 219 

determine — wpoop»f« ; mediator /^scrmj? = intercessor, one 
who acts for another especially to produce harmony between 
parties. It is an important principle, that etymology does 
not of itself fix the meaning, except where usage is either 
doubtful or silent; and it is always, from the changes of 
meaning which words undergo, an uncertain guide. 

321. (2.) Analogy fixes the meaning of one form of a word 
from the known meaning of the similar form of an- 
other word, or of one word from the meaning of some 
opposite or corresponding one. 

If, in reading Hebrew, for example, we meet with a noun ending in 
(h), we may conclude, from the general meaning of that ending, that it 
is probably an ordinal number or a patronymic : if we meet with a 
verbal noun beginning with (ft), it indicates probably an act, or the 
place where some act is performed ; such being, for the most part, the 
meaning of this preform ative. 

Commonly, the Hiphil forms of verbs are causative of the Kal, as 
j^^-n, yatsa, "to go out," and in Hiphil, "to bring out;" Ssjfc, abhad, 
" to perish," and in Hilph.il, " to destroy." If, therefore, we meec with 
a verb in Hiphil, it has probably a causative meaning; though there 
are exceptions to this rule. 

The Hiphil forms of the Old Testament the LXX found it difficult 
to translate without a paraphrase, and hence that version sometimes 
uses a neuter verb in an active sense, Gen. ii. 9 ; iv. 11; xix. 24 : Numb, 
vi. 25; xxxiv. 17; and the New Testament, as may be supposed, often 
employs the same form for the same purpose. 

Matt, v.45, literally, "he rises," "he rains;" i, e., "he causes to rise," 
and "causes to rain." 1 Cor. iii. 6, "increased;" i.e., "gave the in- > 
crease." Luke xi. 53, not "they began to speak off hand," or "to si- 
lence," but rather, "they caused Christ to speak off hand;" i. e., "they 
provoked him to speak." 2 Cor. ii. 14, literally, "to triumph," or." to 
lead captive," as in Col. ii. 15; rather, as in the English, "to cause to 
triumph." 

That "folly" means sin in Gen. xxxiv. 7: Deut. xxi. 21 : Josh. vii. 
15: 2 Sam. xiii. 15, may be gathered from the fact that "wisdom" 
means, in various parts of Scripture, "uprightness" or "piety." 

Matt. vi. 2, 5, 16, a*i%wa-t top /uto-Qov has been translated, "they hin- 
der, or fail of their reward" (Gerard), and dcri^o/unu is used in the sense 
of abstaining from; ajro^w, however, the noun, means a receipt in full, 



220 ORIGINAL SCRIPTURES — COGNATE LANGUAGES. 

and hence the phrase may be taken to mean, "they have their reward;" 
that is, "all they will ever get?' 

In Matt. vi. 11, tmweiov has been variously rendered; it does noi 
occur in the LXX, and is a very rare word. It has been translated 
"necessary for our subsistence" (Vulgate), "suitable for our subsist- 
ence" (Macknight), "sufficient for the morrow, or for future life" (Gro- 
tius): the meaning, however, is fixed by an analogous expression: 
mptoua-iov means more than enough, and as in-t often indicates equality or 
adaptedness, wriovo-iov means "just enough," a translation which agrees 
with the context. 

322. (3.) We may compare the words in Scripture with 
Usage in ^ e same words in cognate languages. The value 
languages °^ C0 9 na ^ e languages, though sometimes underrated, 
has been exaggerated. By modern lexicographers 
they are applied within proper limits, and are of use chiefly 
when ancient versions differ, and where we have not,, in 
Hebrew, materials sufficient for defining the meaning of 
terms. 

(a) . They give the roots of words, the derivatives of which alone are 
found in Scripture, and thus aid to a consistent meaning. 

*p*#, aithan, for example, is a somewhat rare word, translated 
"mighty stream" (i.e., ever-flowing), Amos v. 24: "mighty waters" 
(ever-flowing), Psa. Ixxiv. 15: "strength" (constant flowing), Exod. 
xiv. 27: "strong" (durable), Micah vi. 2: "mighty" (prosperous), Job 
xii. 19: so Numb. xxiv. 21 : Jer. xlix. 19. The Arabic root means "to 
continue running;" then, "to continue" generally, i. e., "to endure;" 
then, "to be inexhaustibly rich:" hence the apparently contradictory 
meanings of the texts in which the derivative is found. 

(b) They fix meanings which might otherwise have been only con- 
jectural. 

balag, for example, occurs four times in Hiphil: Job. ix. 27, 
"comfort myself:" x. 20, 'take rest:" Psa. xxxix. 13, "recover 
strength :" Amos v. 9, "that strengthened," the versions are alto- 
gether uncertain. The Arabic root means "to shine like the dawn;'* 
"to be, or to render, clear and serene;" and that sense meets the re- 
quirements of all the passages. In the same way, many of the plants 
and minerals mentioned in Scripture are identified. 

(c) . They discover the primary meaning of roots whose secondary 



ORIGINAL SCRIPTURES CLASSICAL USAGE. 



221 



senses only are found in Scripture, though the primary throws light on 
some texts. 

5^3, gadhal, for example, means "to be great," but, in Arabic, "to 
twist," and so, "to make great or strong;" hence a norm formed from 
it means "fringes," Deut. xxii. 12 ; " twisted thread," or " chain work," 
1 Kings vii. 17. Another noun, similarly formed, means "brawniness," 
Exod. xv. 16; and the verb is used in its primitive sense in Job vii. 17, 
"to struggle," or "wrestle;" English, "magnify." So pi£, Tsadak, 
means "to be just;" m Arabic, to be "stiff," "inexorable," "unbend- 
ing:" hence, in Isa. xlix. 24, "the lawful captive" ought to be "the 
captive of the inexorable ones ;" see ver. 25. 

(d) They explain idiomatic phrases, the true sense of which cannot 
otherwise be determined. 

See on all this paragraph Gerard's "Institutes." These last 
examples are taken chiefly from Schultens. A large number 
may be found also in the Lexicon of " Gesenius." 

In applying these principles to the New Testament, there 
are modifications of them which are rendered necessary by 
the nature of the Greek tongue, the large critical apparatus 
we already possess in classic authors, and the connection 
through the LXX between the New Testament and the 
language of the Old. 

323. #. In the case of the New Testament, we may seek 
the meaning of its words and phrases in classic 

,i Classic 
authors. usage. 

thW/?, which commonly means "faith," is used in the sense of proof, 
Acts xvii. 31 ; so Aristotle, Polyb. 

ircLyycKofAa.1 means, by itself, "to announce," and so "to promise:" 
followed by certain nouns, it means to "profess" (1 Tim. ii. 10). The 
word is regularly used for professing an art or science, Diog. Laert., 
Proem. 5, 12 : Xen. Mem. i. 2, 7. 

■xetpd, in composition, often means in the Greek Testament " by the 
way," Rom. v. 20; or "secretly," Gal. ii. 14. Jude iv.; a usage found 
in classic authors, Polyb., Herodian, Plut. 

to i7ri(Za.\Kov u'ifog, Luke xv. 12, is a legal phrase, indicating the share 
which fell to a man as heir ; the use of the word here shows how com- 
pletely the prodigal son was estranged from all filial feelings. 

enygaxJv 'khan, Mark xiv. 72, "when he thought thereon," rather, 
19* 



222 



ORIGINAL SCRIPTURES — JOSEPHUS. 



" having rushed out;" and so it agrees with Matthew and Luke, PolyK 
*Xw \f t» ua-Smici, John v. 5, is -classic Greek for " to be ill ;" so that, 
when these words are translated " there was a sick man thirty-eight 
years old" (Paulus), the rendering is contrary to Greek^usage. 

The apparently incomplete sentences in Luke xiii. 9 : six. 42 : xxii. 
42 (Gr.), are all good Greek ; the custom being, frequently, to omit the 
apodosis (or conclusion) of a sentence after »l or sdv, when the meaning 
is clear, Raphel. 

Bos, Eisner, Kypke, Grotius, Wolf, Wetstein, Raphel, have largely 
illustrated the phraseology of the New Testament from classic sources ; 
Kypke and Raphel from particular authors, and the rest from classic 
authorities generally. 

324. v. Or we may turn to the works of Josephus and 

Philo, which in this respect are not unimportant. 

Usage m r ' x 

Josephus 

and Philo. juvTi6ept£scrQiu means, etymologically, to hang up in the 
air ; but it is used both by Philo and Josephus for " to be of doubtful 
mind," as in the New Testament. 

v7ronma^uv, literally, to "hit under the eyes" (Luke xviii. 5 : 1 Cor. 
ix. 27), means, generally, "to harass," "to afflict." 

i<pn/j.ipU, Luke i. 5, translated " course," means the daily service of 
the temple, which was discharged by bands of priests in rotation (Jos.). 

Kpio-ts (judgment), Matt. v. 31, was the name given to the court of 
seven magistrates, who had the power of punishing small offences 
(Jos.). 

iyK'xiviA (the renewal), John x. 22, is the term used by Philo aa 
appropriate to express the feast of the Dedication held on the 25 Kisleu; 
as vmnniA is the fast connected with the day of Atonement, 10 Tisri. 
Acts xxvii. 9. 

All these phrases, and many others, are peculiar to Jewish writers. 
For ample illustration, see Ott. (Excerpta ex F. Josepho), Krebsii 
(Obs. ex F. Josepho), and Loesneri (Ob. ex Philone). 

325. yi. Especially useful shall we find a reference to 
U e of h"* ^ em ^ c l an g lia g es > including the Hebrew, from 
brew in ex- which, indeed, many New Testament phrases are 

plaining , 

New Testa- taken. 

ment 
phrases. 

Hebraisms may be seen in Heb. i. 2, *i<!>v='Q^\$, olam; 
upi'ivH often = 6^zj, shalom, "all blessing," Mark v. 34: Tjuke vii. 50; 
'•peace to you" being the Hebrew form of "salutation," as ^cfysv ^ tne 



ORIGINAL SCRIPTURES — GLOSSES. 



223 



Greek, Jas. i. 1 : sometimes sipwi is used in the Greek sense for peace, 
Luke xiv. 32, and sometimes in the Christian sense, Rom. ii. 10 : Luke 
xix. 42 : igopiGtey&o-Qn (mfn)> "to acknowledge the qualities of another;" 
so as "to praise," Matt. xi. 25: Trcfu-jts-Qsu, to indicate a "mode of life :" 
ei, after verbs of swearing, = not, Mark viii. 12 : Heb. iv. 3, 5 : ^dvdyKn 
means "straits, calamity," Luke xxi. 23: Cor. vii. 26- it; rev zlZv*, revs 
alette — " for ever," " to taste death," Matt. xvi. 28 : heaven, for God, 
Dan. iv. 23: see 22: Matt. xxi. 25: Luke xv. 21: pa. uqUvoj = 

"to forgive sins:" ifssv and xuen K*TB> shere esar), "to forbid and 
to appoint:" "to die in sin," John viii. 21, 24 — "to perish be- 
cause of sin" (Lev. v. 6): poi%6s, used spiritually after the Hebrew 
(n^f) zone), not literally, as in Greek, Jas. iv. 4, are all Hebraisms : 
though some (*) marked are found in classic authors, and are therefore 
called imperfect Hebraisms. So Acts xix. 6; xxiv. 4; ii. 14: Jas. ii. 
9 : Matt. xv. 2 : Mark vii. 22, " evil" is — envious. 

For other Aramaean expressions, see § 39. The Hebraisms of the 
New Testament are fully illustrated in the works of Lightfoot, the sup- 
plementary volumes of Schoetgenius, and in the Commentary of Gill. 
Koppe's Commentary on the New Testament (from Acts to Rev.) is 
very valuable for giving the results of the inquiries of his predecessors 
in this department. 

J.. 

326. vii-. Nor is it unimportant, in ascertaining the mean- 
ing of words, to consult ancient scholiasts and glosses, and the 
writings of the early fathers. The first two give the meaning 
generally, without supplying evidence or proof passages, and 
the second give professed interpretations of Scripture lan- 
guage. 

Hesychius, for example, explains the " tittles" of the law, by calling 
them the marks made in beginning to write letters (&px» ypapparo;), Matt, 
v. 18 ; and Suidas explains fiarrcKoyw by " wordiness," or " much speak- 
ing" (mwKoyi'a.), vi. 7. 

/uvwpicv is explained by Clem. Rom. (1 Cor.) as a revealed secret. 

ulSivnlv uvfgoT, 1 Tim. ii. 12, means, etymologically, to kill her husband; 
but Theophylact explains it, "to usurp authority over:" so the Eng- 
lish version. suTpa-Trthia. which means, properly, "lively discourse," is 
explained by Chrysostom in his oration on this subject, and by Jerome, 
as something said (generally foolish and sinful) to provoke a laugh ; 
"foolish jesting" gives, therefore, the precise meaning. That dvaKn^n, 



224 



ORIGINAL SCRIPTURES — GLOSSES AND THE LXX. 



Luke ix. 51, refers to our Lord's ascension may be gathered from Acts 
i. 2, and it is proved by a similar use of this phrase in the Fathers. 

These are verbal illustrations ; doctrinal illustrations may be seen iD 
a subsequent Section. 

The chief Greek glossaries are the lexicons of Hesychius (400), Suidas 
(980), and Phavorinus (1523) ; the Etymologicum Magnum (10th cen- 
tury), with the works of Zonaras (1118) and Photius (850). The 
glosses, or explanations of the first four, so far as the New Testament 
is concerned, were edited by C. G. Ernesti, 1785-6, and those of Zonaras, 
in 1618. Matthsei (Mosc. 1774-5, Lips. 1779) and Alberti (Lug. Bat. 
1735) have also published glosses, selected from the margin of ancient 
manuscripts of the New Testament. 

For a view of the explanations, given in the Fathers, of New Testa- 
ment terms, see by far the completest book on this subject, " Suiceri 
Thes. Eccl." ii. torn. 1728, or indexes of good editions of the Fathers 
themselves. For the teachings of the Fathers on books or parts of 
Scripture, see the compendious collections published under the name of 
Catenas ; some of their comments are good, many trifling. 

327. viii. The chief help to the study of the New Testa- 
,, . „ ment, however, remains — the version of the LXX : 

Version oi ' ' 

the lxx. words and phrases being often taken from that 
version, and used in an altogether peculiar sense. 

Six&MH, for example, means in classic Greek, " a disposition of pro- 
perty," or "a will," but in the LXX, it is frequently used to translate 
(j-p^S) Berith), in the sense of "covenant" or "agreement between 
parties," which classic authors express by o-i/v9«k«, Gen. xvii. 9, 10. It 
is applied to the agreement between Abraham and Abimelech, xxi. 
27-32 : between Laban and Jacob, xxxi. 44 : compare Deut. vii. 9 ; xvii. 
2 ; xxix. 9 : Psa. cxxxi. 12 : Christ is given tk SiclBmiv, Isa. xlii. 6 ; 1 
liii. 3. 

omQua, " truth," is used for, and means, 11 all probity or holiness," 
Psa. xxvi. 3 ; lxxxvi. 11, and also " substance," as opposed to " type or 
shadow," John i. 17: Heb. viii. 2. 

vs^oc = j-ilirii the whole Mosaic encomy, Deut. iv. 8, 44 : Matt. v. 17 ; 
vii. 12: John i. 17. 

cuyxfimv means in classic Greek, "to confound, or mix ;" in the LXX 
it is "to interpret, or explain," Gen. xl. 8, and hence, 1 Cor. ii. 13, 
"expounding spiritual things by spiritual, or to spiritual." 

\m to ctvv) = i^j-j^i yachdav, "together," Matt. xxii. 34 : Acts i. 15 : 2 
Sam. ii. 13 ; xix. io. 



ORIGINAL SCEIPTUEES- 



! — THE LXX. 



225 



. -nuvcL <rap% ou — " no flesh shall," == yjy^D, kol lo, Exod. xii, 15, 43 : 
Bometimes the LXX use the classic phrase, ova. ovStk, Exod. x. 15. 

The LXX translate jn^tSH. i n the sense of "sin offering," to t;7? 
ajuxprias, Lev. xviii. 25: to mpi ujux-^Tt*;, Lev. v. 8 : to u7rep u/uctprttc, Lev. 
viii. 2 : ixd<r/uos, Ezek. xliv. 27, and hence the use of these phrases in 
the New Testament. On the other hand, it may be noticed, that 
rii<t)n> chatath, means both " an act of sin" and " a sinful disposition," 
as does a^sfra, The New Testament has no distinct phrase corres- 
ponding to the Latin " vitium," which is the act, and " vitiositas," 
which is the disposition. Compare " a sin" and " depravity." 

'O epxZfA&os, " the coming one," is the LXX translation of various 
passages, which refer to our Lord, and hence it is applied frequently 
in the New Testament to him, Luke hi. 19: Heb. x. 37: not "shall 
come," but "is coming," or " is to come," Rev. i. 8. 

The New Testament also abounds in Hellenistic constructions: 
Nouns absolute for example, Rev. i. 4, 5; ii. 20; iii. 12: unusual 
governments, adj. with gen. cases, where good Greek requires no prep., 
John vi. 45, and the contrary, Matt, xxvii. 24: &vo in the sense of "by" 
or "because," "jja, m i n » Matt. xi. 19; xviii. 7: Gal. i. 1 : 2 Cor. iii. 18: 
Acts xxii. 11. 

328. The reference to Hellenistic usage, may, however, be 
carried to an extreme : ^na,ioavvn, for example, has been trans- 
lated "mercy" in Kom. iii. 25, 26: and the rendering is 
defended by an appeal to the LXX, where it is used for 
nsn, chesedh. The LXX, however, itself corrects this trans- 
lation. Nine times in the Old Testament, it is so used : but 
seven of these are in the Pentateuch, and many hundred 
times, i. e., nearly always, it translates righteousness (p^X, 
Tsedek). 

329. Perhaps we may best illustrate the connection between 
the Hebrew, the LXX, and the New Testament, 

by explaining the meaning of the various Greek piiedto^x- 
words applied in Scripture to the ivork of our cn1atio^° n " 
Lord; reconciliation, propitiation, expiation, atone- 
ment, redemption, satisfaction, substitution, and salvation. 

(a.) Looking into the English New Testament, we find "reconcilia- 
tion," and "reconcile" in several passages, in all of which (except one,) 



226 



THE LXX — ATONEMENT, ETC. 



the Greek word is some form of d,bxda<ru>, " to produce a change between 
parties" (when, for example, they have been at variance) : in turning to 
the LXX, we find this word never, used in this sense at all, nor have 
the many passages in the Old Testament, which speak of "making 
reconciliation," any verbal reference to these passages in the New Tes- 
tament. The idea is involved in several passages, but it is never ex- 
pressed by this word, nor by any single word. " To turn away anger," 
" to restore to favor," " to accept," are the common expressions ; 
generally forms of tf2% ratsa, and JWo'v, Isa. lvi. 7 ; lx. 7 : Jer. vi. 20 : 
Lev. xix. 7. Hence the important conclusion, that in the word of the 
New Testament translated " reconcile," there is reference only to the 
change or effect produced by some measure of mercy, and not to the 
nature of that measure itself: it describes merely the change produced 
in our relation to God, his moral sentiment of displeasure against sin 
(called his " wrath") is appeased, and the sinner's enmity and misgivings 
are removed. That there is this double change, may be gathered from 
the following passages, Heb. x. 26, 27 : Rom. v. 9 : Heb. ix. 26, 28 : 2 
Cor. v. 18-20 : Eph. ii. 16 : 1 Cor. vii. 11 : Col. i. 20, 21. 

(b.) In one passage, however, Heb. ii. 17, we have in Greek another 
word tK'j.<nii/u.*i, translated also " make reconciliation." Its meaning may 
be gathered from an examination of the passages in the Old Testament, 
in which it occurs. It is, in fact, the constant rendering of a word 
translated in the English version, " to make reconciliation," or " to 
atone for," Lev. vi. 30; viii. 15: Ezek. xlv. 20: Dan. ix. 24, etc. 

(c.) But it would excite surprise, if this were the only passage in the 
New Testament where this phrase is found. It occurs again, in fact, in 
Eom. iii. 25: 1 John ii. 2; iv. 10, but in each of these passages it is 
translated pkopitiation, a word which does not occur in the Old 
Testament. Expiation, again, does not occur in the New, and but 
once in the Old, Numb, xxxiii. 35 ; it is the same word, however, as is 
translated elsewhere, "to make reconciliation," or "to atone for." 
Atonement, itself, does not occur in the New Testament, except in 
Eom. v. 2, and there it has no connection with the Old Testament 
phrase, but is the same word as is translated " reconciliation" in the 
first sense above indicated, a change, that is, of state, between parties 
previously at variance. 

(d.) Thus far, therefore, the result is clear. Reconciliation and 
atonement are, in all the New Testame?it, except Heb. ii. 17, transla- 
tions of the same word, and mean the state of friendship and accept- 
ance into which the Gospel introduces us. " Reconciliation," in the sense 
in which it is used in Heb. ii. 17, and "atonement," in the uniform 



THE LXX — ATONEMENT, ETC. 



227 



sense of the Old Testament, "propitiation" in the New Testament, and 
"expiation" in the Old, are all different renderings of one and the same 
Hebrew and Greek words ^5 3, kipper, and l^ixdaKo/uut, in some of their 
forms. These words, which may be regarded as one, have two senses, 
each involving the other. They mean to appease, pacify, or propi- 
tiate, Gen. xxxiii. 20: Prov. xvi. 14: Ezek. xvi. 63 ; and also to clear 
from guilt, 1 Sam. iii. 14: Psa. lxv. 3: Prov. xvi. 6: Isa. vi. 7, etc. 
In propitiation, we have prominence given to the first idea, in expiation, 
to the second ; in atonement, we have a distinct reference to both. 

(e) The thing which atones, propitiates, or expiates, is called in 
Greek, ikzr/uoc, j£jxao-<ua?, and xvrpcv, all translations of two derivates of 
the Hebrew word (tD^ISS. kephurim, and ^53, kopher), i. e., 

price or covering. 

(/.) The use of \vrpov for ^53, introduces another form of expression, 
" redemption." This word, as a noun, always represents in the New 
Testament, hvrp&n; or amKuTpaxris. Both are descriptive of the act of 
procuring the liberation of another, by paying some xfapov or an-cn*, i. e., 
"ransom," or "forfeit," and hence always in the New Testament, of 
the state of being ransomed in this way. 

These words mean (1,) to buy back, by paying the price, what has 
been sold, Lev. xxv. 25, and (2,) to redeem what has been devoted, by 
substituting something else in its place, Lev. xxvii. 27; Exod. xiii. 13: 
Psa. lxxii. 14 ; Psa. cxxx. 8 : Isa. lxiii. 9. 

The price paid is called \vrp<rv, (Matt. xx. 28 : Mark x. 45,) .'vriwrpoy, 
(1 Tim. ii. 6,) the Hebrew terms being n^2*3> Geulla, and Yp~5, 
Phidyon, answering precisely to xvrpov and "i^s, which again answers 
to i*.ci>rjuos. In 1 Tim. ii. 6, this ransom is said to be Christ himself. 

" Redemption," therefore, is generally a state of deliverance, by 
means of ransom. Hence it is used to indicate deliverance from pun- 
ishment or guilt, Eph. i. 7 : Col. i. 14 ; sanctifi 'cation, which is deliver- 
ance from the dominion of sin, 1 Pet. i. 18 ; the resurrection, which is the 
actual deliverance of the body from the grave, the consequence of sin, 
Bom. viii. 23; completed salvation, which is actual deliverance from 
all evil, Eph. i. 14; iv. 30: 1 Cor. i. 30: Tit, ii. 14. 

Once it is used without reference to sin, Heb. xi. 35, and perhaps in 
Luke xxi. 28. 

(g.) Another word, translated "redemption" (uyopd£a>), Gal. iii. 13; 
iv. 5: Rev. v. 9 ; xiv. 3, 4, means, as it is everywhere translated, to buy, 
referring to a purchase made in the market. What is paid in this case, 
is called t//k» (price,) and this price is said to be Christ, Cal. iii. 13 ; or 
his blood, Rom. v. 9. In Acts xx. 28, the word rendered "purchase" 



228 



THE LXX — ATONEMENT, ETC. 



(7rtpt7roi(icQut), has no reference to redemption, or to price, but means 
simply "acquired for himself:" the following words, however, indicate 
that the sense is not materially different from purchasing, as that term 
is used elsewhere. 

(h.) The word "satisfaction ," is not found in the New Testament, 
but it occurs twice in the Old, Numb. xxxv. 31p32. It is there a trans- 
lation of or harp*, "that which expiates," or "ransoms." The use 
of these terms in reference to the New Testament doctrine, implies that 
what was done and paid in the death of our Lord was in every respect 
sufficient: it accomplished our pardon, and answered all the moral pur- 
poses which God deemed necessary, under a system of holy law. 

{i.) The word "substitution" is not found in either Testament, but 
the idea is frequently expressed in both: "it shall be accepted for 
him," Lev. i. 4; vii. 18, is the Old Testament phrase, and the New cor- 
responds. There we find in frequent use, wry and &vri, the former 
meaning " on behalf of," "for," and " instead," and the latter meaning 
undoubtedly " instead of." Much stress ought not to be laid upon the 
first of these terms, as it is frequently used where it may mean "for 
the advantage of," Rom. viii. 26, 31 : 2 Cor. i. 2: yet in John xv. 13, 
and 1 John iii. 16, it seems to mean " instead of:" and this is certainly 
the meaning of avrt, Matt. xx. 28 : Mark x. 45 : see Matt. ii. 22, "in the 
room of." Apart, however, from particular prepositions, three sets of 
phrases clearly teach this doctrine. 

(1.) Christ was made a curse for us, Gal. iii. 13; so a similar phrase, 
2 Cor. v. 21. 

(2.) He gave himself as a sacrifice for our sins, 1 Cor. xv. 3 : Eph. v. 
2: Gal. i. 4: 1 Tim. ii. 6, 14: Heb. vii. 27 ; v. 1,3 ; x. 12: Rom. v. 
6-8: 1 Cor. i. 13; v. 7; xi. 24: 1 Pet, iii. 18; iv. 1. 

(3.) Christ gave his life for our life, or we live by his death, Gal. ii. 
20: Rom. xiv. 15: 2 Cor. v. 15. Compare Rom. xvi. 4: Isa. liii. 45. 
The idea of substitution is in all these passages, and the phrase, though 
not Scriptural, is a convenient summary of them all. 

(j.) "Salvation" is everywhere in the New Testament the representa- 
tive of trcernplst, or a-ooriigiov. o-amtpia. is always translated "salvation," 
except in three passages (Acts vii. 25 ; xxvii. 34, and Heb. xi. 7, where 
it refers to temporal deliverance), and the idea included in the term is, 
whatever blessings redemption includes, — but without any reference 
to \6rpt>v, or anything else as the ground of them. It includes present 
deliverance, Luke xix. 9, or future, Phil. i. 19: Rom. xiii. 11. "Salva- 
tion," therefore, is the state into which the Gospel introduces all who 
believe, and without reference to the means used, a price paid. Such 



THE LXX — ATONEMENT, ETC. 



229 



is the conclusion to which etymology and New Testament usage 
leads. 

On turning to the LXX, however, we find that the idea oi propitia- 
tion is involved even here, trcorxpiov is very frequently the translation 
of e^ej, shelem (rGT. zebhach), peace-offering, Suvi* cccryiftb, Lev. iii. 
1-3 ; iv. 10 ; vii. 20 ; xi. 4 : Judg. xx. 26 ; xxi. 4. (shelem), is the 

sacrifice or retribution, restoring peace; and thus the meaning of 
cuTHftcv touches upon the meaning of propitiation. 

(k.) From this comparison, therefore, of the New Testament, the 

LXX, and the Hebrew, we gather the following conclu- „ , . 

° ° Conclusions. 

Bions. 

Propitiation, giving prominence to the secondary meaning of ^53, 
Kipper, and the primary meaning of eftixacrxc/uuti, is an act prompting to 
the exercise of mercy, and providing for its exercise in away consistent 
with justice. 

Expiation, giving prominence to the primary meaning of b -|ft>3i an< i 
the secondary meaning of i^i\tt<nto/uat, is an act which provides for the 
removal of sin, and cancels the obligation to punishment. 

Atonement, giving prominence to both, and meaning expiation and 
propitiation combined. 

Christ's atonement is said to be by substitution, for he suffered in our 
stead, and he bears our sin ; and it is by satisfaction, for the broken 
law is vindicated, all the purposes of punishment are answered with 
honor to the Lawgiver, and eventual holiness to the Christian. Its 
result is reconciliation {KXToxKcvyn) ; the moral sentiment of justice in 
God is reconciled to the sinner, and provision is made for the removal 
of our enmity; and it is redemption, or actual deliverance, for a price, 
from sin in its guilt and dominion, from all misery, and from death. 

Salvation is also actual deliverance, but without a distinct reference 
to a price paid. Atonement, therefore, is something offered to God; 
redemption or salvation is something bestowed upon man : atonement 
is the ground of redemption, and redemption is the result of atonement 
(Isa. liii. 4-9, 10, 12). The design of the first is to satisfy God's jus- 
tice, the design of the second to make man blessed; the first was finished 
upon the cross, the second is in daily operation, and will not be com- 
pleted, in the case of the whole church, till the consummation of all 
things, Dan. ix. 24: Eph. iv. 30. 

In studying the Hellenisms of the New Testament, and tracing their 
connection with the Old, the Nov. Test. Graec, Editio Hellenistica. 
Lond., 1843, will be found of value: it consists of the New Testamen, 
20 



230 



ORIGINAL SCRIPTURES — CONCORDANCES. 



text, and illustrations from the LXX of the phraseology of every vem 
For further helps, see below \ 331. 

330. These illustrations and remarks refer chiefly to tht 
meaning of words. Other rules of interpretation have been 
already illustrated — the words in connection with the sen- 
tence, the context, the scope, and parallel passages — and are 
the same, whether we be interpreting the original or a ver- 
sion and do not need further illustration. They apply with 
equal force to the study of the original Scriptures. 

331. In reference to parallel passages, it must be remem- 
bered that verbal parallels in a version are available only 
when the version is strictly accurate, and that comparison 
and investigation of the original must be made through the 
medium, not of a translation, but of the original itself. The 
importance of this remark may be seen in § 329, where the 
use of the English version, even on the important subject of 
the work of Christ, will certainly mislead, the New Testa- 
ment itself not translating uniformly, and still less agreeing 
in its translation with the corresponding expressions of the 
Old. Happily, this difficulty, which to an English reader 
would have been a few years since insuperable, is to a great 
degree removed by the helps mentioned below. 

For the study of Hebrew verbal parallels, the best Concordance is 
Fiirst's : for New Testament Greek, Bruder's. To ascertain the usage 
of the version of the LXX, and to compare it with the New Testament 
consult the Concordance of Trommius, which gives the Greek word,, 
with the passages in which it is found, arranged under the different He 
brew words, of which it is the translation : a second table in the same 
book gives the Hebrew word first, with its different Greek renderings. 
The English student will obtain very considerable help from the "En- 
glishman's Greek Concordance," which gives the Greek words of the 
New Testament, with their English renderings ; and from the "English- 
man's Hebrew Concordance," which gives the same information for the 
Hebrew Scriptures. The second tables in each give the English word 
and its various Greek and Hebrew representatives. Taylor s Concord- 
ance is formed on the same plan. Wilson makes the English word the 
basis of his Concordance, giving the Hebrew representatives. The plan 



THE GREEK ARTICLE. 



231 



of the Englishman's Greek and Hebrew Concordances, however, is the 
more useful. A comparison of the New Testament Greek and the LXX' 
can be made only through Trommius and Bruder, or by the help of the 
Lexicon of Schleusner, or the Thesaurus of Biel. 

332. The peculiarities of the Greek tongue are nowhere 
more instructive or beautiful than in the use of the usage of 
article : and as the rules in reference to it afford Greek - 
important help in interpreting Scripture, it may be convenient 
to give them. 

333. The Greek language has but one article, the definite ; 
the indefinite is expressed in the New Testament 

• -i Article* 

by tk, "a certain;" very occasionally by 5 and a 
participle, 5 o-weigwr, "a sower;" or generally by the omission 
of the definite article. 

The general idea involved in the use of the definite article, 
both in Greek and in English, is, that the object to GeneraI 
which it is prefixed is familiar; but the grounds of idea of the 

n ■ i-rr> • definite 

familiarity are diiierent, as are, m some respects, article, 

the usages of the two tongues. Familiarity arises Famihauty * 
from different causes. 

(a.) When things are in themselves well known, or are re- 
garded as present to the senses. 

° x Origin of 

1. The names of persons well known generally take the liarity"™" 

article ; but because they are well known, their names also Different 

' J ( ' eases, 

dispense with it. Hence ']»<rcu? and o 'lurovs: see Matt. i. 1-16; 

ii. 16, 19. On the first mention of a name the article is generally 

omitted. The names of persons not well known also take the article 

when mentioned a second time, 

2. If the proper name is followed by a description which has the 
article, the name is without it unless the person is very eminent. 
"John the Baptist" is the common form. 

3. Objects present to the parties concerned have the article attached 
to their names, Matt. xxvi. 23, in the dish. John xiii. 26, the sop. 
Mark xi. 5, loosing the colt. 1 Thess. v. 27, this epistle. Matt. xiii. 
27, these tares. Hence the nominative, with the article, to express the 
vocative. Eph. v. 22: Heb. i. 8. 

■ 4. The possessive pronoun, in Greek, with a noun, takes the article; 
not my will — -the will of me — but "the thy will" be done. 



232 



THE GREEK ARTICLE. 



The second and third of these rules are in accordance with English 
usage, the others are not. We can say, indeed, the Christ ; but then 
Christ is not a name, but a description, and means "the anointed." 

(5.) Familiarity may arise from something in the context, 
as from 

1. Previous mention, Luke ii. 16, the child: in verse 12, a child. 
John iv. 43, after the two days : verse 40, two days. The English 
adopts this rule whenever it can be adopted without -violating an- 
other. 

2. Implication in some preceding expression, Mark ii. 4, the roof, 
verse 1. Luke xv. 4, the ninety and nine; one out of a hundred being 
lost. Luke xi. 38, before the dinner or meal : verse 37, to dine with 
him. Matt. i. 24, from the sleep, in which he had a dream, verse 20. 
Matt. x. 12, into the house, i. e., where they receive you, verse 11 : Acts 
xx. 13 : 2 Thess. ii. 11 : see ix. 10. 

3. Association, when the noun, without being implied in anything 
previously expressed, is connected with it. John xxi. 8, came in the 
small boat, i. e. of the fishing vessel : see verse 3. So Acts xxvii. 16 : 
Luke xi. 7 : John xiii. 5 : Mark iv. 38 : Acts xx. 9, the window, the 
only one of the chamber; Acts xxi. 26, 27, until the offering, and so 
throughout referring to the law on vowo. The article thus rendered 
necessary by the context is often to be expressed by the possessive 
pronoun, "putting his (Gr. the) hands upon him," Acts ix. 17. 

The difference between Greek and English rules will be seen from 
the examples. 

(c). Familiarity arises from something neither mentioned 
nor suggested, of which there are several kinds. 

1. Abstract nouns generally take the article, and always when they 
are personified. 1 Cor. xv. 26, death (o 3-.) John vii. 22, 23, circumci- 
sion. 1 Cor. xi. 14, nature, Matt. xi. 19 : Phil. iii. 3. Numbers in the 
abstract (to h, unity, the state of being one), and the infinitive used as 
a noun, belong to this class, to mo-rimi/ = believing. This usage is not 
frequent in English. 

2. Nouns representing objects in nature which exist singly, and en- 
tire natural substances, generally take the article. Matt. v. 18, heaven 
and earth : xxiv. 29, the sun. Mark xiii. 28, summer (= the hot sea- 
Bon) ; light ; salt ; water. Generally, we omit the article in these cases, 
whenever, at least the use of it would indicate some particular thing, 
rather than the universal substance. 



THE GREEK ARTICLE. 



233 



3. Words indicating entire species, either of animals or objects, 
generally take the article. Matt. vi. 1, men, as men: vii. 6, dogs, as 
dogs. Matt. x. 16, serpents. Luke xxi. 29, fig-tree. James iii. 4, 
(the) ships. The omission of the article would indicate that the state- 
ment made is true only of some, and not of the class as a whole. The 
English generally omits the article in these cases. 

4. Whole classes of agents generally take it. Matt. x. 10, the 
laborer. Matt, xviii. 17, the publican. Matt. xxv. 32, the shepherd. 

5. Many words in all languages express ideas familiar to classes of 
readers, and properly take the article; and generally it is best to re- 1 
tain it, even in a translation, though the translation be not quite clear. 
Matt. xvii. 24, ra tf/^^wa, the half-shekel temple-tax: xxi. 12, the 
doves used, viz., in the temple service. John xviii. 3, « o-7ruf>x., the 
detachment on duty. John i. 21, art thou the prophet. Luke xxi. 8, 

o k'ju^s, the time (so long expected). 1 Cor. iii. 13, the day shall show 
it, Heb. x. 25, \tz rev ixiZv-x — for ever, to eternity, Matt. xxi. 19: 
Mark xi. 14 : John iv. 14. So « Hie, that way, i. e. the Gospel, Acts ix. 
2: xix. 9, 23; xxiv. 22: so in proverbial expressions, Matt. xxii. 24, 
the camel, the gnat : so to igoc = the mountain district of Gallilee, or of Pa- 
lestine, Matt. xiv. 23, Mark iii. 13. h xgn/Uyos, the precipice (surrounding 
the lake), Matt. viii. 32. tottxoiov, Matt. xiii. 2: Mark iv. 1, the vessel 
generally used by our Lord and his apostles. » oikU, the house to 
which he resorted when at Capernaum, Matt. xiii. 1, 36 : Mark ix. 33. 

For obvious reasons Luke and John, the former writing for those 
who knew nothing of Palestine, and the latter writing after the whole 
aspect of the country had been changed, never use these latter 
expressions. 

334. The exceptions to these rules are numerous, 

.5 Exceptions 

but easily classified. classified. 

(a) . Generally, it may be said that it is often dis- Where m- 
pensed with where the intrinsic meaning is so clear meaning ia 
that perspicuity is not affected by the omission. 

Proper names are often without it, 1 Cor. iii. 22. Abstract nouns 
are often without it. Certain principal objects of nature are without 
it, Matt. xiii. 6 : 1 Cor xx. 41 : 2 Pet. iii. 10 : James i. 6. Superlatives 
and ordinal numbers take it or are without it, Mark xv. 33: Matt, 
xiv. 25 ; xxii. 38. So to a certain extent in English. 

(b) . Nouns not in themselves definite are often without it, 

20* 



234 



THE GREEK ARTICLE. 



where it is especially if in very common use. In these cases, 

clear from r J J 1 

usage or they are made definite by the context, or usage. 

context. J J ° 

and are unambiguous. 

fidurixiui means, in classic Greek, a king ; o fiwxm alone, the Persian 
king; and in later Greeek, /6*<rixivg itself has that meaning. So, in the 
New Testament, Qe->s is applied, without the article, to God, and kvpios to 
Jehovah, both in the New Testament and in the LXX, 1 Thess. ii. 5. 
see verse 10 : see Matt. x. 28, 37. 

(c). Nouns used adverbially, i. e. } with prepositions, often 
, dispense with the article. 

Nouns used * 
adverbially. 

John i. 1 : Rom. viii. 4. 

335. An accurate application of these rules will solve many 

difficulties, and is essential to the right understand- 
ing of portions of Scripture. 

In Matt. i. 17, for example, it is said that all the generations from 
Abraham to David are fourteen. Probably the article here refers 
rather to the generations just enumerated. 

In Rom., vo/aos, without the article, refers to any revelation or written 
rule of moral duty ; 'O vo/uos, either to the Mosaic law, or to some law 
just named. 

336. A very striking use of the omission of the article is 
« . . -to call attention to the idea in the anarthrous — ■ 

Omission of 

article. unarticled — word. 

Heb. i. 1, 2, of old, God spake by the prophets, now by one who is 
Son, h vtZ: so vii. 28. 1 Cor. xiv. 4, one man — a church. John iii. 6, 
that which is born of the flesh (article) is flesh (no article). Rom. xi. 6, 
grace (article) is no longer grace (no article), vii. 13. 

337. In the collocation of words, the following rules are 
Rules on important. 

tion C of loca " When two or more words are connected, and 

words. are descriptive of a single object, or of objects re- 
garded as single, the article is prefixed (as in English) to the 
first only. 



THE GEEEK ARTICLE. 



235 



Matt. xii. 22, the blind and dumb. Luke xi. 28, he that heareth and 
keepeth. John vi. 40 : Rom. ii. 3 : 1 John ii. 4 : Eph. v. 20. 

(h). Nor is the article repeated, when a single class of 
things or qualities is described, by an enumeration of its parts. 

Eph. iii. 18, what is the breadth and length, etc., describing the 
extent. Matt. xx. 19, to mock (article), and scourge, and crucify — the 
Bufferings. So Acts viii. 6 : 1 Cor. xi. 22. 

(c) . Nor when the words used express one idea, though a 
complex one. 

Phil. ii. 17, upon the sacrifice and service of your faith. 2 Cor. xiii. 
11, the God of love and peace (not and of peace), 2 Pet. i. 10. 

(d) . Nor when two or more persons make one agency, or a 
single act is directed against two or more objects. 

Matt. xvii. 1, Peter (article), and John, and James, Luke xix. 11 : 
Acts iii. 11 ; xvii. 15. 

(e) . On the contrary, the article is repeated when distinct- 
ness is given to each of the things named. 

Matt, xxiii. 23 : Tit. iii. 4, the goodness and the philanthropy of God 
our Saviour appeared. 

(/). And when the words employed are not descriptive of a 
single object, or of what is regarded as such. 

Heb. xi. 20, Isaac blessed tov IctKwfi and tov H«y, 2 Thess. i. 8, to 
those who know not . . . and to those who do not obey. 

(g). Appiy mese rules to explain the following. 

Tit. ii. 13: 2 Thess. i. 12: Eph. v. 5 : 1 Tim. v. 21: 2 

Examples. 

Pet. i. 11 : Jude iv. 

338. The doctrine of the Greek article was first formally 
examined in modern times by Granville Sharp ; Literatnre 
afterwards, at greater length, and with more accu- ° f th ® 

° o ' ^ Greek arti- 

racy, by Dr. Middleton, some of whose conclusions, cle - 



236 EXTERNAL HELPS — THEIR VALUE. 

however, have been overthrown by more recent investigation. 
The above rules are in harmony with such of Middleton's as 
have stood the test, and are most of them taken substantially 
from Winer's " Idioms," and from Green's " Grammar of the 
New Testament Dialect," 1842. 

Sec. 6. Of the Use of External Helps in the Inter- 
pretation of the Bible. 

" The Bible resembles an extensive garden, where there is a vast 
variety and profusion of fruits and flowers, some of which are more 
essential or more splendid than others ; but there is not a blade suf- 
fered to grow in it, which has not its use and beauty in the system. 
Salvation for sinners is the grand truth presented everywhere, and in 
all points of light . but the pure in heart sees a thousand traits of the 
Divine character, of himself, and of the world ; some striking and bold, 
others cast as it were into the shade, and designed to be searched for 
and examined." — Cecil, Remains, (p. 198.) 

339. Thoroughly to understand the Scriptures, to harmonize 
apparent contradictions, to gather up all the truth it contains, 
and sometimes even to enable us to select out of several mean- 
ings the one which is most consistent with the Divine will, it 
is often necessary to seek some external or collateral help. 
We need to know the opinions and ideas prevalent among the 
people to whom the various parts of Scripture were ad- 
dressed; facts of general history, of chronology, of natural 
history, of geography, and especially the manners and cus- 
toms of Eastern nations. 

340. The estimation in which these external helps have 
Estimation been held, has been singularly subject to deprecia- 
snch'heips tions m some cases, and to excess in others. With 
are held. many they are the chief study, and it is thought 
that no one is qualified to understand the Bible until he is in 
a position to use them. By others they are despised. The 
first class forget that these helps are of value chiefly in con- 
firming a sense, which is already discovered, or in expounding 
less important texts; the statements of Scripture on all 
knowledge essential to salvation, being, when compared with 
one another, abundantly plain. The second forget that these 



EXTERNAL HELPS — OPINIONS AMONG THE JEWS. 237 



helps are often needful to determine the sense when it re- 
mains doubtful, and that if we neglect them, much of the 
significance of Scripture in particular passages, many of them 
impressive, is concealed. 

341. (i.) Some knowledge of the ideas and opinions pre- 
valent among the people to whom the inspired writings were 
addressed, or among surrounding nations, is often important. 

At the time, for example, when our Lord appeared, there was a 
general expectation among the Jews of the coming of the 
Messiah, and his reign was called, "the world to come," Heaven? 10 * 
"the heavenly Jerusalem," 1 "the kingdom of heaven," or 
" of God." b To enter that kingdom was to become his disciple. The 
Jews had very erroneous conceptions of its nature ; and it was neces- 
sary that our Lord should correct them. This he does in the teaching 
of himself, and his apostles. The nature of the kingdom of God must 
be learned, therefore, from the New Testament : and the fact (which 
we learn from external sources) that the name was given by the Jews 
to the reign of the Messiah, completes our knowledge and confirms the 
interpretation. 

"He is born again," was the Jewish description of a proselyte; and 
this use of the expression confirms the common interpretation of the 
language of our Lord, John iii. 

" To bind and loose," meant among the Jews, as Lightfoot has 
shown, to forbid as unlawful, and to allow as lawful- (as "bound not 
to" is still used among us). Hence the true explanation of Matt, xviii. 
8- (Wetstein). 

The precepts of the sermon on the Mount become more impressive 
from the following facts. The Pharisees held that the thoughts of the 
heart are never sinful (See Matt. v. 28) ; the Scribes, that the gifts 
which Jewish worshippers were required to place upon the altar, ex- 
piated all offences which were not amenable to the Judge, (ver. 24). 
All maintained, says Maimonides, that oaths by heaven or by earth, 
might be taken collusively, and had not the solemn obligation of oaths 
in which the name of God occurred (v. 34). It was also maintained 
(Buxtorf,) that the prayer which is long shall not return empty (6, 7). 

342. The chief sources of information on the opinions of the 

* Schoetgenii, Horaa Heb. i., Diss, v., chap, vi, 
b See Lyall's Propoedia Prophetica, p. 270. 



238 



OPINIONS AMONG THE HEATHENS. 



ancient Jews, are the Targums and the Talmud. Next in 
imp>rtance is the Sohar of E. Simeon ben Joshai, who 
flourished early in the second century. This book is held in 
the highest veneration, and is the foundation of the Cabbala. 
See Part ii., "Intro, to the Gospels." Its subject is the 
coming of the Messiah, and the events foretold concerning his 
reign. It illustrates both the meaning of Scripture, and the 
unbelief of the Jews, that the sense which was put upon the 
several prophecies quoted by the apostles in the New Testa- 
ment, is the same (with two or three remarkable exceptions,) 
as had been put upon them by the Jews generally. All the 
Psalms, for example, and all the predictions of Isaiah quoted 
in the New Testament, are applied by the authorities just 
named to the Messiah. And yet in a Messiah, who so re- 
markably fulfilled them, they do not believe. 

The student will find the views of Jewish authors largely quoted in 
the Horas Hebraicse of Lightfoot and Schoetgenius ; in the commen- 
taries of Dr. Gill and Iioppe, and in the notes of Wetstein's Greek 
Testament. 

343. It is important to observe, however, that while a 
Caution knowledge of the opinions held in early times may 

often suggest the original meaning of the words 
employed in Scripture, that meaning is only an auxiliary help 
in ascertaining their Scripture use. " A regenerate man," 
meant to a Jew, a proselyte ; one made a Jew by circumcision 
or baptism. But it is plain that though this use of the term 
accounts for the adoption of it by our Lord, and to a great 
extent even explains its meaning, yet the true and complete 
meaning can be gathered only from Scripture itself. 

344. A knowledge of the religious opinions of the nations 
by whom the Israelites were surrounded, is also often useful. 

Among the Egyptians, for example, a lamb or kid was an object 
of veneration, and the male, as the representative of Ammon, was 

worshipped. 

The plagues of Egypt were all inflicted on objects of Egyptian wor- 



EXTERNAL HELPS — HISTORY. 



239 



ship, and thus they became a rebuke to idolatry, as well as an evidence 
of Divine power. 

At solemn festivals the Phoenicians ate of the raw flesh of their offer- 
ings; part of it they roasted in the snn, and part was sodden for magi- 
cal purposes, the intestines being used for divination, and the fragments 
for charms and enchantments. All these practices were forbidden to 
the Jews, and though no doubt other solemn lessons were taught by 
the burning of the victim in the fire, it was also intended to teach them 
to avoid the rites of the heathen. 

See also Lev. xix. 28 : Lev. xi. 11: Psa. xvi. 4: Jer. xliv. 17, 18. 

Among the ancient Persians it was held that there were two deities, 
of equal power^ Ormuzd and Ahrihman. Jehovah, in his address to 
Cyrus, claims authority over them both. "1 form light and darkness 
— peace and evil," Isa. xlv. 7. 

Many who had embraced the oriental philosophy became Christians, 
and attempted to blend their former tenets with the doctrines of Chrisx. 
Some of them (the Gnostics, for example,) held the opinion that there 
were several emanations of the Godhead, called the "Word, the Life, 
the Light, etc. : and it is supposed that the apostle John refers to their 
opinions in John i. 1-18, where he claims all those titles for our 
Lord. 

From their principles, many of them deduced a loose morality, and 
others justified the imposition of unreasonable austerities. To the 
speculative opinions of those sects are opposed such passages as these, 
1 John i. 1, 2, 7; ii. 22, 23; iv. 2, 3, 9, 14, 15; v. 1-5, 9-20; and to 
their practice, 1 John i. 5, 6 ; ii. 2, 6 ; iii. 4-10 ; v. 18, 21. The deeds 
of the Nicolaitanes were probably of the same order, Rev. ii. 6. 

In Europe, the Greek philosophy was most prevalent, and the Greek 
character showed its tendency in subtle disquisition. Two only of the 
Grecian sects are mentioned in Scripture the Epicureans and the Stoics. 
The first held that God took no concern in the affairs of the universe, 
but dwelt in some distant region : and the second held that he was the 
soul of the world. They agreed, however, in maintaining that the 
Greeks were superior to all other nations. The apostle Paul rebuked 
both, Acts xvii. 18-32, alternately correcting their errors, and reveal- 
ing to them the great doctrines of the resurrection, and the atonement 
of Christ. A knowledge of their views explains his appeal, rebukes 
"reserve" in the exhibition of the Gospel, and illustrates the simplicity 
and dignity of truth. 

The Divinity of our Lord, and the inutility of the ceremonial law, 
are both taught in the Epistles of Paul. It is a confirmation of this 
view that the Ebionites, who observed the law, and maintained the 



240 EXTERNAL HELPS — HISTORY. 

simple humanity of Christ, rejected those Epistles, and received only a 
mutilated copy of the Gospel of Matthew. Wilson, p. 283. 

Many of the discourses of our Lord contain special reference to the 
views of the various Jewish sects. The reader will find those views 
noticed at length in the introduction to the Gospels. 

345. Here, again, a caution is needed. The errors referred 
c t . to in the passages which are thus made clear by 

this knowledge were often local and temporary. 
They generally sprang, however, from some deep-seated ten- 
dency of human nature, and are apt to show themselves under 
different forms; and the refutation of them, given in Scrip- 
ture, always embodies truths of permanent and universal 
application. 

346. (ii.) A knowledge of ancient profane history often 
aids in the study of the Bible. 

In Gen. 46, it is said, "every shepherd is an abomination to the 
Egyptians." This fact explains the assignment of the land of Goshen 
(on the extreme border of Egypt,) to the Israelites ; an arrangement 
which preserved them from too intimate a connection with the Egyp- 
tians: and it is itself explained by the investigations of Dr. Hales, and 
Mr. Faber. They tell us, from a fragment of Manetho's, that about 
the year 2150, B. C, Egypt was invaded by a band of Cushite shepherds 
from Arabia, who after many years of cruel domination, were expelled 
by the general revolt of the princes of Upper Egypt, and then with- 
drew to Palestine (the land of shepherds,) and are known in Scripture 
as the Philistines. This event, which occurred some time before the 
commencement of Joseph's administration, accounts for the suspicion 
with which the Israelites, coming from the same quarter, were received, 
and for the abhorrence in which their occupation as nomade or wan- 
dering shepherds was held. 

It may be added, that while Egyptian archaeologists, Champollion, 
Rosellini, and Wilkinson, agree in this view of a shepherd invasion, 
Hengstenberg has thrown doubts upon the whole of this part of 
Manetho's narrative, though without sufficient reason. See Tables of 
Egyptian Chronology (Part ii.). 

It is instructive to remark, that the history of Assyria and the anti- 
quities of Egypt, which were once the favorite resort of infidelity, now 



EXTERNAL HELPS — HISTORY. 



241 



supply some of the most decisive external evidences of the truth of 
Scripture. 

So, again, the best commentary on Deut. xxviii., and on our Lord's 
prophecy of the destruction of Jerusalem, is found in the history of the 
Jewish wars by Josephus. He was himself a Jew by birth, born at 
Jerusalem, about A. D. 37, and was an eye witness of the siege of that 
city. The truth of his narrative is confirmed both by contemporary 
writers, and by the testimony of the Emperor Titus. 

Matt. ii. 2, 3, is explained by the fact, that there was a general im- 
pression at that time throughout the East, that a great prince was 
about to appear and govern the world, Tact. Hist. i. 5: Suet. Vit. 
Vesp. c. 4. 

In Matt. xxiv. 15, 16, our Saviour warns his disciples to quit Jeru- 
salem before the siege began ; and profane history tells us that they 
profited by his instructions, for before the city was surrounded by the 
Roman armies, they retired to Pella, on the eastern side of the Jordan. 

The rest spoken of in Acts ix. 31, is explained in contemporary his- 
tory. It must not be ascribed to the conversion of Saul, for the perse- 
cution continued three years after ; but to the circumstance, that at that 
time (A. D. 40,) Caligula attempted to set up his statue in the Holy of 
Holies. The consternation of the Jews at this threatened profanation 
diverted their attention from the Christians, and so " the churches had 
rest." 

In Acts xvii. 16, Athens is said to be " full of idols" (margin). 
iElian (A. D. 140,) calls it the altar of Greece, and Pausanias, another 
historian (A. D. 170,) tells us that this city had more images than all 
Greece besides. All antiquity agrees in representing it as the seat of 
Grecian learning, and as the school of the world. How instructive is 
this combination of secular enlightenment and gross idolatry ! 

The nobleness of Paul's conduct in his address to Felix (Acts xxiv. 
25), is evident even upon the surface of the narrative. Josephus tells usi 
that Felix was notorious for oppression, and that he had been living 
in adultery with Drusilla, the wife of the late king of Edessa. Paul 
neither defended himself, nor attacked the vices with which Felix was 
chargeable ; but with admirable tact he reasoned on the virtues of 
righteousness and temperance, and on the solemn truth of future judg- 
ment. Felix had no excuse for interrupting him, and yet it is evident 
that he felt his appeals. 

347. (iii.) Ecclesiastical history is also of value in inter- 
preting Scripture: sometimes by supplying facts on which 
21 



242 



EXTERNAL HELPS — HISTORY. 



the sacred writers are silent ; sometimes by giving the history 
of opinion in the church itself. 

We learn, for instance, that before the destruction of Jerusalem, and 
Labors of w ^hin thirty years of the death of our Lord, the Gospel 
theapos- had been preached in Macedonia and Syria, by Jude; in 
ties * Egypt and parts of Africa, by Mark, Simon and Jude ; in 

Ethiopia, by the Eunuch of Candace, and by Matthias; in Pontus, by 
Peter ; in the territories of the seven churches, by John ; in Parthia, by 
Matthew ; in Scythia, by Philip and Andrew ; in Persia, by Simon and 
Jude; in Media, by Thomas; in Italy and Greece, by Paul. Inmost 
of these regions, churches were formed about the same time. So 
rapidly did the seed of the kingdom spring up and fill the earth, Mark 
xvi. 15-20. 

348. The history of the sound opinions of good men, and 
of the origin of erroneous ones, is also of great moment. 

In a letter still extant, drawn up by the Christians of Smyrna, and 
giving an account of the martyrdom of Polycarp, they say, in reply to 
an accusation of the Jews, that they were ready to worship Polycarp 
instead of Christ, "This is impossible, for Christ only is, or can be, the 
object of worship: to him alone we offer adoration : and the martyrs 
(they add,) are objects only of gratitude and love." The Fathers of the 
first three centuries all deliver the same doctrine in relation to our 
Lord; and "hence (adds Eusebius,) the hymns and psalms written from 
the beginning by the faithful, celebrate the praises of Christ, and attri- 
bute Divinity to him," Eccl. Hist, v c 27, 28. Matt, xxviii. 17. 

The duty of all classes to search the Scriptures, is clearly implied m 
various passages of the Bible - a and it is interesting to know that the 
early writers of the church enforce this duty in the strongest terms; 
Chrysostom and Jerome, and Origen and Agustine, all agree on this 
question. They even affirm, that the cause of the evils of their times, 
is to be found in the fact " that the Scriptures are not known." (See 
\ 144.) 

349. These opinions are not authority, but they are evidence. 
These They prove that the interpretation now attached 
not authori- to the passages of Scripture, which speak of these 
(fence evi " truths, is such as commended itself to the judgment 

• 2 Tim. iii. 15 : John v. 39 : Acts xvii. 11, 12 . Luke xvi. 29 : Matt. 
*xii. 29 : John xxi. 30, 31 . 2 Pet. i. 19; 1 Thess. v. 27 : Rev. i. 3, 



EXTERNAL HELPS — CHRONOLOGY. 



243 



of good men, who had peculiar facilities for ascertaining the 
meaning of the inspired volume. 

350. Nor less important is the history of erroneous opinions 
on questions of truth. 

We first read, for example, of the title of universal Bishop (at Home,) 
A. D. 606 ; of the canonical authority of the Apocrypha, and Vulgate, and 
traditions as articles of faith, at the Council of Trent, in the 16th century ; 
of the use of the Latin tongue in worship, to the exclusion of the ver- 
nacular in the 7th centary (666). Transubstantiation was first taught 
in the 8th century. In the 11th, the Lord's Supper was mutilated by 
the establishment of communion of one kind. In the 12th, the doctrine 
of Seven Sacraments was first taught. The doctrines of the meritorious 
virtue of penance, of purgatory, and prayers for the dead, date no 
earlier than the 7th century, and were not positively affirmed till 
the year 1140. The power of granting indulgences was not claimed 
by the Popes till the 12th century. Auricular confession was first 
enjoined by the 4th Lateran Council, in the 13th century. The celibacy 
of the clergy as universal and compulsory, was ordained at the end 
of the 4th, and was confirmed by Gregory VII. at the end of the 11th. 
Col. ii. 23 : 2 Thess. ii. 7-12. 

351. The comparatively recent origin of all these errors ia 
not authoritative against them, but it is evidence of the 
meaning of the Bible. It proves that Popery is a novelty, 
and that its Dogmas were not taught by those who lived 
nearest to the times of our Lord, and who had most facility 
for ascertaining the meaning of Scripture. 

352. It is an important canon in reference to the help 
which we thus receive from history, that the his- such his- 
torical fact which is gathered only from profane of r Jcrip- part 
or ecclesiastical writers, is not part of the Bible. ture ' 

It may embody a truth which is taught in Scripture, and then 
we believe that truth, because it is found there : or it may ex- 
plain a Scripture statement, but without being itself any- 
where revealed. In that case, we believe it according to its 
evidence, but never as a truth taught of God. 

353. (iv.) A knowledge of the order of events, and of the 
intervals between them, is essential to an understanding of 



244 



EXTEENAL HELPS — CHEONOLOGY. 



parts of Scripture : and such knowledge is supplied by chro- 
nology, the science of computing and adjusting the epochs 
and periods of time. 

It illustrates the depravity of human nature, for example, to know 
that in the second generation from Adam, all flesh had so corrupted 
its way, that it repented the Lord that he had made man. 

It is an aggravation of the guilt of Sodom and Gomorrah, that when 
they became so utterly ■ wicked, their progenitor Noah had not been 
dead a hundred years. 

The judgment against the house of Eli, in.Shiloh, was first exe- 
cuted in the death of his sons, but it was not completed till eighty 
years afterwards, in the forfeiture of office by Abiathar, (1 Kings ii. 26, 
27). God visits surely though slowly. 

The sin that most dishonored David's character was committed when 
he was fifty years of age. An instructive illustration of the power of 
temptation, and the inefficiency of even long religious experience to 
preserve the Christian. 

From 2 Kings xxiii. 13, we learn that the places built to Ashtaroth 
remained till the days of Josiah, or for 350 years : Solomon probably 
died penitent, and yet the consequences of his sin were felt for several 
generations. 

The earliest of the apostolical Epistles, is the First Epistle to the 
Thessalonians, and it contains a special direction that the Epistle 
should be read to the churches. This direction, given at such a time, 
shows that this class of writings is part of the canon of Scripture. 

The date of the Epistle to Timothy, A. D. 64, nearly thirty years 
after the conversion of St. Paul, adds great weight to his declaration, 
that he was the chief of sinners. He never ceased, it is plain, to cherish 
a deep sense of his sinfulness. We may measure our progress in holi- 
ness by the degree of our humility, 1 Tim. i. 15. 

Some commentators have supposed that 2 Cor. xi. 25, refers to the 
events recorded in Acts 27, but in fact, the Epistle was written before 
those events took place. 

The man of sin, mentioned in 2 Thess. ii. 3, has been referred by 
Grotius, and others, to Caligula ; but the Epistle was not written till 
twelve years after his death. 

The precept of Peter, 1 Pet. ii. 17, "Honor the king," derives addi- 
tional force from the fact, that the tyrant Nero was then emperor of the 
Boman world. 

An examination of the 5th chapter of Genesis, will show that Noab 
might have received the account of the Creation from Adam, through 



CHRONOLOGY — ERAS. 



245 



Enos only, or from Lamecli his own father. Lamech was 56 years 
contemporary with Adam, and 100 years with Shem. Shem was con- 
temporary for several years with Abraham and Isaac. The communi- 
cation from Adam to Isaac may only have been through Lamech and 
Shem. So easy is it to account for the transmission of Divine truth 
from the earliest times 

More than 4.000 years elapsed between the time of the first promise 
and its fulfilment . more than 400 between the promise given to Abra- 
ham, and its accomplishment under Joshua: and not less than 400 
between the prophecy of Malachi and its fulfilment in John the Baptist. 
" A thousand years are with the Lord as one day :" though the promise 
tarry long, we are to wait for it. 

This knowledge is especially important in interpreting pro- 
phecy, both to enable us to ascertain the event fore- 

_ . n Prophecy, 

told, and to perceive the accomplishment. 

The meaning of Isa. xxxvii. 22-34, is fixed, for example, by a refer- 
ence to chapter xxxvi. The former is a prediction of a remarkable 
deliverance from impending danger, and the latter points to Hezekiah 
and Sennacherib, as the persons in whom the prediction was ful- 
filled. 

354. In the chronology of all nations some remarkable date 
is fixed upon, from which they begin their compu- 
tations. Christians reckon from the birth of Christ, c^epochf " 
A. D. The Romans reckoned from the foundation 
of their city, A. U. C. The Greeks by Olympiads, the first 
of which dates 776 years before Christ, about 55 years before 
the captivity in the days of Uzziah. These points are called 
epochs or eras, though the former is the more usual term. 
The following are the chief: 

The Grecian year of the world from - Sept. 1, B. C. 5598. 

The era of Constantinople, ecclesiasti- 
cal and civil Apr. 1, Sept. 1, B. 0. 5508. 

The Jewish era, ecclesiastical and civil, 

A. M. Apr. Sept. B. C. 3761. 

The era of Abraham, or Eusebian era Oct. 1, B. C. 2015. 

The era of the destruction of Troy - June 12, or 24, B. C. 1184, 

The era of Solomon's temple - - May, B. C. 1015. 
21* 



246 



CHRONOLOGY — ERAS. 



The Olympiads, 01. - - - - New Moon of Midsummer, 

B. C. 776. 

The Roman era (the Consular year 

from Jan. 1), A. U. C. - Apr. 21, B. C 753. 

The era of Nabonassar - - - Feb. 26, B. C. 747. 
The era of the Seleucidse - - - Sept. 1, B. C. 312. 
The Pontifical and Constantinopolitan 

era - - - - - Jan. 1, Sept. 1, B. C. 3. 

The common Christian era, A. D. - Jan. 1, A. D. 1. 
The Hegira, the Mohammedan era - July 16, A.D. 622. 
The Persian era - June 16, A. D. 632. 

355. As several remarkable events are recorded in Scrip- 
ture, each of general or of national importance, there are 
various divisions of sacred chronology. The Jews reckon 
from the Creation (A. M.), from the Flood, from the Exode, 
Numb, xxxiii. 38 : 1 Kings vi. 1 ; or from the building of the 
temple, 2 Chron. viii. 1. 

The first epoch begins with the Creation, and ends at the 
Flood. Its duration can be gathered only from Scripture, by 
Bumming up the ages of the patriarchs on the birth of the son 
whose name is placed on the record (not always the eldest)^ 
see Gen. v. This number amounts, according to the common 
Hebrew text, to 1656 years ; according to the Samaritan text 
to 1307 ; and according to the Septuagint, to 2262, or to 2256 
years. 

In the English version, the dates ascertained from the He- 
brew text are generally used, and the adjustment of them 
which is adopted is the one which was completed by Arch- 
bishop Usher, slightly modified by Bishop Lloyd. 



CHRONOLOGY — PERIODS. 24? 



Whence 
taken. 


Period. 


Usher. 


Septu- 
agint. 


Josephns. 
by liales. 


Gen. v 

Gen. xi. 10-32: 

xii. 4. 
Gen. xxi. 5 ; xxv. 

26; xlvii. 9, 28. 
1 Kings vi. 1. . 


1. From the creation to the flood . 

2. From the flood to the call of 

3. From tho c&ll of Afoi*£iti£iTxi to 

the Exode 

4. From the Exode to the founda- 

tion of Solomon's temple . . 

5 From ths foundation of Solo- 
mon's temple to the restora- 
tion of Cyrus 

6. From the restoration of the 
Jews to the birth of our Lord. 


1,656 
427 
430 
479 

476 

536 


2,262 
1,207 
425 
601 

476 
537 


2 256 
1,062 
445 
621 

493 
534 






4,004 


5,508 


5,411 



The modern Jews reckon the age of the world at the coming 
of Christ 3,760; 244 years less than Usher. 

356. The difference between the LXX and the Hebrew in 
these chronological statements, will be seen in part from the 
following tables; the origin of the differences being easily- 
explained. 

To six of the patriarchs before the Flood, the LXX gives 
an additional hundred years, on the birth of his son. It also 
adds six years to Lamech, though in the corrected text of 
Josephus, those six years are taken off. Immediately after 
the Flood, the LXX adds 100 years to the ages of the six first 
patriarchs. It inserts, also, as does Luke iii. 36, the name of 
Cainan, making him 130 years old on the birth of Salah; and 
it calls Serug eighty years old instead of thirty. The total 
difference, therefore, in the second period is 780 years. . . . , 
The Samaritan text agrees w T ith the LXX in this period, 
except that it omits Cainan. Before the Flood it reckons 
1307 years. 

The difference in the date of the third period arises from 
the fact, that the chronology founded on the LXX reckons 
Abraham's call as given in Haran, while Usher and the 
English version regard it as given five years before in Ur 
(Gen. xii. 1. See also Acts vii. 2, 3). 



248 CHRONOLOGY — DIFFERENT SYSTEMS. 



I. From the Creation to the Deluge. 



Proof. 




Hebrew. 


Septuagint. 


Sam. 


Gen. v. 3 
« 6 
* 9 
« 12 
« 15 
« 18 
« 21 
« 25 
« 28 

Gen.vii.ll 


Adam lived .... 
Seth lived .... 
ninos lived .... 
Cainan I. lived . . 
Mahalaleel lived . . 
Jared lived .... 
Enoch lived . . . 
Methuselah lived 
Lamech lived . . . 
Noah at the Deluge . 


Years. 

130 and begat 
105 « 

90 " 

70 « 

65 " 
162 « 

65 « 
187 " 
182 " 
600 years. 


Years. 

230 

205 

190 

170 

165 

162 

165 

187* 

188f 

600 


Years. 

130 
105 
90 
70 
65 
62 
65 
67 
53 
600 






1656 


2262 


1307 



Josephus makes the total 2256, agreeing in Lamech with the Hebrew, and else- 
where with the LXX. 

* Some copies, 167. f Jos - 182 « 



II. and III. From the Deluge to the Exode. 



Proof. 




Hebrew. 


Septuagint. 


Sam. 






Years. 


Years. 


Years. 


Gen. xi. 10 j 


Shem, after the \ 
Flood, lived . . j 


2 and begat 


2 


2 


« 12 


Arphaxed lived . . 


35 u 


135 


135 


laa, ana 
Luke iii.36 




Cainan II. lived . . 




130 & begat 




Gen. xi. 14 


Salah lived .... 


30 and begat 
34 " 


130 


130 


« 16 


Heber lived .... 


134 


13-4 


« 18 


Peleg lived .... 


30 « 


130 


130 


« 20 




32 « 


132 


132 


" 22 


Serug lived .... 


30 « 


130 


130 


« 24 


Nahor lived .... 


29 « 


79 


79 


Gen. xi. 26, \ 
32; xii. 4. j 


Tarah lived .... 


130 « 


130 


130 


Gen. xii. 4 


Abraham lived . . 


f 75 and had the ) 


75 


75 






( promise, j 




" xxi. 5 


" after that lived 


25 and begat 
60 


20 


20 


" xxv. 26 


Isaac lived .... 


60 


60 


" xlvii. 9 


Jacob aged .... 


J 130 and went to V 
1 Egypt. / 


139 


130 


Exod. xm. 










40,41: Sep- 












tuagint. 
Gal. iii. 17: 




Israelites in Egypt. .* 


215 years. 


215 


215(?) 


See Numb. 












xxvi. 59. j 






857 


1637 


1502 


The Exode therefore occurred A. M. 


2513 


3899 


2749 




or B. C. 


1491 







CHRONOLOGY — TIMES OF THE JUDGES. 



249 



The differences in the fourth period are not owing so much 
to various readings, as to the authenticity of one passage, 
and the meaning of others. ISfor is the subject free from grave 
difficulties. 

Usher makes the fourth period 480 years (479 years 16 days), taking 
as his guide 1 Kings vi. 1. If the reading of that passage is correct, 
the question is decided. But there are strong doubts concerning it. 
The LXX indicates by various readings the uncertainty of the text. 
In 2 Chron. iii. 2 (the parallel passage), there is no date. Josephus, 
Theophilus, and others who have left systems of chronology, seem to 
have been ignorant of this computation, which is first mentioned in 
the 4th century by Eusebius, and he does not adopt it. St. Paul, 
again, seems to assign 450 years as the time from the division of Ca- 
naan "till Samuel" (Acts xiii. 20), and if so, the whole period must 
have 'been 579 years at least. a Usher, however, supposes the 450 
years to refer to the time between the birth of Isaac and the entry 
upon Canaan : a somewhat forced construction. Josephus mentions 
for the whole period 592 years (Ant. viii. 3, 1) ; 632 (x. 8, 5) ; and 612 
(xx. 10, 1) ; and Dr. Hales supposes his true reckoning to be, after ob- 
vious corrections, 621 years. Petavius reckons 519 years ; Greswell, 
549 years ; Jackson, 579 years; Clinton and Cunningham, 612 years. 

In turning to the history in Judges, and reckoning up the periods 
named, the questions raised by these different views are not solved, 
Six servitudes are mentioned, extending over 111 years ; and fourteen 
Judges (not including Joshua, Eli, or Samuel), extending over 279 
years, or 390 in all : adding to this number 46 and 83 as in the note *, 
we have an entire period of 519 years. Bat here are various elements 
of uncertainty. Are these servitudes and judgeships to any extent 
contemporaneous. Usher thinks they are. Hales, supposing that 
Judges ii. 18 applies to all, concludes that they are not. Again, no- 
thing is told us of the length of Joshua's government, or of the govern- 
ment of the Elders, who survived him, except in the case of Othniel, 
his son-in-law. Nor, further, is it clear whether Eli was a political 
ruler, or simply a civil judge, as Usher describes him. If the latter, 

» viz. In the wilderness, and till the land was divided 46 years. 
Judges to Samuel ------ 450 " 

Saul 40 : David 40 : 3rd Sol. 3 - - 83 " 



250 



CHRONOLOGY — THE LXX. 



he is not to be reckoned chronologically among the Judges. And 
lastly, we cannot gather from Scripture what time elapsed between the 
death of Samson and Saul. Eli judged Israel forty years, but Usher 
makes him a contemporary of Samson, and not his successor. He 
reckons between Eli's death and Saul's election twenty-one years: 
though Samuel could hardly have been, in that case, "old and gray- 
headed" (1 Sam. xii. 2). Eusebius reckons Eli at forty, and includes 
Samuel in Saul's reign, while Josephus reckons fifty-two years for Eli 
and Samuel ; Hales allowing for them seventy-two. Clinton supposes 
St. Paul's reckoning'to end with the beginning of Samuel's judgeship, 
and adds for that thirty-two years. On the whole, therefore, it may 
be said, that if we set aside the reading in 1 Kings, vi. 1, and are un- 
certain of the precise meaning of Acts xiii. 20, we have not materials 
for solving the difficulties which this fourth period involves. 

The dates of the fifth and sixth periods nearly agree, and 
are gathered, the first from Scripture, and the second almost 
wholly from profane authors. 

357. The comparative claims of these systems are not easily 
settled. The longer chronology, is by many, considered to be 
best entitled to confidence ; and among other reasons for the 
following : — 

1. The Hebrew is deemed the more likely to have been altered, as, 
for some time after the Christian era, its use was very much confined 
to the Jews (and chiefly to the more learned amongst them), who had a 
motive for shortening the period between the creation and the birth of 
Jesus, in order to make it appear that the time which their expositors had 
fixed for the appearance of the Messiah was not yet passed; whilst, on 
the other hand, no motive so strong can be supposed to have existed on 
the part of the Jewish translators of the Septuagint: nor could there 
have been an opportunity to alter the Greek version after it was made; 
for it was in extensive circulation, and m constant public use, both 
among Jews and Christians. 

2. The length of time assigned by the Septuagint, the Samaritan text, 
and Josephus, to the period between the deluge and the birth of Abra- 
ham (about 1100 years), is deemed more consistent with historical facts 
than the shorter time assigned by the Hebrew (about 350 years), which 
appears insufficient for the great multiplication and extended dispersion 
of Noah's descendants over immense tracts of country, extending from 
India and Assyria to Ethiopia, Egypt, and Greece; and for the estab- 



CHRONOLOGY — LXX AND HEBREW. 



251 



lishment of the organized and powerful monarchies of Babylon, 
Nineveh, and Egypt ; besides the lesser chieftaincies of Canaan, which 
seem to have been founded by descendants of Ham, after the ex- 
pulsion of earlier settlers. 

3. The longer chronology appears to bring the age of each patri- 
arch, on the birth of his eldest son, into better proportion to the 
gradually diminished length of human life. 

Those who adhere to the shorter computation urge, principally, 
the following considerations : — 

1. The general apcuracy of the original Hebrew text, which wa8 
preserved by the Jews with most jealous care. 

2. The facilities afforded by the shorter chronology for the safe 
and rapid transmisson of revealed truth in the earliest ages; 
Lamech being contemporary both with Adam and with Shem, whilst 
Shem was contemporary with Abraham. 

3. The coincidence (at least, within a few years) of the date fixed 
for the creation with a remarkable astronomical epoch, when the 
major axis of the earth's orbit coincided with the line of the 
equinoxes. 

4. The objection drawn from the shortness of the interval between 
the deluge and the birth of Abraham, compared with the apparent 
populousness of the earth, is more than met by the increase of man- 
kind in newly-peopled districts in modern times, and by the fact, 
that the Hebrew text gives at least as many generations as the 
LXX ; while, on the supposition that men generally married as 
early as the ages assigned in the Hebrew text, it implies a larger 
population. 

On the whole, therefore, the longer chronology is not established; 
and, without accepting all the reckonings of Usher, we may safely 
deem it to be as probable as any opposite system. 

358. In addition to all the difficulties created by facility 
of mistake in copying figures, and consequent different read- 
ings, there are difficulties in chronology which arise from 
different modes of reckoning. 

The principal eras begin, as Ave have seen, in differeat 
months. Many nations have two or more modes 0ri(y5llof 
of reckoning the beginning; of the year itself, civil, those dis " 
ecclesiastical ; civil, consular ; and above all, the 
year of chronology does not agree with the year of actual 



252 



CHRONOLOGY — DISCREPANCIES. 



time. The Julian year, for instance, consisted of 365 days, 6 
hours, which was 11 minutes, 9 seconds too much. From 
A. D. 1, to A. D. 1836, therefore, the Julian year would be 14 \ 
days in advance. The Council of Nice, however, struck out 
2i days, and in 1582, Gregory XIII. corrected the Calendar, 
by ordering the 5th of October to be called the 15th, thus 
disposing of 10 days more. In England, the 3d of Septem- 
ber, 1751, was reckoned as the 14th, and in 1800, the usual 
29th of February was omitted. We therefore have corrected 
accurately the overreckoning of the Julian era, so that from 
A. D. 30, to A. D. 1836, is, within a few hours, exactly 1806 
years. 

Other eras are more erroneous than the Julian, and it is 
Different obvious that the absence of the necessary correc- 
tions in each, must give rise to many errors. 

Other peculiarities of reckoning add further to our diffi- 
culties. 

(a). Jewish historians, for example, speak of the reign of a king 

which is continued through one whole year and parts of 
Different jL 6 , . _. J , ^ 

modes of two others as a three years reign. It may be two years 
reckoning. an( j ^ en mon ths, or it, ma y b e one year and two months. 

(6). They sometimes set down the principal number, the odd, or 
smaller number, being omitted; as in Judges xx. 35: see ver. 46. 

(c) . As sons frequently reigned with their fathers in ancient monar- 
chies, the time of the reign of each is sometimes made to include the 
time of the other, and sometimes to exclude it. 

Thus Jotham is said to have reigned sixteen years, 2 Kings xv. 33 ; 
and yet, in ver 30, mention is made of his twentieth year. For four 
years he seems to have reigned with Uzziah, who was a leper. So 2 
Kings xiii. 1. 10 : 2 Kings xxiv. 8, compared with 2 Chron. xxxvi. 9. 

A similar principle explains Dan. i. 1 : Jer. xxv. 1 : Nebuchadnezzar 
being king with his father when Jerusalem was besieged. 

This peculiarity of reckoning has been applied, with great advan- 
tage, to explain the chronological tables of Egypt and other eastern 
countries. 

(d) . It not unfrequently happens that different modes of reckoning 
are adopted in reference to the same transaction. 

See Gen. xv. 13, and Gal. iii. 17 ; Moses, speaking of 400 years from 



HOW TO FRAME A SYSTEM. 



255 



the birth ol Isaac to the Exode ; Paul, of 430 years from- the call of 
Abram to the giving of the law, which occurred three months after the 
Exode. See Exod. xii. 40. 

The same remark applies to other numbers. 

In Gen. xlvi. 26, 27, it is said that all the souls that went with Jacob 
into Egypt (not including his sons' wives) were sixty-six, or (adding 
Jacob, Joseph, and his two sons) seventy. In Acts vii. 14, it is said that 
Joseph sent and called Jacob and all his kindred, seventy-five persons. 
This last includes the nine wives of Jacob's sons (for Judah's and Si- 
meon's wives were dead, and Joseph's was already in Egypt). These 
nine, added to the sixty-six, make the seventy-five mentioned in the 
Acts. These passages were long supposed to involve a contradiction. 

Comparing Ezra ii. and Neh. vii., we find that 42,360 persons returned 
from Babylon, of whom the numbers of the tribes of Benjamin and 
Judah, and of the priests, are given. The numbers in Nehemiah 
amount to 31,089; in Ezra, to 29,818. Add to Nehemiah's number 
494 names, mentioned only in Ezra ; and to Ezra's, 1,765 names, men- 
tioned only in Nehemiah, the results agree — 31,583. The difference, 
10,777, represents the number of persons belonging to other tribes. 
This apparent discrepancy was long regarded as an objection to the 
narrative. 

In reference, generally, to these apparent contradictions, it becomes 
m rather to suspect our own ignorance than the writer's accuracy. No 
passage can appear more contradictory than Ezek. xii. 13, and yet it 
was literally fulfilled : Zedekiah did not see Babylon, though he died 
there. 

In framing a chronological system, two rules are of great 
value. 

1. Ascertain important epochs, and reckon onwards or up- 
wards from them. The epoch of the birth of our Rules for 
Lord is of course the centre point of all modern fra mm g a 

r system or 

chronology, and of much of an'cient. The year of Chronology, 
the Council at Jerusalem, or of the death of Herod, is the 
key to the chronology of the Acts : as the date of Paul's con- 
version is the key to his Epistles. The return from the cap- 
tivity, the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, and 
the building of the first temple are all (reckoning upwards 
from A. D. 1) epochs of Old Testament History. Clinton, in 
different parts of his Fasti, has well illustrated this rule. 
22 



254 



EXTERNAL HELPS — NATURAL HISTORY. 



2. Wherever practicable, test chronological conclusions by 
astronomical facts. 

The Jewish Passover, for example, was commenced on the 
day preceding that on which the moon was full, between the 
18th of March and the 16th of April. As the moon can be 
eclipsed only at the full, the day of the Passover for any year 
will be the day preceding any eclipse that occurs between 
those dates. The Passover day was the 14th of Nisan, and 
reckoning backwards we ascertain the first day of each year 
Fifty clear days after the 14th of Nisan came Pentecost : and 
177 clear days from the full of the moon of Nisan — six luna- 
tions that is — came the feast of Tabernacles. The Great Day 
of Atonement was five days earlier, the 10th of Tisri. 

Mr. Greswell applies this rule to confirm his chronology. 
Supposing the date of our Lord's crucifixion to be April 5th 
30, A. D., he reckons that an eclipse mentioned by Dion must 
have occurred August 1st, 45, A. D., and another by Pliny, 
April 30th, 59, A. D. a Pingre's tables, based on astronomical 
calculations, show that eclipses did, in fact, take place on these 
days. 

Kecorded eclipses may be found in Pingre's tables, and in 
Playfair's Chronology. See also Hales's Chronology, i., p. 74. 

Tables have also been framed for correcting errors conse- 
quent upon the difference between the chronological and 
astronomical year. 

359. v. Many of the allusions and expressions of Scripture 
can be explained only by the aid of knowledge of natural 
history. 

In Psa. xcii. 12, for' example, it is said that " the righteous shall flour- 
ish like the palm," and the habits of this tree beautifully illustrate the 
character of the righteous. The palm grows not in the depths of the 
forest, or in a fertile loam, but in the desert. Its verdure often springs 
apparently from the scorching dust. " It is in this respect, 1 ' says La- 

a Mr. Greswell's reasonings on these facts, however, are not very 
complete. He fails to supply the links which connect the dates of the 
eclipses with the date of the crucifixion of our Lord. 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



255 



borde, " as a friendly lighthouse, guiding the traveler to the spot where 
water is to be found." The tree is remarkable for its beauty, its erect 
aspiring growth, its leafy canopy, its waving plumes, the emblem of 
praise in all ages. Its very foliage is the symbol of joy and exultation. 
It never fades, and the dust never settles upon it. It was therefore 
twisted into the booths of the feast of tabernacles (Lev. xxiii. 40), was 
borne aloft by the multitude that accompanied the Messiah to Jerusa- 
lem (John xii. 13), and it is represented as in the hands of the redeemed 
in heaven (Rev. vii. 9) For usefulness, the tree is unrivalled. Gibbon 
says that the natives of Syria speak of 360 uses to which the palm is 
applied. Its shade refreshes the traveler. Its fruit restores his strength. 
When his soul fails for thirst, it announces water. Its stones are ground 
for his camels. Its leaves are made into couches, its boughs into fences 
and walls, and its fibres into ropes or rigging. Its best fruit, moreover, 
is borne in old age, the finest dates being often gathered when the tree 
has reached a hundred years. It sends, too, from the same root a large 
number of suckers, which, in time, form a forest by their growth 
(Judges iv. 5). What an emblem of the righteous in the desert of a 
guilty world ! It is not uninstructive to add that this tree, once the 
symbol of Palestine, is now rarely seen in that country. 

Another beautiful tree found in Palestine, and also an emblem of 
the Christian, is the cedar. " The righteous shall grow like the cedar." 
This tree strikes its roots into the cloven rock. Like the palm, it loves 
the water ; and if the wells near which it grows are dried, it withers, 
or ceases to grow. As its roots stretch away into the mountains, its 
boughs are spread abroad. Like the palm, it is an evergreen; though 
used to wintry weather, it is always covered with leaves. Its bark and 
leaves are highly aromatic, and the "smell of Lebanon" has become a 
proverb for fragrance. The cedar is sound to the very core. It adorns 
the. mountain's brow, and then does service in the temple. After living 
a thousand years, it preserves all it touches, and gives beauty to the 
lintels and ceiling of the house of the Lord. Such is the character and 
influence of a resolute and consistent Christian ! 

In Deut. xxxii. il, God is said to have taught Israel as the eagle 
trains her young. When the eaglets are old enough to fly, she stirs up 
her nest, separates its parts, and compels the young birds to fly to some 
neighboring crag; she then flutters over them, teaching them to move 
their wings and to sustain and guide themselves by their movements. 
Finding them weary or unwilling, she spreads her wings, takes her 
brood upon her back, and soars with them aloft. In order to exercise 
their strength, she then shakes them off; and when she perceives that 
their pinions flag, or that an enemy is near, she darts beneath them 



256 



EXTERNAL HELPS—NATURAL HISTORY. 



with surprising skill, and at once restores their strength, or places her 
own body between her young and the danger that threatens them. 
The eagle is the only bird endowed with this instinct, and the whole 
of her procedure is suggestive of instructive lessons in relation to the 
dealings of God. In the history of ancient Israel, and in the history 
of the church, it is found that He weans his people from their resting- 
place — in Egypt, in the world, and in their own righteousness — by 
means of affliction : He stirs up the nest. By the example of good 
men, by the exhibition of his perfections, by the life and character of 
his Son, he nutters over them ; while his promise and Spirit sustain 
their hearts, and make their happiness and safety as sure and unchang- 
ing as his own. 

In mountainous countries like Palestine, the ass, or mule, was often 
preferred for domestic uses even to the horse. Asses are consequently 
enumerated among the riches of Abraham and Job, Gen. xii. 16 : Job 
xlii. 12. Mephibosheth, the grandson of Saul, rode upon an ass; as did 
Ahithophel, the prime minister of David ; and as late as the reign of 
Jehoram, the son of Ahab, the services of this animal were required 
by the wealthy. The Shunammite, for example, a person of high rank, 
saddled her ass and rode to Carmel, the residence of Elisha, 2 Kings iv. 
8, 24. In later times, however, and even from the reign of Solomon, 
the paces of the horse began to be regarded as more stately and noble. 
Solomon himself introduced a numerous stud of the finest horses — ■ 
horses of Arabia; and after the return of the Jews from Babylon, 
their great men rode for the most part on horses or mules. It soon be- 
came, therefore, a mark of poverty or of humility to appear in public 
on an ass, and this was the impression generally prevalent in the time 
of our Lord. (Compare Zech. ix. 9 with Matt. xxi. 45). 

The Hebrews employed both the ox and the ass in ploughing the 
ground, I.sa. xxx 24 ; xxxii. 20 ; but they were forbidden to yoke them 
to the same plough, partly because of their unequal step, and partly 
because the animals never associated happily together. This prohibi- 
tion was perhaps intended to suggest the impropriety of an intercourse 
between Christians and idolaters in social and religious life ; but it was 
also intended in the first instance, and chiefly, to protect the animals 
from cruel treatment. 

Issachar is compared to an ass ; and vigor and bodily strength are 
suggested by the comparison. It is said also that he should bow his 
shoulder to bear, and prefer the yoke of bondage to the difficult issues 
of war, and inglorious ease to just freedom, Gen. xlix. 14: a prophecy 
fulfilled in the history of that tribe, who submitted successively to the 
Phoenicians on the one hand, and to the Canaanites on the other. 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



257 



The tail of the Syrian sheep is much larger than in other breeds. In 
a sheep weighing seventy pounds, the tail will often weigh fifteen; and. 
it is deemed the most delicate part of the animal. Hence, in the reli- 
gious ritual of the Hebrews, the priest is commanded to take the ram 
and the tail (or the rump, as it is called in our version, Lev. iii. 9), and 
present them in sacrifice to Jehovah. Both were to be placed on the 
altar, to indicate the completeness and the value of the offering. . . In 
its domesticated state, the sheep is a weak and defenceless animal. It 
is therefore dependent upon the shepherd both for protection and sup- 
port. To the disposition of these animals to wander from the fold, and 
thus to abandon themselves (in a country like Judasa) to destruction, 
there are many touching allusions in Scripture, Psa. cxix. 176 : Isa. liii. 
6. . . . The Eastern shepherd calls his sheep, and they recognize his 
voice and follow him. His care of them, and their security under his 
protection, are beautifully set forth in John x. 11. It is plain that a 
knowledge of their habits is essential to a right appreciation of the 
imagery of Scripture. 

The lion is remarkable for courage and strength. If he retreats 
from an enemy, he retreats with his face towards him. After he has 
killed his victim, he tears it in pieces, and devours it with the utmost 
greediness, Psa. xvii. 12. Hos. xiii. 8. The young lion subsists, accord- 
ing to ancient naturalists, by hunting, and seldom quits the deserts; 
but when he has grown old he visits more frequented places, and be- 
comes more dangerous to man. This fact explains the language of God 
by Hosea. " I will be unto Ephraim (or the ten tribesj as a great (or 
old) lion," most therefore to be dreaded; "and to the house of Judah 
as a young lion," chap, v, 14. In accordance with this prophecy, 
Ephraim was driven into a distant land, where this tribe suffered a 
protracted exile, while Judah retained its position for 133 years longer, 
and was then carried into captivity for the shorter term of seventy 
years. . . . One of the coverts of this animal was in the low ground 
in the neighborhood of the Jordan, which, like the Nile, overflows 
its banks every spring. At that season, therefore, the coverts were laid 
under water, and the wild beasts were all driven to the hills, where they 
often committed great ravages, Jer. xlix. 19. "Like a lion from the 
swellings of Jordan," thus became a proverb in Judaea, which compara- 
tively recent discovery has enabled us to understand. The energy of 
the Gospel in striking terror into the hearts of the impenitent, and in. 
imparting comfort to the church, is compared to the roaring of the lion, 
Joel iii. 16. The savage disposition of the lion is sometimes referred 
to, and then always in a bad sense. In 1 Pet. v. 8, Satan is compared 
22* 



258 



BOTANY OF SCRIPTURE. 



to a lion, and the enemies of the church generally are represented under 
the same name, Isa. v. 29. 

Many other expressions and figures are borrowed from natural his- 
tory. The "oil" of the olive berry soothes pain, and, by closing the 
pores of the body against noxious exhalations, promotes health. It was 
thought peculiarly successful in counteracting the effect of poison, and 
hence it is often used to describe the power of the Gospel. Its medi- 
cinal properties (see James v.) made it of great commercial value: hence 
it is said that " he that loveth oil shall not be rich." 

The "myrrh" and "balm" (or balsam) of the East are strongly aro- 
matic gums, which flow spontaneously or by means of incision from the 
trees, and were in great request as articles of commerce. The balm of 
Gilead, Jer. viii. 22, was deemed a very valuable medicine, and the 
expression is often used figuratively to indicate any great remedy or 
restorative. 

The habits of the ant, of the locust, of the camel, of the dove, are 
all interesting, but they are generally sufficiently known, or are referred 
to with sufficient minuteness in the Scriptures themselves. 

360. Since the English Bible was completed, our knowledge 
of Eastern botany especially has largely increased ; and as the 
force of the imagery of Scripture frequently depends upon a 
knowledge of the plants which are named, we append a table 
of all the plants referred to in the Bible, with such a descrip- 
tion as will enable the reader to identify them. In some 
instances the results are rather conjectural than certainly ac- 
curate, hut these are few, and even in these there is no doubt 
as to the general accuracy of the renderings proposed. The 
table is drawn up from various documents, and chiefly from 
the very elaborate articles on this subject, prepared by Dr. 
Royle, for Kitto's Biblical Cyclopaedia. 

Almond is the name of two trees mentioned in Scripture; the one, Luz, 
translated " hazel," Gen. xxx. 37, is the wild almond (Boch. Jer. 
Eosenm.), and the other Shaked, the cultivated almond. The 
flowers are like the bloom of the apple-tree, at first rose-colored, 
and then white. It is hence a symbol of old age, Eccl. xii. 5, and 
from its early blossoming, of any sudden interposition, Jer i. 11 : 
Numb. xvii. 8 : Gen. xliii. 11. 

Ahnug, or Algum, is not known. Sandal wood, which is yellow or 
white, and fragrant, answers the description given 1 Kings x. 11, 



BOTANY OF SCRIPTURE. 



259 



12. The name given in 2 Chron. ii. 8 is probably an error of the 
transcribers, see 1 Kings x. 11, and 2 Chron. ix. 10, 11. 

Aloes, properly lign-aloes, must be carefully distinguished from the 
aloe, which emits no agreeable odor, see Psa. xlv. 8 : Numb. xxiv. 
6. This tree is still known in India by the name of Aghil, and in 
Europe as the Eagle-tree (Aquilaria). The wood is highly odo- 
riferous, and the tree is said in Eastern tradition to have been one 
of the trees of Paradise. The wood was very costly, and was used 
to impart fragrance to the lmen in which dead bodies were 
wrapped, John xix. 40. Heb. Ahalim. 

Anise, or Dill, occurs only in Matt, xxiii. (aviScv). It is an herb of small 
value. Its seeds are aromatic and carminative, yielding an oil 
much used in flatulency. 

Apple of Scripture is probably the quince, which is in the East more 
highly scented and much sweeter than in Europe (Cels. Kay), or it 
may be the citron, a rich golden-colored fruit, Prov. xxv. 11 ; Joel 
i. 12: Cant. ii. 3, 5; vii. 8. Heb. Tappuach. JZ*X B 

Bay-tree occurs only in Psa. xxxvii. 35, and is the laurus nobilisfi&n 
evergreen with an agreeable spicy odor. Heb. Ezrach. JifeAwQ* . 

Bean occurs in 2 Sam xvii. 28 : Ezek. iv. 9, and is rightly translated. 
There are various species, but not widely different from each other. 
Heb. Pol. 

Box-tree of the East is the same as tha* of Europe, though in the East 
it grows wild and large, Isa. xli. 19 , T x. 13. It is specially adapted 
to mountainous districts and a calcareous limestone soil, like Leba- 
non. Heb. Teashur. 
Briers. — The thorny plants of Palestine are very numerous, and Rab- 
binical writers say that as many as twenty-two words are used in 
Scripture to express this species. The particular plants indicated 
by these words are generally not known, but they are nearly all 
thorny and useless. 

Brier, E ta 0p fc -p, Barkanim, Judg. viii. 7, 16, some thorny, prickly 
plant. Eosen. translates "flails." p'lT], Chedek, Prov. xv. 
19, " thorns," and Mic. vii. 4, " a brier," a species of night- 
shade, Solanum spin o sum (Eoyle). 
*|iA>D> Ez. xxviii. 24: -j&^D. I?a. lv. 13: -^Ei, Isa. xxxii. 13; 
and everywhere else in Isa. except lv. 13 ; thorny plants no 
now known. Heb. Sillon : Sirpad : Shamir. 
. Bramble, Judg. ix. 14, 15, etc., ift^. properly thorns, which aee: 

T T 

j-j«in> thorn or thistle, which see. 



260 



BOTANY OF SCEIPTUEE. 



Nettle, Prov. xxiv. 31: Job. xxx. 7: Zeph. ii. 9, ^'iln, Charul. 

Koyle thinks wild mustard. It is destructive to other vegeta- 
tion ; common to the East, and known by the name of Char- 
dul, or in English, Curlock. The nettle is probably the plant 
mentioned in Isa. xxxiv. 13: Hos. ix. 6: Prov. xxiv. 31 
(tt^Ep> Kimmosh), where it is so translated. 
Bush (n::D* jSaTc?), Exod. iii. 2: Deut. xxxiii. 16. The Greek 
word means bramble : and the Hubris sanctus is common in 
Palestine. Pococke thinks the hawthorne the more probable. 
Heb. Sene. 

Thistles (^iT^n), Gen. iii. 18, rpfioKos in LXX and New Testa- 
ment, Matt vii. 16: Heb. vi. 8 : a common prickly plant 
spreading over the ground. Tribulus (nyi)> probably a thorn- 
bush, Job. x-li. 2: Prov. xxvi. 9: Isa. xxxiv. 13. 

Thorns, a general name, p^jj, pin. fip> "pXMi rhttii &^30 
(pricks), fci-po, Gr. a«^0* in the LXX, and in Matt, 

vii. 16 • xiii. 7, 22 ; xxvii. 27 : John xix. 2, 5. All these words 
are translated thorns, and there is nothing in the terms to 
lead to a more minute knowledge of the species ^o which they 
refer: another name is Atad, Judg. ix. 14, Id: Psa. lviii. 

T T 

9, translated "bramble," probably a kind of buckthorn. It 
puts forth long, slender, thorned switches, and is by many sup- 
posed to be the thorn with which Christ was crowned, Zizy- 
phns Spina Christi. 
Thorns, thistles, and brambles are to this day very numerous 
in Palestine. The common bramble and the holy bramble 
(Hubris sanctus) abound : and thistles cover large tracts of 
ground, and grow to a prodigious size ; among others, travel- 
ers mention the white Syrian thistle, with the Egyptian or 
purple variety, and the musk-scented thistle (Car duus mollis). 
Calamus, or Sweet Cane, Exod. xxx. 23 : Cant. iv. 14 : Eze. xxvii. 19 : 
Isa. xliii. 24 : Jer. vi. 20. This plant is found in Asia and Egypt, 
though the most fragrant are said in Jer. to come from a far coun- 
try. Dr. Royle thinks that a species found in the Plimalayas (and 
which he calls Andropogon Calamus aromaticus) best answers the 
description of Scripture. It was one of the ingredients of the 
anointing oil of the Sanctuary. Heb. Kani. CfowM- . 
Vamphihe, old English for Camphor, is probably the ^fthenna (Gr.-Ku- 
pros) of the East: a very fragrant shrub, with flowers growing 
like those of the lilac. The leaves form a powder used for dyeing 



BOTANY OF SCRIPTURE. 



261 



the nails and eyebrows, both in Syria and Egypt, Cant. i. 14; iv. 
13. Heb. Kopher. 

Cassia, Exod. xxx. 24: Eze. xxvii. 19, an inferior kind of cinnamon. 
The bark yields an essential oil, less aromatic than cinnamon, but 
in larger quantities and of a more pungent taste. Heb. Kida 

Cedar, the name probably of the pine-tribe of trees, and especially of 
the noblest of the tribe, the cedar of Lebanon. The Hebrew word 
was probably used with the same extent as the English, hence we 
have the red, or pencil cedar, which is a juniper, and indeed the 
cedar of the Pentateuch (Lev. xiv. 4, 6) was probably a juniper, 
which tree is common in the desert of Sinai. Heb. Erez. 

Chestnut-tree, Gen. xxx. 37 : Eze. xxxi. 8, probably the plane, one of 
the most magnificent of trees. Those of Assyria were especially 
fine, see Eze. 31. 

Cinnamon, Ex. xxx. 23: Prov. vii. 17: Cant. iv. 14: Rev. xviii. 13, the 
bark of the laurus kinnamomum. The plant is found in India and 
China'; but the best kind is from Malabar and Ceylon. 

Cockle, Job. xxxi. 40, perhaps the English plant so called : but more 
probably a species of night -shade (Solanum nigrum), or Aconite. 
The plural of this word is translated "wild grapes," Isa. v. 2: the 
nightshade referred to grows largely in the East, and the Arabic 
name resembles the Hebrew. The fruit is narcotic and poisonous. 
Heb./Beushim. 

Coriander, an umbelliferous plant, yielding a fruit (called seed) the size 
of a pepper-corn, globulai jtnd grayish. It is common in the 
south of Europe, and is cultivated in Essex. The fruit is used by 
distillers, etc., as a good stomachic, Exod. xvi. 31: Numb. xi. 7. 
Heb. Gad. 

Cucumber, Numb. xi. 5: Isa. i. 8; rightly translated. The plant is 
called kissa by the Arabs, and is extensively cultivated in the 
East. Heb. Kishuim. 

Desire, Eccl. xii. 5. The word so translated is generally regarded as 
the caper plant (see 2 Sam. xix. 34, 35), which yields a pungent 
pickle, stimulating to the appetite. The flower-buds, and in some 
species the unripe pod, in others the berry, are used for this pur- 
pose. Heb. Ebiyona. 

Doves-Dung, 2 Kings vi. 25, is probably the chick-pea, a vetch common 
in the East. The same name is still applied in Arabic to the dung 
of pigeons, and to these peas (Bochart, Taylor). Some suppose 
that the root of a wild-flower, the star of Bethlehem, is the article 
here mentioned. Heb. Dibhyonim. ~p J 

Ebony , Eze. xxvii. 15, wood greatly prized for its color and hardness 



262 



BOTANY OF SCRIPTURE. 



It is the heart-wood of a date-tree which grows in great abund- 
ance in the East, and especially in Ceylon. Heb. Hobhnim. 

Fig-tree, Arab, teen: properly translated: a native of the East; with 
broad shady leaves (1 Kings iv. 25). The fig sprouts at the vernal 
equinox, and yields three crops of fruit. The first ripening about 
the end of June, having a fine flavor, and generally eaten green 
(Jer. xxiv. 2). The others are often preserved in masses or cakes, 
1 Sam. xxv. 18, 25, etc. Heb. Teena. 

Fir-tree (ttj'j'-n, Berosh) is frequently mentioned in Scripture, 2 Sam. 
vi. 5: Cant. i. 17, etc., and probably includes various trees of the 
pine tribe. Some regard the cypress and juniper as the true re- 
presentatives of Berosh ; others the cedar, and others the common 
pine. Ail are found m Palestine : and as cedar and fir constantly 
occur together in Scripture, they probably include the whole 
genus. 

Flax (nFittj&i Bishta, once translated tow, Isa. xliii. 17, more properly 
a wick) : the common plant, so called, used to make linen, cord, 
and torches; extensively cultivated in Egypt and Syria. Gr.A/vov, 
Matt. xii. 20. 

Shesh, translated fine linen and silk, was probably the 
hemp plant, in Arabic husheesh, yielding an intoxicating drink 
(whence assassin), now known as the hang of the East. The plant 
is cultivated in Persia, Europe, and India. 

Two other words are translated linen in the English version, -q, 
Bad; yt]^, Butz, the former is used m the Pentateuch, etc., and is 
probably the linen made from flax ; the latter is used only in 
Chron. and the Prophets, and is probably cotton cloth, a product 
not mentioned till after the captivity : it is generally translated 
fine linen, and was probably of finer fibre than the flax. The 
ySi/Vo-c; of the New Testament was probably linen. In the LXX, 
06<r<roc translates both words. The word cotton does not occur in 
Scripture, but the Hebrew name (Karpas) is found in Esth. i. 6, 
where it is translated green. The cotton plant seems not to have 
been known in Palestine before the captivity. The cotton is the 
lining of the seed pods, and is gathered by hand as the pods ripen 
and burst. 

Flag (translated meadow in Gen. xli. 2, 18), Job. viii. 11, probably any 
green herbaceous plants of luxuriant growth. Heb. Achu. 

Fitches, i. e., vetches, occurs only in Isa. xxviii. 25, 27, and is probably 
a species of Nigella. The seeds are black, and are used in the 



BOTANY OF SCRIPTURE. 



263 



East, like carraway seeds, for the purpose of imparting to food an 
aromatic, acrid taste. Heb. Ketzach. 

Galbanum, Ex. xxx. 34 only, a very powerful and not very fragrant 
gum, exuded by a shrub belonging to the family of Umbelliferaa 
(Eubon Galbanum). It was used in preparing incense. 

Garlick, Numb. xi. 5 only. This plant is now known by the name of 
eschalot, or shalot, and is common in Europe (Allium Escalo- 
nium, i. e., of Ascalon). Herodotus states that it was supplied in 
large quantities to the laborers engaged in the erection of the py- 
ramids. Heb. Shum. 

Gopher is mentioned only in Gen. vi. 14. Probably a tree of the pine 
tribe, perhaps cypress (Bochart, Celsius), which is very abundant 
in Assyria. Heb. Gopher. 

Gourd, Jonah iv. 6-10, is now generally admitted to be the Palma 
Christi, or castor-oil plant. It is of very rapid growth, with 
broad palmate leaves, and giving, especially when young, an 
ample shade. The oil is obtained from the seeds of the tree. 

Gourd, Wild, 2 Kings iv. 39. The wild cucumber, whose leaves are 
like those of the vine, but of a poisonous quality and bitter taste. 
Heb. Kikayon and Pakuoth. 

Hemlock, Hos. x. 4: Amos. vi. 12, translated " gall" in Deut. xxix. 18: 
Lam. iii. 19. Tremellius and Celsius regard hemlock as the true 
meaning: others think it a general name for any bitter herb 
(Boyle). Heb. Rosh, 7^44 £?-eo^ \ p&ffa i 6*»*vJ 

Hyssop, Exod. xii. 22, etc., either marjoram, a small shrub, its leaves 
covered with soft wooly down, adapted to retain fluid ; or the 
thorny caper (Royle), which grows wild in Syria, and is possessed 
of detergent properties. Arab. Asaf. Heb. Ezov. 

Husks (jcepaT/*), Luke xv., the pods (probably) of the Carob-tree, a tree 
which is called St. John's Tree, is of middle size, the fruit consist- 
ing of flat pods, six inches long and an inch broad. The seeds are 
hard, bitter, and useless, but the pods are used for feeding swine. 
The tree is common in Spain, and its pods were the chief food of 
the horses of the British cavalry there in 1811, 1812. 

Juniper, 1 Kings xix. 4, 5: Job xxx. 4: Psa. cxx. 4, is probably the 
Spanish broom. The wood of this tree burns with a remarkably 
light flame, giving out great heat: hence coals of juniper in Psa. 
cxx. This fact is noticed by various Eastern travelers. 

Leeks ( l i ta i22)n. ^pac-cv), Numb. xi. 5. The word so translated is rendered 
grass, 1 Kings xviii. 5 : herb, Job. viii. 12 : and hay, Prov. xxvii. 
25. It properly means anything green. But it is translated leeka 



264 



BOTANY OF SOEIPTUEE. 



in these passages by most of the versions ; and the plant has been 
known (and indeed worshipped) in Egypt from very early times. 

Lentiles, a kind of pulse from a small annual, and used for making 
soups and pottage. It is of the color of chocolate (reddish brown), 
and is compared by Pliny to the color of the reddish sand around 
the pyramids. Wilkinson (Anct. Egypt) has given a picture of 
lentile-pottage making, taken from an ancient slab, Gen. xxv. 34: 
2 Sam. xvii. 28. Heb. Adashim. 

Lily, this word is probably applicable to several plants common in Pa- 
lestine. In most passages of Scripture where the word is used 
there is reference to the lotus, or water-lily of the Nile. This spe- 
cies was eaten as food : the roots, stalks, and seeds are all very 
grateful, both fresh and dried. Hence the allusion to feeding 
among lilies. The "lily of the valley," i. e. of the water-courses, 
belongs also to this species, Cant. ii. 2, 1G ; iv. 5, etc. The flower 
was worn on festive occasions, and formed one of the ornaments 
of the temple, 1 Kings vii. 19. Heb. Shushan. 

The lily of the New Testament Upivov) is the scarlet martagon 
lily (Lil. Chalcedonium), a stately turban-like flower. It flowers in 
April and May; when the sermon on the Mount was probably de- 
livered, and is indigenous throughout Galilee. It is called in the 
New Testament the " lily of the field," Matt. vi. 28. 

Mallows, only in Job xxx. 4, is probably what we understand by the 
name. It is still used by the poor as a common dish. Others sup- 
pose that a kind of salt-wort (orache) is meant ; so Bochart and 
Dr. M. Good. Heb. Malluach. 

Mandrakes, Gen. xxx. 14, 16 : Cant. vii. 13, Atropa Mandragora, a 
plant like lettuce in size and shape, but of dark green leaves. The 
fruit is of the size of a small apple, and ripens in wheat-harvest 
(May). It is noted for its exhilarating and genial virtues. 

Melon, Numb. xi. 5. The gourd tribe, to which cucumbers and melons 
belong, are great favorites in the East, and abound in Egypt and 
India. There are different kinds, — the Egyptian {Cucumis Chate), 
the common water-melon, etc., all of which are probably included 
in the Scripture name. Heb. Abattichim. 

Millet, Eze. iv. 9, the panicum miliaceum of botanists, a small grain, 
sometimes cultivated in England for feeding poultry, and grown 
throughout the East. It is used for food in Persia and in India. 
Heb. Dochan. 

Mulberry, in the New Testament Sycamine- tree, Luke xvii. 6, (very 
different from the Sycamore, which is a kind of fig), is the mul- 
berry of Europe, very common in Palestine. The word translated 



BOTANY OF SCEIPTURE. 



265 



mulberry in 2 Sam v. 23, 24 : 1 Chr. xiv. 14, 15, probably means 
povlar. The rustling of its leaves answers the description given 
in these passages. The same word occurs in Psa. lxxxiv. 6, and 
is there regarded as a proper name (Baca), but most of the ver- 
sions translate it "weeping:" Valley of Baca equalling "vale of 
tears." 

Mustard (2<Wcn) is either a species of the plant known in England 
under this name, which has one of the smallest seeds, and is itself 
among the tallest of herbaceous plants, or the Salvadora Persica, 
a shrub or tree, whose seeds are used for the same purpose as mus- 
tard (Royle, Irby). 
Myrrh is the representative of two words in Hebrew, of which the first 
■ ("lb 0-y.vpvet) is properly translated, Exod. xxx. 23 : Psa. lv. 8, etc.: 
Mark xv. 23* 36. It is a gum exuded by the Bahamodendron 
Myrrha, and other plants. It is highly aromatic and medicinal, 
and moderately stimulating. The Greeks used it to drug their 
wine. The shrub is found in Arabia and Africa. 

nb^3' Bedolach, Gen. ii. 12: Numb. xi. 7, is probably a gum, 
still known as bdellium. The gum exudes from more than one 
tree, and is found in both India and Africa. 

E*), Lot, is properly labdanum. It is a gum exuded by the 
cistus, and is now used chiefly in fumigation, Gen. xxxvii. 25; 
xliii. 11. Other similar gums mentioned in Scripture are : 

Balm (m-^), Gren. xxxvii. 25: Jer. viii. 22. It is probably the 
balm or balsam of Gilead (the Hebrew of which word, however, 
EIDS) is generally translated spice, or sweet odors). This tree is 
common in Arabia and Africa. The gum is obtained in small 
quantities, and is highly aromatic and medicinal. 

Frankincense (rtTob) ^ s a S um taken from a species of Storax, 

t : 

and is highly fragrant. It was employed chiefly for fumigation, \ 
and was largely used in the service of the temple. It was regarded 
as an emblem of prayer, Lev. ii. 1 : Psa. cxlv. 1, 2: Rev. viii. 3, 4. 
Heb. Lebona. 

Spicery (ni33)> Glen, xxxvii. 25; xliii. 11, is a kind of gum, per- 
haps taken from the tragacanth tree. Heb. Necoth. 

Stacte (C]pp) occurs only in Exod xxx. 34, and is another gum, 
not now certainly known. Celsius thinks it an inferior kind of 
myrrh. Heb. Neteph. 
Myrtle grows wild in Palestine, and reaches the height of twenty feet. 
Its leaves are dark and glossy, and its wild flowers highly aro- 
23 



266 



BOTANY OF SCRIPTURE. 



matic. Its branches were used at the Feast of Tabernacles, Neh 
viii. 15 : Isa. xli. 17-19. Heb. Hadas. 

Nard, Mark xiv. 3 ("j^, nerd, translated spikenard in the Old Testa- 
ment), the plant Nardostachys Jatamansi, from which a delicious 
and costly perfume is made. The root and the leaves that grow 
out of it have the appearance of spikes, hence the name (stachys =» 
spike), Cant. i. 12 ; iv. 13, 14 : John xii. 3. 

Nut is the translation of two Hebrew words. 

E^tSS- Botnim, Gen. xliii. 11, the pistachio-nut tree, well known 
in Syria and India, but not in Egypt, and t13&> Egoz, the walnut- 
tree, which is called in Pers. and Arab. " gouz, : ' Cant. ». w\// 

Oak ( *p^&), Gen. xxxv. 8 : Isa. ii. 13 ; vi. 13 ; xliv. 14 : Eze. xxvii. 6 : 
Hos. iv. 13 : Amos ii. 9 : Zech. xi. 2. In other passages where the 
word "oak" is found, the word ought to be turpentine-tree (see 
teil). The oak is not common in Palestine, nor is the English oak 
(Q. robur) found there. Oaks of Bashan are still of large size ; but 
they are chiefly either the evergreen oak (Q. ilex), the prickly- 
cupped oak (Q. Valonia) or the Kermes oak (see Scarlet Oak). 
Heb.JUlon. ' 

Olive, an evergreen, common from Italy to Cabul. The unripe fruit 
is preserved in a solution of salt, and is used at desserts ; when 
ripe, it is bruised in mills, and yields an oil of peculiar purity and 
value. Both the oil and the tree were used in the feast of taber- 
nacles. In Judsea it was an emblem of prosperity, Psa. lii. 8, and 
in all ages it has been an emblem of peace. 

The wild olive (Rom. ii. 17, 24) was probably a wild species of 
the Olea Europcea. It was a common mode of grafting, in Italy, 
to insert a branch of the wild olive on the stock of the cultivated 
plant {Columella). Heb. Zaith. 

Onion, a plant well known in this country and in the East. In hot 
climates it loses its acrid taste, and is highly agreeable and nutri- 
tious, Numb. ii. 5. Heb. Betzal. 

Palm, or date-tree, Arab, tamr., is one of the most valuable Eastern 
trees, Exod. xv. 27. It flourished especially in the valley of Jor- 
dan (hence Jericho, the City of Palm Trees) and in the deserts of 
Syria (Tamar = Palmyra). It was considered characteristic of 
Judaea, being first met with there by nations traveling southward 
from Europe. Heb. Taman. 

Pomegranate ("grained apple"), a tree of great value m hot climates. 
Its fruit is globular, and as large as a good sized apple. The inte- 
rior contains a quantity of purple or rosy seeds, with a sweet 



BOTANY OF SCRIPTURE. 



267 



juice, of a slightly acid taste, 1 Sam. xiv. 2. The tree is not unlike 
the common hawthorn, but larger. It is cultivated in North 
Africa, and throughout Asia, Hag. ii. 19 : Deut. viii. 8 : Cant. viii. 
2: Joel i. 12. Heb. Bimmon. 

Carved pomegranates were placed on the capitals of the columns 
of the temple. 

Poplar, Gen. xxx. 36 : Hos. iv. 13, is either the white poplar or the 
storax-tree. The latter yields the fragrant resin of frankincense. 
Either tree answers the description given in Genesis and Hosea. 
In the former, the LXX translate storax, and in the latter, poplar. 
The version of Genesis is the more ancient and authoritative. 
Heb. Libna. 

Reed, of the East, is a tall, grassy plant, consisting of a long, hollow- 
jointed stem, with sharp-cutting leaves. The plant grows on the 
banks of rivers and in moist places, 1 Kings xiv. 15 : Job. xl. 21 : 
Isa. xix. 6, 7; xxxvi. 6: Ez. xl. 5: Matt. xi. 7, and was used for 
measuring, fishing, walking, etc. 

A small kind was used for writing, 3 John xiii. This reed is 
very abundant in the marshes between the Tigris and the Eu- 
phrates. Heb. Kanek 

Rose, Cant. ii. 1 : Isa xxxv. 1. Though the rose was known in Syria, 
and one species (the Damask rose) takes its name from Damascus, 
it is not mentioned in Scripture ; the word so translated being (as 
its name implies) a bulbous-rooted plant. It is probably the nar- 
cissus, which is found throughout Syria, and is both very fragrant 
and beautiful. Heb. Chavatzeleth. 

Rue, only in Luke xi. 42, is the common garden-plant so called.. Its 
leaves emit a strong and bitter odor, and were formerly used medi- 
cinally. 

Rush, Isa. ix. 14, translated also " hook," Job xli. 2 : and bulrush, Isa. 
lviii. 5, ought to be translated reed, or rush, in all these passages, 
ttfari (Gome), translated, also, bulrush, Exod. ii. 3 : Isa. xxxv. 7 ; 
xviii. 2, is the Egyptian papyrus, which belongs to the tribe, not 
of rushes, but of sedges. It grows eight or ten feet high. The 
stem is triangular and without leaves, but is adorned with a large, 
flocculent, bushy top. The plant was used for making boats, sails, 
mats and ropes ; the stem itself yielding the celebrated paper of 
Egypt. The plant is found in all parts of the Nile, near Babylon, 
and in India. Heb. Agmon. 

Saffron, part of the yellow crocus, Cant. iv. 14. The stigmas 

and style of the flower formed this fragrant perfume, which was 
used to flavor both meat and wine, and as a powerful stimulative 



268 



BOTANY OF SCBIPTUBE. 



medicine. It is very common throughout Asia, and derives its 
English name (saffron) from the Arabic " zafran." 

Scarlet oak, of Palestine, is not mentioned in Scripture, but the insect 
living upon it is mentioned (fils^fi, Tolaath), Exod. xxv. 24: Lev. 
xiv. 4, 6, etc. The tree is the kermes (hence crimson), or quercus 
cocci/era (holm-oak), and the insects, a worm (vermes, hence Ver- 
million), seem to grow on the branches, and were long thought to 
be vegetable excrescences of the tree itself. These insects are a 
lively red, and formed in early times the common scarlet dye. 
) This was superseded in part by the Tyrian purple, and in later 
times by cochineal, the product of another insect (Coccus cactus), 
indigenous to South America. 

Shittah-tree, the acacia, or Egyptian thorn, Exod. xxv. 5, etc. The 
stem is straight and thorny, the bark is a grayish-black, the wood 
very light and durable, and therefore well adapted for a moveable 
structure like the tabernacle. All this species bear flowers, and 
are remarkable for their fragrance and beauty. 

Soap, of Scripture, Jer. ii. 22 : Mai. iii. 2, was a carbonate of soda, ob- 
tained from a kind of salt- wort. The ashes of this species of 
plants is called in commerce barilla, and is used in the manufacture 
of glass. Probably the carbonate of potash (pearlash), which is 
obtained by burning poplar and other plants, is included under 
this name. Heb. Bor, or Borith. 

Sycamore, 1 Kings x. 27 : Psa. lxxviii. 47, etc., erroneously translated 
by the LXX cruicd/utvo; (see Mulberry). In its leaves it resembles 
the mulberry, but is really a fig-tree, bearing a coarse, inferior 
fruit (Ficus sycamorus). It is lofty and shady (Luke xix. 4), with 
wood of no great value (1 Kings x. 27 : 2 Chron. i. 15). The 
mummy-cases of Egypt were generally made of it. This tree 
f must be distinguished from the English sycamore, which is a kind 
of maple. 

Tares (£i£«Wii), Matt. xiii. 25, the Lolium temulenium, a kind of darnell, 

or grass, resembling wheat. It impoverishes the soil, and bears a 

seed of deleterious properties. 
Teil-tree, Isa. vi. 13, is the linden-tree of botanists (Tilia Europ): called 

also the turpentine-tree (Pistachia Terebinthus). ■ The word so 

rendered is translated elsewhere elm, Hos. iv. 13, and oak, Gen. 

xxxv. 4. It grows to a great size, and yields a kind of turpentine., 

of agreeable odor a.nd taste. Heb. Ela." 
Thine-wood (Rev. xviii. 12) was in great demand among the Romans, 

who called it thya, or citron- wood. It grows only in the neigh- 



EXTERNAL HELPS — MINERALOGY. 



269 



borhood of Mount Atlas, in Africa, and yields the sanderach rosin 
of commerce. It is highly balsamic and odoriferous. 
Vine (^5% Gephen, a^TrsAo?) Gen. ix. 20, etc., a well-known tree, and 
highly esteemed throughout the East. The vines of Eshcol, and 
of Sorek, were especially celebrated. The vine was grown on ter- 
races on the hills of Palestine, Isa. v. 1 : Micah i. 6, or elsewhere 
on the ground, Ezek. xvii. 6, 7. Sometimes it formed an arbor, 1 
Kings iv. 25 : Hos. ii. 12, propped up and trained. A noble vine 
= men of generous disposition, Jer. ii. 21; Isa. v. 2. A strange, 
or wild vine = men ignoble and degenerate, Deut. xxxii. 32 : Gen. 
xl. 9, 10, etc. 

Willow, Psa. cxxxvii : Isa. xliv. 4, was well known in Judaea, and one 
species, the weeping willow, is the Salix Babylonica. (n&252)» 
Tsaphtsapha, Ez. xvii. 5, is probably the Egyptian willow (Salix 

-Egypt)- 

Wormwood, (nsy'b, Daana, d^tvQtcv, "root of bitterness," Deut. xxix. 17: 
Rev. viii. 10, 11, an emblem of trouble. There are various species 
of this tribe (Artemisia), of which the English plant (A. absinthium) 
is a specimen. There are several kinds found in Judaea, all of 
which are exceedingly bitter. The wormwood of commerce con- 
sists of the tops of the plants, flowers, and young seeds, intermixed. 

361. For the same reason (§ 360), we append tables of the 
minerals mentioned in Scripture. They will be found to throw 
light on several passages. 

1. Earths and other Mineral Substances. 

Bitumen, or asphalt, translated slime, is an earth-resin, abounding in 
the neighborhood of the Dead Sea and elsewhere. It was used as 
cement, Gen. xi. 3, as it still is in Zante and in some parts of the 
East. Pliny states that the Egyptians used it for making the 
papyrus boats of the Nile water-tight: (see Exod. ii. 3). Heb. 
Chamar. 

Brimstone, or sulphur, a mineral found in a natural state, and obtained 
by art from pyrites and various rock formations. It is found in 
Palestine in both states, Gen. xix. 24, 25 : Psa. xi. 6 : Ezek. xxxviii. 
22: Isa. xxx. 33; xxxiv. 9: Rev. xiv. 10. Heb. Gophrith. 

Naphtha is also found in Palestine, and is, with the foregoing, 
highly combustible. The word occurs only, or rather, this earth- 
oil is mentioned only in Theodosius's version of part of Daniel. 
23* 



270 



MINERALOGY — STONES AND ROCKS. 



Clay, an unctuous earth, used in making earthenware, Isa. xxix. 16; 
xlv. 9 : Jer. xviii. 4, 6, and, when mixed with sand, — then called 
mud — for building, Job iv. 19. ft^E. Tit (properly dirt), has also 
the meaning of clay in Isa. xli. 25. 

Earth has three representatives in Hebrew : Eretz, = the earth, 

habitable and uninhabited; fifal&T Adama, properly, red earth, 
cultivable land, and sometimes the whole earth ; "^j^, aphar, dry 

T T 

earth, or dust. There are also words for very fine dust (Deut. 
xxviii. 24: Naham i. 3), and a dust particle, or atom (Isa. xl. 15). 
Clods of earth have three names, Job vii. 5 ; xxxi. 33 : Joel i. 17, 

Nitre (soda), natrum, 'i^, Nether, a mineral alkali, (as m^i, Borith, 
translated soap, is a vegetable alkali), found ir> a natural state in 
Egypt, etc. It occurs only. Jer. ii. 22. and in Prov. xxv. 22. 
Vinegar (any acid) makes it emit a disagreeable odor, and destroys 
its qualities ; hence the last passage. 

Salt abounds in Palestine. The Dead Sea is strongly impregnated with 
it. The salt-valley of 2 Sam. viii. 13 : 1 Chron. xviii. 12 : Psa. lx., 
is a large plain, still existing, south-west of the Dead Sea. The 
salt-pits of Zeph. ii. 9, were probably such as are still dug in the 
borders of the Dead Sea, into which the water runs, and where a 
thick crust of salt is soon deposited. Figuratively, salt expresses 
'permanence, friendship, payment or support, sterility ; pure, salu- 
tary, healthy influence ; preserving from decay. Hence a covenant 
of salt, 2 Chron. xiii. 5 : Rosenm. on Lev. ii. 13 : Ez. iv. 14, marg.; 
Psa. cvii. 34 (because nothing can grow in a soil covered with 
salt, Jer. xvii. 6 : Judg. xix. 45) : Col. iv. 6 (where it refers to ap- 
posite pure discourse) : Matt. v. 13 : Mark ix. 50. Heb. Melach. 

Sand abounds in Palestine, and is often used as a comparison, to ex- 
press abundance, extensiveness, weight, etc. Heb. Choi. 

2. Stones and Eocks. 

Alabaster, (from the Coptic, the whitish stone) of the moderns, is a kind 
of gypsum : among the ancients the word was applied to a box, 
made of a kind of onyx (Pliny, lib. xxxvi. chap, i ), Matt. xxvi. 7: 
Mark xiv. 3 : Luke vii. 37. Pliny states that it was much used 
for perfumery boxes, as it still is in Egypt. 

Chalk-stones, Isa. xxvii. 9, lime-stone, the chief material of the hills of 
Syria and Palestine. It is hard and whitish ; sometimes yellow or 
gray. Heb. Gir. 



MINERALOGY — PRECIOUS STONES. 



271 



Crystal (Ezek. i. 22 : Job xxviii. 18) means literally in Hebrew and 
Greek, ice, a transparent, glass-like stone, of the flint family, Rev. 
iv. 6; xxii. 1. Heb. Kerach, Gabhish. 

Flint, Dent. viii. 15- xxxii. 13: Psa. cxiv. 8: Isa. L 7 *^Job xxviii. 9, 
translated also rock. The rocks of Sinai, to which in Deut. viii., 
the word is applied, are granite, porphyry and green-stone, and 
such rocks are no doubt intended. Heb. Chalamish. 

Lime (^ia, Seed, Isa. xxxiii. 12: Amos ii. 1, translated plaster, Deut. 
xxvii. 24), is more properly gypsum, which was more suitable for 
the purpose named in Deut. xxvii. Lime, or gypsum, was early 
used for plastering, Dan. v. 5. 

Marble (ejej, Shesh) is limestone of a close texture. The name in He- 
brew means whiteness and this was probably the common color, 
1 Chron. xxix 2 : Esther i. 6 Cant. v. 15. It is very common in 
Arabia and Persia. Josephus states that the second temple was 
rebuilt by Herod with, white marble, either from Arabia, or, pos- 
sibly, from the hills of Syria. 

Rock Tsur) is the generic name. High, precipitous rocks, fit 

for refuge, are called Sela, Judges xv. 8, 11 : 1 Sam. xiv. 4 : 
Psa. xviii. 3. 

Stone (t3&, Even), is generic. The Hebrew has distinct names for peb- 
bles and gravel, ysn> tviSfc» "ri?- 

3. Precious Stones. 

&gate, a common compound mineral, of flint and various gems, so 
called from the river Achates, in Sicily (Pliny), Exod. xxviii. 19 ; 
xxxix. 22. The word in Isa. liv. 12 : Ez. xxvii. 16, is different 
A similar Arabic word means vivid redness, and the stone 
referred to is probably the oriental ruby. 

Amethyst, a kind of blue transparent quartz, sometimes purple or 
grayish ; supposed by the Greeks to have the power of driving 
away drunkenness, hence its Greek name; by the Hebrews, of 
procuring dreams ('D^Jii Chelem, a dream), Rev. xxi. 20. 

Beryl, Tarshish stone, or chrysolith, properly, a gem of yellow gold 
lustre, sometimes verging to yellow green, Exod. xxviii. 20; xxxix. 
13 : Cant. v. 14 : Ezek. i. 16, etc. : Rev. xxi. 20 : see Onyx. 

Carbuncle (flashing as lightning) ; the word so translated is rather the 
oriental emerald (o//ag;t^JW), a beautiful green, of different shades, 
Exod. xxviii. 17: Ezek. xxviii. 13: so LXX: Jos. 



272 



MINERALOGY PRECIOUS STONES. 



Other words are used in Isa. liv. 12, meaning " sparkling stones." 
Carbuncle is derived, etymologically, from carbo, a glowing coal. 

See Emerald. 

Diamond, E^n^ Yahalom, and "p^©, Shemir. The first is the Onyx % 
a kind of chalcedony, of various tints. When red, called sar- 
donyx (see Sardius) ; reddish gray, chalcedonyx ; tawny, memphi- 
tonyx. This gem, the onyx, was semi-transparent (like the human 
nail, hence its name), and was much used for cameos and seals, 
Exod. xxviii. 18- Ezek. xxviii. 13. 

The second is found Jer. xvii. 1 (also Ezek. iii. 9: Zee. vii. 12, 
translated adamant), and probably means emery, an aluminous 
mineral, very hard, used for polishing glass. 

Emerald, rather, carbuncle, under which name several brilliant red 
stones were included, especially the ruby, garnet, etc. Exod. 
xxviii. 18 : Ezek. xxviii. 13. 

Jasper, an opaque gem, of various tints, green, red and yellow, Exod. 
xxviii. 20: Ezek. xxviii. 13: Rev. iv. 3; xxi. 11, 18, 19. 

Ligwre, hyacinth, or jacinth, a transparent gem, orange-yellow-red, 
found in Ceylon and India, Exod. xxviii. 19 . Rev. xxi. 20 ; ix. 17. 

Onyx, probably the beryl or chrysoprase, Gen. ii. 12 : Rev. xxi. 20 (i. e., 
a leek-green stone), generally transparent, and a pale green co]or, 
Exod. xxv 7. Ezek. xxviii. 13 

Sapphire, a transparent gem, generally sky-blue, and very hard; hence 
the floor of the throne of God in heaven is compared to it, Exod. 
xxiv. 10: Ezek i 26: Rev xxi. 19. The sapphire of the Greeks 
was our lapis lazuli, the same color as the Scripture sapphire, but 
much softer. 

Sardius, (q-]'^, Odem, red stone), properly, cornelian (a carne), a flesh- 
colored gem, of the chalcedony family. It abounds in Arabia, and 
was found largely at Sardis, in Lydia, Exod. xxviii. 17 : Ezek. 1 
xxviii. 13: Rev. iv. 3; xxi. 28. 

Topaz, a yellow gem, with red, gray or green tinge, found in South 
Arabia. Hence the topaz of Cush ; an island of the Arabic Gulf 
being called Topaz island (Diod. Sic. Pliny), Job xxviii. 19: Exod. 
xxviii. 17 : Ezek. xxviii. 13 : Rev. xxi. 29. 

The descriptions in Revelation, it will be noticed, are closely 
connected with those in Exodus, and in Ezekiel. 

4. Metals. 

Amber, Ezek. i. 4, 27; viii. 2, properly, a metal composed of copper 



MINERALOGY — METALS. 



273 



and gold. Electron, which is used by the LXX to translate it, 
meant amber, and also a similar composition (Pliny). The cor- 
responding Greek word is found in Rev. i. 15, " fine, shining 
brass." 

Antimony, or stibium, occurs in the Hebrew, but is translated paint 
(viz., the eyes), literally, with antimony, 2 Kings ix. 30: Jer. iv. 
30 : Ezek. xxiii. 40. The verb is ^nS. Kachal, to color with al-ko- 
hol, define black powder made from the metal. The name (i. e., 'n, 
al-kohol), was ultimately applied (in Europe) to the purely spiritu- 
ous part of liquors. The stones of Jerusalem are said to be set in 
stibium, "fair colors," Isa. liv. 11. 

Copper, or brass : the former word is derived from Cyprus, where it 
was largely found. Brass is copper mixed with zinc or tin. In 
early times this metal was generally used instead of iron. "Wher- 
ever the word steel occurs in our version, the original is brass. 
There is ample evidence from classic and Egyptian authorities that 
brass was extensively used, and it is said that the Egyptians had 
the art of tempering it. It was employed in making bows, and 
arms of all kinds. The columns of the temple, 1 Kings vii. 13-21, 
the bath, or sea, in the priests' vestibule, the forks used in sacrifice, 
the mirrors, were all of this material, Exod. xxxviii. 8 : 2 Kings 
xxv. 13. The "copper shining like gold," Ezra viii. 27, was proba- 
bly a mixture of the two metals. See Amber. 

Gold, OypD- Segor, ftps, Kethem, properly, what is barely concealed; 
y^f-ji Charuts, what is strongly lustrous ; jg, Paz, pure gold ; and 
^flT, Zahab, gold itself, its mineral name) is found pure, and in 
combination with silver or iron. The Jews obtained their gold 
chiefly from Sheba and Ophir, both in Arabia, 1 Kings ix 28 Psa. 
xlv. 9. At present no gold is found there, but ancient writers (Ar- 
temid. Diod. Sic.) affirm that it was formerly found in considerable 
quantities. The places named in Dan. x. 5, and 2 Chron. iii 6, 
are not known. Beaten, or perhaps alloyed (Ges.) gold, is men- 
tioned in 1 Kings x. 16, 17. Gold and silver were sometimes 
purified by fire, Prov. xvii. 3; lead, antimony, salt, tin, and bran, 
being used tor this purpose. Gold ornaments were early used. 
The first mention of gold money is in David's age, 1 Chron. xxi. 25. 

Iron was largely found in Syria, even in the earliest times, Deut. viii. 
9. Instruments and tools were made of it, Numb. xxxv. 16: Deut. 
xxvii. 5. Steel is called in Jer. xv. 12, "northern iron." The 
tribe celebrated in ancient times for making it were called Chaly- 

) 



274 EXTERNAL HELPS — MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



bes, and resided near the Black Sea. Hence Jer. description : and 
its Greek name. Another name for steel (rn^p, Palda. from the Ara- 
bic), is translated torches, Nahum ii. 4 : steel scythes. See Copper. 

Lead is first mentioned, Exod. xv. 10. Before quicksilver was known, 
it was used to purify silver. Hence several expressions, Jer. vi. 
29 : Ezek. xxii. 18. In Amos vii. 7, a weight of lead, or plummet, 
is mentioned. The word is the Arabic for lead (l^5*> Anak). 

Ore of gold or of silver has in Hebrew a separate name. It means, 
properly (Arabic similar), something broken off. It is variously 
translated in our version. Heb. -^la. Betzar. 

Silver (f]D3. Keseph, literally, as in Greek, white metal) is found native 
and combined with sulphur and acids. It often lies in veins, Job 
xxviii. 1, and was purified by lead and heat (see Lead). Lead and 
silver combined is called silver dross; the separated silver, purified 
silver, Psa. xii. 6. It was brought (among other places) from 
Spain, Ezek. xxvii. 12: Jer. x. 9. In very early times we find it 
in use, Gen. xxiii. 15, 16. Many utensils were made of it, Gen. 
xliv. 2: Exod. xii. 35: Numb. vii. 13; x. 2. The earliest mention 
of it as money is in Gen. xx. 16. The shekels were not coins, how- 
ever, but pieces weighed out ; see Gen. xxiii. 16 : so even in the 
days of Jeremiah, Jer. xxxii. 9. The first coinage in Palestine 
was in the days of the Maccabees : see p. 286. The word rendered 
pieces of silver in Josh. xxiv. 32, is, properly, a kesitah, i. e., a 
piece equal to four shekels, as Gesenius gathers from Gen. xxxiii. 
19, and xxiii. 16. 

Tin is first mentioned, Numb. xxxi. 22. Later, the Tyrians imported 
it from Tarshish, Ezek. xxvii. 12: a leveling instrument of tin is 
mentioned, Zech. iv. 10. This word is also used for a refuse of 
lead and silver (see Lead), in Isa. i. 25. 

For further information on the foregoing, consult Rosen- 
muller on the mineralogy of Scripture, and Gesenius's Lex. 

362. vi. A knowledge of the manners and customs of the 
Jews is of great service in interpreting Scripture. 

363. Habitations, (a.) The founders of the Israelitish 
nation were a tent-dwelling people. Tents were invented 
before the deluge, and seem naturally associated with pastoral 
life, Gen. iv. 20. The first tents were covered with skins, 



MANNERS — HABITATIONS . 



275 



Ex. xxvi. 14, but the coverings of most of those mentioned in 
Scripture were of goat's hair, spun and woven by the women, 
(Ex. xxxv. 24) : hence their black color (Sol. Song i. 5) : tents 
of linen were used only occasionally for holiday or travelling 
purposes. The early tent was probably such as is still seen in 
Arabia, of an oblong shape, and eight or ten feet high in the 
middle. Sometimes a person of consequence had three or four 
tents; one for himself, another for his wives, a third and 
fourth for his servants and strangers, Gen. xxiv. 67 ; more 
commonly, however, a very large tent was divided by curtains 
into two or three compartments. The Holy Tabernacle was 
formed on this model, Ex. xxvi. 31-37. 

(b.) Of huts, the intermediate erection between the tent and 
the house, we read but little in Scripture. Jacob seems to 
have used them to shelter his cattle (Gen. xxxiii. 17), and we 
find them in later times erected in vineyards to protect those 
who watched the ripening produce (Job xxvii. 18 : Isa. i. 8). 

(<?.) The Israelites probably saw good houses in Egypt ; on 
entering Palestine, however, they occupied the houses which 
their predecessors had built, and afterwards constructed their 
own on the same model. Domestic architecture must have 
made progress during the monarchy. Solomon's palace, built 
by the aid of Phoenicians, no doubt suggested improvements. 
Jeremiah (xxii. 14) indicates some grandeur in building, and 
in thft days of our Lord, the upper . classes, at all events, had 
gathered instruction from the rules even of Grecian art. 

364. (a.) The houses of the poor in the East, were generally 
built of mud, and thus became appropriate images ^ _ 
of the frailty of human life. The walls were easily 
broken through, and the houses as easily destroyed (Job xxiv. 
16 : Ezek. xii. 5 : Matt. vi. 19.) 

(b.) The houses of the rich were of a different order. They 
had generally four sides, of which one fronted the street, 
having only a door, and one or two small windows above. 
The door opened into a porch, and the porch led by a side 
door into a waiting-room, and the waiting-room into a four- 



276 



MANNERS — HABITATIONS. 



sided court, open at the top, and surrounded by the inner- 
walls of the house. Covered walks often running along by the 
walls on the ground-floor, while above them was a gallery of 
the same dimensions. Opposite the passage leading from the 
waiting-room into the court, was the guest-chamber (Luke 
xxii. 11), where the master received visitors, and occasionally 
transacted business. The roof was flat, surrounded on the 
outside by a breast-work or battlement ; and on the side next 
the court, by a balustrade of lattice-work. The stairs to the 
roof, and to each story of the building, were generally in a 
corner of the quadrangle nearest the entrance, so that each 
visitor ascended to the roof, and to each of the rooms, without 
passing through the rooms below. In summer, the people 
slept on the roof, and at all times it was used as a place of 
devotion, of mourning, and of rest. At the Feast of Taber- 
nacles tents were erected here, and during festivals or public 
rejoicings, the guests often assembled in the square below, 
which was sometimes covered. 

These facts explain the following passages and many others : 
Deut. xxii. 8: 1 Sam. ix. 25: 2 Sam. xi. 2: Isa. xxii. 1: Acts 
x. 9 : Mark xiii. 15 : Mark ii. 4. 

(c.) The doors of eastern houses were double, and moved on 
pivots : they were secured by bars (Deut. iii. 5 : Judges xvi. 
3), of wood, or of metal, Isa. xlv. 2, Ancient locks were 
merely wooden slides, secured by teeth or catches, Sol. Song 
v. 4. The street-doors, as well as the gates of towns, were 
adorned with inscriptions taken from the Law (Deut. vi. 9). 
The windows had no glass, but were latticed : in winter they 
were covered with thin veils, or with shutters having holes 
sufficient to admit light, 1 Kings vii. 17 : Sol. Song ii. 9. 

(d.) No ancient houses had chimneys, though holes were 
sometimes made, through which the smoke escaped, Hos. 
xiii. 3. In the better class of houses, the rooms were warmed 
by charcoal, as is still the practice in the East (Jer. xxxvi. 
22) : John xviii. 18. 

(e.) The articles of household furniture in use in the East, 



MANNERS — DRESS. 



277 



have always been few and small. In sitting rooms, little 
chairs or seats, and sometimes tables appear, Mark xiv. 54. 
The seat was either a rug or mat, on which the people sat 
cross-legged, or with their knees bent under them, or a legged 
seat, such as chairs and stools (1 Kings ii. 19 : 1 Sam. i. 9. 
Prov. ix. 14 : Matt. xxi. 12). The beds consisted generally 
of mattresses and quilted coverlets ; sheets, blankets and bed- 
steads were not known, though on the house-tops a settee of 
wood, or a legged frame of palm branches was used, on 
wliich to place the bed (Psa. cxxxii. 3 : Amos vi. 4.) 

(/.) The common domestic utensils were of earthenware, 
or of copper, and a few were of leather: they consisted of pots, 
kettles, leather bottles, plates, cups, etc. ; lamps fed with olive 
oil were used for giving light at night and were of earth or of 
metal : in the houses of the rich they were placed upon 
stands, called candlesticks, and those had occasionally branches 
for several lamps (Gen. xv. 17 : Ex. xxv. 31-40). A lamp 
was always kept burning at night (Job xviii. 6 : Prov. xx. 20.) 

(g.) The towns of Palestine were small in size, but very 
numerous. Jerusalem, Samaria, and afterwards Csesarea, seem 
to have been the only exceptions: from the want of temples 
and public buildings (except at Jerusalem), they must have 
had but a mean appearance, the streets being exceedingly 
narrow, dull, and unpaved. Even in the time of Moses, those 
towns had many of them high walls (Numb. xiii. 25-33), and 
gates implying walls are mentioned as early as the days of 
Abraham (Gen. xix. 1). At the gates most of the public busi- 
ness was transacted (Gen. xxiii. 10, 18: Deut. xxi. 19: Ruth 
iv. 1) : there also the markets were held so long as the business 
of the Israelites was confined chiefly to the sale of their pro- 
duce, or flocks (2 Chron. xviii. 9 : ISTeli. viii. 1, 3); but after- 
wards, they had in the large towns, bazaars, or covered streets 
of shops, such as are now usual in the East. 

365. The dress of the Jews consisted commonly of two gar- 
ments: the one a close-bodied frock or shirt, gen- 
erally with long sleeves, and reaching to a little 
24 



278 



MANNERS — DRESS. 



below the knees, though later to the ankle : and the other, a 
loose robe of some yards in length, fastened over the shoulders 
and thrown around the body. Within doors, the first dress 
only was often worn. It was regarded, however, as a kind of 
undress, in which it was not usual to pay visits, or to walk 
out. Hence persons clothed in it alone, are said in Scripture 
to be naked (Isa. xx. 2, 4 : John xxi. 7 : John xiii. 4) or to have 
laid aside their garments. 

The sleeves were generally sufficiently long to cover the 
hands, and were used during visits of ceremony to conceal 
them. On occasions when great or continued effort was 
required or implied, the arm was " made bare," and the sleeve 
tucked up or removed, Isa. lii. 10: Ezek. iv. 7. 

The outer garment (a kind of mantle or plaid), sometimes 
served as a covering by night, or as a bed (Deut. xxiv. 13 : 
Exod. xxii. 27). The Israelites on leaving Egypt, folded their 
kneading troughs in it. Prophets and others wrapped it 
round their heads as an expression of reverence or of grief 
(1 Kings xix. 13 : 2 Sam. xv. 30 : Esth. vi. 12), or sometimes 
as a protection from the rain or wind. When gathered 
around the middle of the body, the garment is called the 
Lap (2 Kings iv. 39) ; when gathered around the shoulders, 
the bosom (Psa. lxxix. 12 : Luke vi. 38). A considerable 
part of the Avealth of Eastern nations consisted in these gar- 
ments, which were easily exchanged, and were often given 
and worn as expressions of affection and respect, Gen. xlv. 
22 : 2 Kings v. 22. 

For a single shirt, the wealthy classes sometimes substituted 
a shirt of fine linen, and an outer one of coarser material, the 
mantle being worn as an additional garment. The beauty of 
these garments consisted not in their shape, which never 
varied, but in their whiteness, Eccles. ix. 8, and they were 
torn or rent in token of sorrow or repentance, Gen. xxxvii. 
34 : Job i. 20. 

The inner garment was made of either linen or cotton, the 
outer garment generally of wool, or of wool and hair. The art 



MANNERS — DRESS. 



279 



of embroidery was evidently somewhat known, Exod. xxxv. 
35: Judges v. 30; and one family seems to have been pecu- 
liarly famous in the manufacture of fine linen, 1 Ohron. iv. 21. 
White, blue, and various shades of red and purple, were the 
favorite colors for clothes, and no others indeed are mentioned 
in Scripture. 

Around the shirt, or inner garment, a girdle was sometimes 
worn, made of leather, fastened with clasps, 2 Kings i. 8, or 
of muslin, wound in many folds around the waist, Jer. xiii. 1 : 
Matt. iii. 4 ; and still more commonly around the mantle. To 
have the loins girt in this way was especially necessary in tra- 
veling, or when engaged in strenuous effort of any kind. In 
the girdle a knife or sword was sometimes carried, or in the 
case of literary men, an inkhorn and pens, 2 Sam. xx. 8: 
Ezek. ix. 2 : "other valuables were often put into it too, 1 Sam. 
xxv. 13: 2 Sam. xviii. 11: Matt x. 9 (Greek! 

Drawers were a part of the dress of the High Priest, and 
were, perhaps, used in later times by the people generally 
(Exod. xxviii. 42). They were worn next the person. 

The feet were covered with sandals, consisting of soles of 
leather, or of wood, bound to the foot by thongs or latchetts 
(Matt. iii. 11). In transferring property, or in passing to the 
next of kin any personal obligation, it was customary to deliver 
a sandal (Ruth iv. 7) as in the middle ages, a glove. To throw 
a shoe or a sandal over a country was a symbol of possession 
(Psa. lx. 8). To remove the sandals was an expression of 
reverence (Exod. iii. 5 : Deut. xxv. 9). The operation being 
often performed by servants ; to loose or to carry them was a 
familiar symbol of a servile or degraded condition, Mark i. 7 : 
Acts xiii. 25 : Matt. iii. 11; Isa. xx. 4. Stockings were never 
in use, and the mass of the people went altogether barefoot, 
except in winter, or during a journey. 

The neck was generally left bare, and very frequently the 
head ; when covered, it was protected among the higher 
classes by a kind of turban, and among the common people 
by a piece of cloth confined by a fillet around the brows : in 



280 



CUSTOMS — FOOD AND MEALS. 



the case of women, this turban was connected with a veil cov- 
ering the upper part of the person. 

The Israelites allowed the hair of the head and beard to 
grow ; the former was occasionally cut, and the partial use of 
the razor in trimming the beard was not unlawful. Baldness 
was rare, and was despised, 2 Kings ii. 23: Isa. iii. 24: Jer. 
xlvii. 5. The beard as the sign of manhood was much re- 
spected ; to shave it, to spit upon it, to pull it, even to touch 
it, except as a salutation, was a gross insult (2 Sam. x. 4-6 : 
1 Chron. xix. 3-6 : Isa. vii. 20), and for a man to neglect or 
maltreat his own beard, was a sign of madness or of extreme 
grief (1 Sam. xxi. 13 : 2 Sam. xix. 24 : Isa. xv. 2). 

366. All the Easterns generally, and the Israelites, were 
Food and simple and plain in their food, which consisted 
meals. largely of bread, fruits, honey, milk, butter, and 
cheese. Meat was but little used, animal food being in some 
degree restricted by the law, which allowed the flesh of no 
beasts to be eaten, but such as chewed the cud and parted the 
hoof, nor any fish but such as had both fins and scales (Lev. 
ii. 1-28). It was in this general way that the hog was forbid- 
ben, but as it was commonly eaten in the East, this application 
of the prohibition of the law attracted more attention than 
the rest. Blood and fat, the large lobe of the liver, and the 
kidneys were also forbidden. Poultry was used but sparingly, 
pigeons and the common fowl being the only domestic birds 
kept in Palestine, except the "fatted fowl" provided for the 
tables of Solomon and Nehemiah (1 Kings iv. 23: Neh. v. 
18). Eggs are only twice : mentioned as articles of food. 
Though fish with fins and scales were allowed, it does not 
seem that much use was made of this indulgence : the opera- 
tions of fishing were clearly well known, however (Job xix. 
6 : Isa. Ii. 20 : Job xli. 1 : Isa. xix. 8) : fish-ponds are men- 
tioned in Sol. Song (vii. 4) : fish were even brought by the 
Phoenicians across the country, from the Mediterranean to 
Jerusalem (Neh. xiii. 16), and one of the gates of the city, 



CUSTOMS — FOOD AND MEALS. 



281 



called the Fish-gate, seems to have been appropriated as the 
place of sale (2 Chron. xxxiii. 14 : Neh. iii. 3). 

Among insects, it may be noticed, that locusts were per- 
mitted to be eaten, Lev. xi. 22, and were a common article of 
food in the East, Matt. iii. 4. 

Bread was not baked, as with us, in loaves, but in cakes, 
rolls, and large thin biscuits, each family baking its own, and 
that daily. The modes of baking were various ; the thicker 
roll or cake was baked upon the heated hearth ; the thin 
bread upon metal plates, or around the sides of earthenware 
vessels, or of a pit in the floor, Gren. xviii. 6 : Lev. ii. 2, 4, 5. 
This work, like that of grinding corn, was at first performed 
by the wives and daughters of families, Gen. xviii. 6 : 2 Sam. 
xiii. 6, 8 : Jer. vii. 18 ; but was in time abandoned in some 
cases to servants, 1 Sam. viii. 13. The bread in common use 
needed not to be cut, but was broken, Isa. lviii. 7 : Lam. iv. 
4 : Matt. xiv. 19. 

The Jews had generally two meals a day ; one in the morn- 
ing, between the third and sixth hours, and the other, their 
principal meal, about the eleventh hour, or five o'clock, in the 
cool of the day. At this meal the guests all reclined on their 
left sides, on couches placed around a circular table. In thia 
posture, the head of one guest approached the breast of his 
neighbor, upon whose bosom, therefore, he was said to lean. 
Hence Christ told John who was to betray him, without the 
other disciples hearing his description, John xiii. 23 : Prov. 
xxvi. 15. The feet were stretched out from the table, and 
were of course first reached by any one entering the room 
(Luke vii. 38). Hence it is said that the woman who washed 
our Lord's feet stood behind him. This practice was borrowed 
from the Persians : in earlier times, the J ews probably used 
seats, or sat, as is the present custom in the East, around a 
table raised only a few inches from the ground. 

The food was taken by the hand, without aid of knife or 
fork, and hence the practice of washing before and after meals, 
Mark vii. 5. In very early times, each guest had his own 
24* 



282 



CUSTOMS — TAXATION. 



portion, Gen. xliii. 34 ; see 1 Sam. i. 5 : but later, all ate from 
the same dish. 

The ordinary beverage taken, not during the meal, but 
afterwards, was water, or wine diluted with water. A common 
acid wine diluted in this way, is called in onr English version, 
vinegar, and was the usual drink of laborers and soldiers, 
Kuth ii. 14 : Matt, xxvii. 48. This was what the soldiers gave 
our Lord when he cried "I thirst." The beverage previously 
offered him, vinegar and gall, or wine and myrrh, Matt, xxvii. 
34: Mark xv. 23, was given to persons about to be executed, 
in order to stupify them. Our blessed Lord refused to drink 
it. In full consciousness he Cs endured the cross, despising the 
shame. 

The beverage with which each guest was supplied, was in 
ancient times handed to him in a separate cup, ready mixed 
by the host : and hence the word cup is frequently used to 
signify a man's lot or portion, Psa. xi. 6 : Isa. li. 22 : Matt, 
xxvi. 39. " Mixed wine," in the English version, was not 
wine and water, but wine made stronger by spices, Prov. xxiii. 
30. " Strong drink " including a very inebriating liquor, made 
from dates and various seeds, Lev. x. 9 : 1 Sam. i. 15. 

Not unfrequently, precious oils were used at banquets for 
anointing the guests, Psa. xxiii. 5 ; xlv. 7 : Amos vi. 6. Christ 
was thus honored by the woman, Matt. xxvi. 7. She broke 
the box or jar, in proof of the purity of the oil ; the neck being 
sealed, to show that it was an imported perfume, Mark xiv. 3. 

The principal meal being in the evening of the day, was 
generally called supper. The light and joy within the house 
on such occasions, were often employed to represent the hap- 
piness of heaven, while the darkness without, the outer " dark- 
ness, was employed to shadow forth the misery of the lost, 
Matt. viii. 12. 

367. The system of taxation employed in Palestine before 
Revenue ^ e days of the Romans is not clearly defined. The 
*k>n taxa " r °y a l revenue, however, consisted in part in pre- 
sents, 1 Sam. x. 27 ; xvi. 20 : 2 Ohron. xvii. 5 ; in 



CUSTOMS — TAXATION. 



283 



the produce of the royal flocks, 1 Sam. xxi. 7 : 2 Chron. xxvi. 
10; xxxii. 28, 29 ; in lands and vineyards, either confiscated 
or reclaimed from a state of nature by the sovereign, 1 Kings 
xxi. 9-16 : 1 Chron. xxvii. 28 ; in tribute, probably a tenth 
of the income of the people, 1 Sam. viii. 15 ; xvii. 25 (see Ge- 
senius) ; in the plunder of conquered nations, 2 Chron. xxvii. 
5 ; and in payments imposed upon merchants passing through 
the territory, 1 Kings x. 15. Later still we find, probably in 
the place of some of the above, a toll and a tax on articles of 
consumption, corresponding to our excise, Ezra iv. 14, 19, 20. 
Both these were of Persian or Assyrian origin. Of the system 
of taxation prevalent in the time of our Lord, we have more 
accurate information. 

Soon after Judasa was reduced to a province of the Roman 
empire, an enrolment was made of the names and fortunes of 
the citizens, and on this enrolment was founded a capitation 
"to or tribute." This tax was laid by the magistrates of 
each city. It occasioned much division of opinion in Judaaa, 
and gave rise to more than one insurrection, Acts v. 37. Our 
Lord was urged to identify himself with its advocates or op- 
ponents, Matt, xxii 17. The tax was paid to collectors, either 
in Roman money (the denarius, or penny), or in Grecian (the 
drachma). If paid in the latter, however, the coin had to be 
changed by the traders, or " money-changers," as Roman 
money only was received at the Roman treasury. 




The Denakius (penny} of Tiberius, with the " image" of the Emperor, and the " sutter 
scnption," Tiberius Caspar Augustus, son of the Divine Augustus ! On {he obverse 
he is seen as "Pontifex Maximus." Such coins must have profaned " the Trea- 
sury," and hence the necessity for money-changers. 

Besides this census or head tax, there were custom duties, 
or taxes on exports and imports, Matt. ix. 9. These were 
fixed by law, and were levied by revenue farmers through 



284 



CUSTOMS — MODES OF BECKONING. 



their servants. These servants are called Publicans in the 
New Testament, and the farmers of the revenue, Chiefs of the 
Publicans. This system of farming the revenue proved a 
strong temptation to the Publicans, who were generally un- 
popular. 

The third public tax in Judaea was the half shekel required 
by the law to be paid by every Jew into the temple treasury. 
It was always paid in Jewish money, and by all Jews, even 
by those who lived out of Palestine. The money-changers 
who sat in the temple, procured this Jewish money in ex- 
change for Greek and Roman coins, Matt. xxi. 12: John ii. 
16. This tax was regarded as paid to God : when, therefore, 
our Lord intimates to Peter that the children of kings are 
exempt from tribute, He implied that fie himself was the sou 
of the Father, Matt, xvii. 26. 

This distinction between the different kinds of taxes is 
always preserved in the original of the New Testament, and 
generally in the English translation. 

368. A knowledge of the modes of reckoning employed by 
Wei hts ^ ews often aid us in gathering lessons from 
and money. Scripture, and is sometimes essential to an intelli- 
gent interpretation of Scripture language. 

The following are tables of the weights, measures and money 
mentioned in the Bible. They are taken from Arbutknot's 
work, as quoted by Home. 

369. (1.) Jewish weights reduced to English troy weight: 



The gerah. one-twentieth of a shekel. 

Bekah, half a shekel 

The shekel 

The maneh. 60 shekels.....' 

The talent, 50 maneh, 3,000 shekels.... 



lbs. oz. pen. gr. 

12 

5 

10 

2 6 

125 



CUSTOMS — WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 285 



370. (2.) Scripture measures of length reduced to English 
measure. 

Eng. ft. in. 

A digit, Jer. lii. 21 0-912 

T~| A palm, Exod. xxv. 25 3-648 



12 | 3 | A span, Exod. xxviii. 16 10-944 



24 | 6 | 3 | A cubit, Gen. vi. 15 1 



96 | 24 | 6 | 2 | A fathom, Acts xxvii. 28 7 3-552 



144 | 36 | 12 | 6 | 1-5 | Ezekiel's reed, Ezek. xl. 3-5 10 11-328 



192 | 48 | 16 | 8 | 2 | 1-3 | An Arabian pole 14 7-104 



10 | Measuring line, Ezek. xl. 3, 145 11-04 

371. (3.) The long Scripture measures : 

Eng. miles, paces, ft. 








145 


1-824 
4-6 


2000 | 5 | *A Sabbath day's journey, Acts i. 12 


... .... 


729 


3-0 


4000 | 10 | 2 | An eastern mile, Matt. v. 41 


... 1 


403 


1-0 






153 


3-0 






172 


4-0 


* So called because this was the distance between the tabernacle and the extreme 



point of the camp. 

372. (4.) Scripture measures of capacity for liquids, reduced 
to English wine measure : 

Gal. pints. 

A caph 0-625 

1-3 | A log, Lev. xiv. 10 0-833 

3-333 

3 | A hin, Exod. xxx. 24 1 2 

2 | A seah 2 4 




| 72 | 18 | 6 | 3 | A bath, or_ephah, 1 Kings vii. 26: John ii. 6... 7 4 



| 720 | 180 | 60 | 20 | 10 | A kor, or homei, Ezek. xl v. 14: Isa.v.10.... 75 5 



373. (5.) Scripture measures of capacity for things dry, re- 
duced to English corn measure : 





Peck. gal. 




pints 
0-1416 
2-8333 


3 20 | A cab, or choenix, 2 Kings vi. 25 : Rev. vi. 6 


.... 







.... 





6-1 


120 | 6 | 3-3 | A seah, Matt. xiii. 33 , 


.... 1 





1 









3 












3600 | 180 | 100 | 30 | 10 | 2 | { A JgJJ^j °jj k ° r ' Numb ' xim 32 


: l 32 









286 



CUSTOMS — WEIGHTS AND MONEY. 



374. (6.) Jewish money, and its value in English coin i 

A Grerah, Exod. xxx. 13 H 



10 I A bekah, Exod. xxxviii. 



| 2 | *A shekel, Exod. xxx 13: Jsa. vii. 23: Matt, xvii.27 



1200 | 120 | 50 | A maneh, or minah Hebraica, Luke xix. 13.... 



ci I', mi i | 6000 | 3000 | GO | A 



A solidus aureus, or sextula, was worth 

A siculus aureus, or gold shekel, was worth. 



£. 




d. 








1-2687 





1 


1-6873 





2 


3-375 


5 


14 


0-75 


342 




9 





12 


0-5 


1 


16 


6 


5475 









* First coined by Simon Maccabseus,l Mac. xv. 6. 

In the preceding table, silver is valued at 5s. and gold at U. per oz. In ancient 
times, gold and silver were much scarcer than now, and therefore of higher relative 
value. A shekel would probably purchase nearly ten times as much as the same 
nominal amount will now purchase. 

375. (7.) Koman money mentioned in the New Testament, 
and its value in English money : 

£. s. d. far. 

A mite (kiTrrov or ct<r<rdpiov), Mark xii. 42 0% 

A farthing (aJpdvrn;), Mark xii. 42 about 1^ 

A penny, or denarius (fmaptov), Matt. xxii. 19 7 2 

A pound, or mina 3 2 6 

The Grecian drachma in common use was of about the same 
value as the denarius. The Persian daric is the first coin men- 
tioned in Scripture, and is the most ancient history makes known 
to us. It was rather heavier than a guinea. See 1 Chron. xxix. 
7; Ezra i*. 69 : Neh. vii. 70-72, where the word is translated dram. 

376, Many passages may be explained by these Tables. 
From Table 3, we learn that the Sabbath day's journey was 

less than a mile. How suggestive of the sacredness of the 
day, when everything approaching to bodily fatigue was for- 
bidden ! 

From Table 6, we learn to admire the noble disinterestedness 
of Elisha. Naaman offered him 6,000 pieces, or shekels, of 
gold, or more than ten thousand pounds. This was the 
temptation under which Grehazi fell, and yet it did not excuse 
his guilt. 

The same Table illustrates strikingly the unreasonableness 
of an unforgiving spirit, and the aggravations of our own 




CUSTOMS — MODES OF RECKONING. 



287 



guilt. The debtor, who threw his fellow-servant into prison 
because he owed him a hundred pence, about SI., had himself 
been forgiven 10,000 talents, or, if these were silver, upwards 
of three millions sterling. 

How clearly does it illustrate the prophecy of Isaiah, " He 
was despised and rejected of men," to find that Judas be- 
trayed our Lord for thirty pieces of silver, 01 3£. 10s. 8d., the 
price paid for a slave when killed by a beast. 

From Tables 4 and 5, we learn the displeasure of God against 
covetousness. 

" Ten acres of vineyard (says the prophet) shall yield one bath, and 
the seed of an homei shall yield an ephah," Isa. v. 10. 

That is, one acre of land shall yield less than a gallon of wine, 
and nine-tenths of the seed shall perish. Unfaithfulness and 
irreligion are real folly. The fear of the Lord, is, in all senses, 
the beginning of wisdom. 

377. The Jewish mode of reckoning time was peculiar. 
They had two years : the sacred and the civil. The 

. Time and 

sacred began m March or April (according to the modes of 
moon), the month of deliverance of the children of 
Israel from Egypt ; and the civil in September or October, the 
commencement of seed-time. a The prophets use the former ; 
those engaged in civil and agricultural concerns, the latter. 
The year was divided into twelve lunar months, with every 
third year, a thirteenth. Till the return from captivity, these 
months had no separate name, except the first, which was 
called Abib (the month of " the green ears of corn"), or Nisan, 
the month of "the flight," Esth. iii. 7. (See Exod. xii. 33: 
Heb.) After the captivity, Babylonish names were employed. 

The natural day was from sun-rise to sun-set (as with the 
Romans), and was divided (after the captivity) into twelve 

a The Eabbins say that the year began in March, as did the Roman 
year, and in September ; but the probability is, that in earlier times it 
began with the new moon of April and October respectively. See Jahn 
Archseologia Bib., §103. 



288 



CUSTOMS — MODES OF RECKONING. 



hours of unequal length. The civil day (the day used in 
common reckoning) was from six in the evening to six in the 
next evening ; differing in this respect from the Roman civil 
day, which, like ours, was from midnight to midnight. This 
was divided again into night and day of equal length. 

The night was divided, in very early times, into three 
watches. The first (Lam. ii. 19) till twelve o'clock ; the mid- 
dle till three in the morning (Judges vii. 19) ; and the morn- 
ing watch till six (Exod. xiv. 24). In the time of our Lord, 
however, the night was divided, as among the Romans, into 
four watches, of three hours each (Mark xiii. 35) ; the third 
of which was called cock-crowing (Matt. xxvi. 34). The day, 
properly so called (from six in the morning till six at night), 
was divided into twelve hours, of which the third, the sixth, 
and the ninth, were devoted to the public services of worship. 
This division is still retained among the Jews. In very early 
times, and till the Babylonish captivity, the day was divided 
into the following parts : 

The break of day. Mid-day at 12 o'clock. 

The morning. The cool of the day, from 3 

The heat of the day, from 9 o'clock till 6. 

o'clock till 12. And the evening. 

From the sixth hour (or twelve o'clock), till the close of the 
day, was called evening. This part of the day was divided 
into two portions, called evenings, Exod. xii. 6 . Levit. xxiii. 
5 (original). 

378. These distinctions explain several passages. 

About the eleventh hour the husbandman said to the laborers, "why 
stand ye here all the day idle?" (Matt. xx. 6.) With us, the eleventh 
hour is not yet noon : with the Jews, it was about an hour from sunset. 
. . . Peter's reasoning is rendered forcible by these facts. It is (said he) 
but the third hour of the day (nine o'clock), Acts ii. 15, the time of the 
morning sacrifice, before which time the Jews did not eat or drink. 

On the day of the crucifixion there was darkness over all the land 
from the sixth to the ninth hour, i. e., from twelve o'clock to three. 
The passover was always kept at the full moon : this darkness, there- 



CUSTOMS — MISCELLANEOUS. 



289 



fore, could not have taken place in the ordinary course of nature from 
an eclipse of the sun. ... It was at the ninth hour, Jesus cried with a 
loud voice, and shortly afterwards (or " between the evening," the time 
of offering the customary sacrifice) he expired. . . . John says that Pilate 
brought Jesus forth to the people at the sixth hour (John. xix. 14), 
probably reckoning from midnight, the commencement of the Roman 
civil day After the overthrow of the Jewish state, the adoption of the 
civil day of Europe and Egypt for reckoning was the more natural. 

It was at the fourth watch of the night, or about dawn, that Jesus 
went to the disciples on the sea. He had spent the whole night, there- 
fore, in prayer, Mark vi. 48. 

The highest praise was bestowed upon the servant whom his Lord 
found watching in the second or third watch, i. e., from nine till three, 
Luke xii. 38. 

It is to be observed, that the Jews and other Orientals 
generally speak of any part of a day, or of a period of time, 
as if it were the whole. 

Thus Jesus said, "After three days I will rise again," Matt, xxvii. 63; 
though he was in the grave only a day and a half, from sunset on Fri- 
day to the earliest morning on Sunday. He intimated, also, quoting 
from Jonah, that he would be in the grave three days and three nights, 
i. e., part of three separate civil days ; day and night meaning a day 
of twenty-four hours, Matt. xii. 40 : 1 Sam. xxx. 12, 13. In the same 
way, a week is called eight days in John xx. 26, as it often is in German. 

379. There are many othei customs referred to in Misceiia- 
Scripture on which it is impossible to enlarge. toms. 

Opulent Jews, for example, in ancient times, had their children taught 
some mechanical art, to prepare them for any reverse of fortune ; and 
bo St. Paul received a liberal education, and learned tent making, 
Acts xviii. 3. 

At the time of the passover the people of Jerusalem prepared private 
rooms, in which any stranger might celebrate the feast; and hence 
Christ sent Peter and John, without any scruple, to seek an upper room 
for this purpose, Mark xiv. 15. 

In ancient Rome, children were adopted at first privately ; then the 
adoption was ratified by a public act ; and the children so adopted be- 
came the heirs of their foster parents. Hence, in Rom. viii., Christians 
25 



290 



CUSTOMS — MISCELLANEOUS. 



are said to be adopted, and yet to wait for their adoption, even the 
redemption of their bodies ; i. e., for their public recognition at the 
coming of the Lord, ver. 23. 

The common salutation in the East was a kiss ; sometimes upon tha 
beard (2 Sam. xx. 9), sometimes upon the cheek : the kiss of respect 
and homage was upon the brow (Gen. xxvii. 26: Exod. iv. 27: 1 Sam. 
x. 1 : Psa. ii. 12 : Acts xx. 37). ... In meeting, the Jews used many- 
ceremonies, and persons charged with urgent business, therefore, were 
forbidden to salute by the way (2 Kings iv. 29: Luke x. 4). . . . The 
usual greeting was, " Peace be with thee," (Judges xix. 20 : 1 Sam. xxv. 
6) : other forms may be seen in Pv-uth iii. 10; ii. 4 : Psa. cxxix. 8. 

Persons paying visits to a superior generally brought presents (Prov. 
xviii. 16: Job xlii. 11). Kings and princes also made presents as 
marks of distinction (Gen. xlv. 22, 23 : Esther viii. 15 : 1 Sam. xviii. 4). 
Not to wear garments thus given was a great affront (Matt. xxii. 11, 12). 

An insult was shown by maltreating the beard, by spitting in the 
face, by putting men to degrading employments (Judges xvi. 21 : Lam. 
V. 13), by clapping the hands (Job xxvii. 23), by casting contempt upon 
a man's mother (1 Sam. xx. 30 : 2 Sam. iii. 39 ; xvi. 10 ; xix. 22), by 
dishonoring the dead (Jer. xxvi. 23 ; viii. 1 ; xvi. 5, 7). 

In the earliest times there were no inns like ours, and travellers 
generally waited in the street, or at the gate, till invited to some house 
(Gen. xix. 2: Judges xix. 15-21). In the time of our Lord there were 
places of accommodation where lodging was provided, but where each 
guest brought his own provisions, fuel and bed. In the stable of such 
an inn, there being no room in the lodging apartment, the Saviour of 
the world was born. Places of a similar kind, probably without resi- 
dent occupants, were found upon the main roads even in the days of 
the patriarchs (Gen. xlii. 27; xliii. 21: Exod. iv. 24). Both are still 
found in the East ; the former called khans, and the latter, caravan- 
serais. 

When a person died, his relations rent their garments from head to 
foot; a smaller rent being made by spectators: hired mourners often 
added to the expressions of grief by their lamentations and music (Jer. 
ix. 17, 18 : Matt. ix. 23 : Acts ix. 39). Embalming was common, though, 
except in Egypt, the process seems to have consisted of little else than 
anointing the body with odoriferous drugs and wrapping it in linen. 
The funeral followed death within twenty-four hours ; the body not 
being placed in a coffin, but closely wrapped from head to foot on an 
open bier, and so borne to the place of burial, which was always, ex^ 
cept in the case of kings and distinguished men, at some distance from 
the city. For the poor, there was a common burial ground ; but fami- 



CUSTOMS— MISCELLANEO US. 



291 



lies had often their sepulchres in their own fields or gardens. There 
was no particular ceremonial at the grave, but the day was concluded 
by a funeral feast (2 Sam. iii. 35 : Hos. ix. 4). Mourning was expressed 
afterwards by rent clothes and sackcloth, sometimes by a shrouded 
face, and sometimes by dust sprinkled upon the head (2 Sam. iii. 31 ; 
xix. 4 : Job ii. 12). The graves were generally dug in the rocks, with 
niches all round, each holding a corpse (Job x. 21, 22; xxxiii. 18 ; Psa. 
Ixxxviii. 6 : Isa. xiv. 9-19 ; xxxviii. 10 : Ezek. xxxii. 18). 

Crucifixion was the punishment of slaves only, or of those upon 
whom it was intended to fix the deepest ignominy. It was not a Jew- 
ish punishment, nor was it inflicted upon a Eoman citizen. Thus Christ 
was delivered to the Gentiles, and numbered with the wicked in his 
death, Matt. xx. 19. 

•At the feast of tabernacles, the people (" on the last day of the feast") 
drew water from the spring of Siloam, which issued from a rock near 
the temple. Part of this water they drank amidst joyful acclamations ; 
the people singing the words of Isaiah, " "With joy shall they draw 
water from the wells of salvation," and the rest they poured on the 
evening sacrifice : see John vii. 37. 

In the time of our Lord it was the common practice for the kings of 
Syria to visit Rome, to obtain the confirmation of their title from the 
emperor and senate, or to court their favor. Herod the Great went 
to Augustus for this purpose, and his sons visited Rome. They went, 
as our Lord expresses it, " to receive a kingdom and to return," Luke 
xix. 12 This practice explains the incidental allusions to the custom 
in many of the parables; and it gives an indirect proof of the truth 
of the gospel. 

The bottles of the ancients were not of glass, but of skins, and hence 
they shrank in the smoke (Psa. cxix. 83) and burst, if new or fermenting 
wine were placed in them, Matt. ix. 17. 

When a person charged with crimes against the State was tried in ' 
ancient times, the citizens who tried him voted for his acquittal by 
dropping a white stone into the box, and for his condemnation, by 
dropping a black one. Our Lord, therefore, is said to. give unto him 
that overcometh a white stone (Rev. ii. 17). 

Many customs were connected in ancient times with sealing; the 
seal, generally a signet-ring bearing the name of the owner, preserved 
the object, Job xiv. 17, and secured privacy, Isa. xxix. 11. It gave 
authority and completeness to documents, Neh. ix. 38: Esther viii. 8: 
Dan. vi. 9, 13, 17; or it marked the object as the peculiar property 
of him whose seal was placed upon it, 2 Tim. ii. 19: Rom. iv. 11: 
Rev. vii. 2, 3. 



292 



GEOGRAPHY OF SCRIPTURE. 



380. vii. A knowledge of geography, under its twofold di- 
vision of historical and physical, is of great use in the study 
of Scripture. 

381. The Bible directs us to the high parts of Armenia and 
The lands of ^ e ^ er ^ e P ia i ns between the Tigris and the Euphra- 
the Bible, tes, as the first settlement of mankind after the 
flood. The pride and idolatry of Shinaar dispersed them ; 
Shem and his descendants occupying the peninsula between 
the Black Sea and the Indian Ocean ; Ham, Africa ; and, after 
some time, Japhet, Europe, and part of Asia. 

Going south-westward from Ararat, we come to Mount 
Lebanon in Palestine, and have around us " the lands of the 
Bible." Looking southward from this position, we have on 
our left, far over the Syrian desert, the Euphrates and the 
Tigris, which, taking their rise in Armenia, run into the Per- 
sian Gulf, and, as they flow, inclose the country called Meso- 
potamia ( !i between the rivers"). On the banks of these rivers 
men first formed societies ; on the Euphrates rose the city of 
Babylon, and on the Tigris, the city of Nineveh. 

Between the Euphrates and the table-land, east of Jordan, 
is Arabia Deserta ; southward, Arabia Petrea (the rocky), with 
Petra as its capital ; southward still, and reaching to the In- 
dian Ocean and Persian Gulf, is Arabia the fruitful, whence 
(or through which) came the gold and spice of Eastern story. 

382. Eeturning to Lebanon, and looking (still to the south) 
on the region below us, we find Palestine, having on its north- 
ern seaboard Phoenicia (the coast of Tyre and Sidon), and, on 
its southern, Philistia. Looking northward for a moment (sup- 
posing that we stand on Hermon, where Libanus and Antili- 
banus seem to join), we find two ridges of hills running 
through the whole of Syria, Libanus and Antilibanus, till they 
are lost in Asia Minor ; the district they inclose is Ccele-Syria, 
(or the hollow Syria), called also the Plain of Lebanon ; its 
capital Baalbec, the city of the sun. Looking southward, 
again, we find these ridges running through the whole of Pal- 
estine, till the left-hand ridge is lost in the Red Sea, and the 



GEOGRAPHY OF SCRIPTURE. 



293 



right-hand ridge in the peninsula of Sinai, the scene of the 
wanderings of the Israelites during forty years. 
To the west of this latter region we find Egypt. 

383. Immediately beneath us, on the left, we have the city 
of Damascus, ever famous for "bigotry and fruitfulness ; on 
the right, we have the blue tideless waters of the Mediterra- 
nean, connecting the traffic of Europe with the marts of the 
East; and in succession, Cyprus, Crete, Malta, and Sicily— 
" the isles of the sea." If now we carry our eye in a line with 
our right hand, we enter Asia Minor, whose various provinces 
are mentioned in the Acts. Running westward, and crossing 
the JEgean Sea, we come to Hellas, or Greece ("Achaia"), 
having Macedonia on the north, and Thrace on the north- 
east. From Macedonia, Illyricum stretches away in a north- 
west line. Crossing the Adriatic, we land at Brundisium, in 
Italy, whence we proceed over the Appenine Hills to Rome, 
on their western side. Thence we may travel by land over 
the Alps, or, by sea, through the Gull of Genoa, to France 
(Gaul) ; and from France, over the Pyrenees, to Spain, and 
proceeding southward, come to "Tarshish." "We thence sail 
along the northern coast of Africa till we reach Carmel and 
Lebanon again. 

Still occupying our position on Mount Hermon, and looking 
southward, we find on our left, beyond J ordan, the high lands 
of Gilead and the pasture-grounds of Bashan. The whole 
country is beautiful and verdant. The valleys, says Bucking- 
ham, are filled with corn and olives, and the hills are covered 
with vines. See Numb, xxxii. 1-4. Here, to the south, were 
the territories of Ammon, Moab, and Edom. 

384. Between the ridge of hills which runs through this 
district, on the east side of the river, and the ridge Valley of 
of Lebanon, which also runs southward on the west the Jordan, 
side (under the names of the mountains of Napltali, of 
Ephraim, or Israel, and the mountains of Judah), lies tke 
valley of the Jordan ; containing the lake of Gennesareth (or 
sea of Galilee), the Jordan itself, and the Dead Sea. The 

25* 



294 



GEOGRAPHY OF SCRIPTURE, 



whole length of the Jordan with windings, is about 200 miles; 
the width of the sea of Gennesareth is from eight to ten. 
Compare Matt. xiv. 23 with John vi. 19. Westward of this 
range of hills, and between it and the sea, is the district of 
Tyre, the plain or valley of Sharon, and the country of the 
Philistines. Southward, " as thou comest to Gaza," it is desert ; 
so that the sea-board plain ends in the desert of Gaza ; the 
centre, or plain of the Jordan, in the desert of Sinai; and the 
district beyond Jordan in the deserts of Edom. 

Isa. xxxv. 2: Cant. ii. 1. 

385. Looking, again, to the district nearer to us, it is not diffi- 
cult to mark a triangular valley opening to the sea at Mount 
Carmel, one of the terminations of the mountains of Israel, — ■ 
the mountains of Naphtali, or of Galilee, and another part of 
the same range, the mountains of Gilboa, forming the other 
Valley of sides. This valley has been called successively the 
Esdraeion. plain of Esdraelon, of Jezreel, and of Megiddo. 
The river Kishon, that "ancient river," flows through it into 
the "Great Sea," not far from Acre, Judges iv. 13; v. 21. 
The little town of Nazareth lies among the hills to the north. 
This valley was the scene of the victory of Deborah and Ba- 
rak, of Gideon, of the Philistines in their last battle with Saul, 
of Ahab over Benhadad, and of the Egyptians over Josiah. 
Here the Assyrians and Persians, the Crusaders and Saracens, 

v the Egyptians and Turks, the Arabs and Franks, have fought ; 
and it was on this battle-field of nations that Bonaparte gained 
one of his victories just before he was compelled to relinquish 
Syria. Mount Tabor rises on the north side of the plain. 

Judges iv. 12-24 : 1 Sam. xxxi. : 1 Kings xx. : 2 Kings xxiii. 29. 

386. If we trace in this way the history of particular place3 
mentioned in Scripture, we shall find the exercise highly inter- 
esting and instructive. 

Between J erusalem and Beersheba, and about twenty miles 
from each place, lies one of the oldest cities in the world, now 



GEOGRAPHY OF SCRIPTURE. 



295 



occupied by some 6.000 Arabs — the city of Hebron. 
Here lived Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob ; here they 
received the promise and the seal of the covenant, and here, 
they and their wives were buried. In the days of the spies 
it was inhabited by the sons of Anak. Joshua destroyed it, 
and the place was given to Caleb. When rebuilt, it became 
one of the Levitical cities. Here David was anointed king 
over Israel; here Abner was assassinated; here Absalom 
established his head-quarters during his rebellion ; and over 
one of the pools of Hebron (several of which still remain), 
David hung up the assassins of Ishbosheth. 

Numb, xiii.: Josh. x. 37; xiv. 13: 2 Sam. ii. 11; hi. 27; xv. 7, 12. 

About twenty miles eastward of Jerusalem, and accessible 
only by a lonely and dangerous road (the Bloody . 
Way as it was called in Jerome's days), lies the city 
of Jericho. Within sight of its walls the manna ceased. In 
the days of Joshua it was overthrown, and a curse was pro- 
nounced upon who should rebuild it, a curse fulfilled 520 years 
afterwards upon Hiel. In the time of Elisha, it was a school 
of the prophets. Here Herod the Great died. Once the city 
was visited by our Lord, when he lodged with Zaccheus. 

1 Kings xvi. 34: 2 Kings ii. 4, 5 : Matt. xx. 29, 30. 

Between Jericho and the Jordan lay the town of Gilgal, 
where were erected the twelve stones taken from 
the river when the Israelites passed over. Here G,1 s al - 
Samuel offered sacrifice, held his yearly courts, and recognised 
Saul as king. And here was one of the schools of the pro- 
phets. In the days of Ahaz, however, it was the seat of 
idolatrous worship, and an object of execration by the pro- 
phets. The place where the children of Israel had renewed 
their covenant with God, and whence he had so often gone up 
with their armies, thus became defiled with idolatry, Josh, 
iv. 19 : Hos. ix. 15. 

If we trace the history of Shiloh, the place chosen by Joshua 



298 GEOGRAPHY — PALESTINE. 

for the tabernacle, and where it remained for more 
Shiloh " than 400 years, till the days of Eli, we shall have 
in brief a history of many a favored and afterwards rejected 
city, Josh, xviii. 10 : Judges xxi. 19-23 : 1 Sam. chaps, i.-vi. : 
1 Kings xi. 29 ; xii. 15 ; xiv. 2, etc. : Psa. lxxviii. 60 : Jer. 
vii. 12-14; xxvi. 6. 

The peculiar feelings with which Jacob must have visited 

Beersheba, where he offered sacrifice (G-en. xlvi. 1), 
Beeisiea. ^ e gathered from Gen. xxxi. 33; xxii. 19;' 

xxvi. 23-35. It was already endeared to him by many holy 
associations. 

A brief notice of Palestine will throw light upon several 
passages, both of the Old and New Testament. 

PALESTINE. 

387. Its Names. — It is called the world, a the earth, or the 
land. Hence Solomon is said to reign from the 
river (Euphrates) to the end of the earth, Psa. lxxii. 
In the person of Christ these words have a still larger fulfil- 
ment. The country which lay to the south of Judsea, was 
Arabia, and at its extreme border (from the sea) was the city 
of Sheba, or Saba. And hence the queen of Sheba is said to 
have come from the uttermost parts of the earth to hear the 
wisdom of Solomon. 

The country was early inhabited by the descendants of 
Canaan, the grandson of Noah (Gen. xi.) It was thence called 
the land of Canaan. From the descendants of Jacob, it wa3 
called the land of Israel. From the fact that the tribe oX 
Judah occupied it almost alone after the captivity, it was called 
Judsea (Psa. Ixxvi. 1). From the covenant into which God 
entered with Abraham and his posterity, it was called the 
land o*f promise, Gen. xii. 7 ; xiii. 16 : Exod. xv. 14 : Heb. 
xi. 9. And from the Philistines or Pali (shepherds), who in- 
habited its southern coasts, Palestine. 



a Luke ii. 1 : Acts xi. 28 . Luke iv. 25 ■ xxi. 26 ; James v. 17. 



GEOGRAPHY PALESTINE. 297 

The land of God, Lev. xxv. 23 ; the holy land, Zech ii. 12, 
are also terms employed in Scripture. It must be observed, 
however, that the limits of the country to which these names 
were given, have varied at different periods. 

Its Extent and Divisions. — The whole land of Israel, from 
Dan to Beersheba, was in length equal to the dis- 

%t -i r,™ Its extent 

tance between London and York, or about 200 and divi- 
miles, and in its widest parts was less than the dis- 
tance between York and Liverpool, or about ninety miles. 

For seven centuries after the dispersion, it was occupied by 
the Canaanites, who divided it among ten nations. They after- 
wards dwindled to seven, Gen. xv. 18-21 : Deut. vii. 1 ; of 
whom the Amorites were the most powerful, and their name 
is sometimes used for the whole, Gen. xv. 16. The Philis- 
tines, Moabites, Midianites, Ammonites, and the children of 
Amalek and Edom were residing, when the Israelites entered 
Comaan, in its immediate vicinity, and some of them within its 
borders. 

Joshua divided the country into twelve parts, giving one to 
each tribe, Ephraim and Manasseh being reckoned amtmg the 
tribes, and Levi having his portion among the rest. 

In the North, dwelt Asher, Naphtali, Zebulon, and Issachar : after- 
wards Galilee of the Gentiles, and Galilee proper 

In the Middle, Ephraim, and half of Manasseh ; afterwards Samaria. 

In the South, Judah, Benjamin, Dan, and Simeon; afterwards Judaea. 

Beyond Jordan, Keuben, Gad, and half of Manasseh ; afterwards 
Persea, etc. 

Under the reign of Solomon, the kingdom was greatly ex- 
tended, and the distinction of tribes became less marked. 
The whole of his territory was therefore divided afresh into 
twelve districts, each under its own officer (1 Kings iv. 7-19). 

On the death of Solomon, ten tribes revolted from his son 
Eehoboam, and formed the kingdom of Israel, of which Sy- 
char or Shechem was the capital. The other tribes of Benja- 
min and Judah, with parts of Dan and Simeon, formed the 



298 



GEOGEAPHY — PALESTINE. 



kingdom of Judah, whose chief city was Jerusalem. This 
division ceased, however, on the subversion of the kingdom of 
Israel, by Shalmaneser, the Assyrian, after it had continued 
for 254 years : and the country fell successively into the hands 
of the Assyrians, the Greeks, the Jews (under the Maccabees), 
and the Eomans. 

In the time of our Lord, it was divided into five provinces. 
1. Galilee, which included most of the scenes of his personal 
ministry, and whence most of his disciples were chosen, Isa. 
ix. 1 : Matt. ii. 22, 23 : Luke iv. 14 : Matt. xxvi. 69 ; xxviii. 
7, 16. This district was despised by the Jews because of its 
distance from Jerusalem, its connection with the Samaritans, 
and the impurity of the dialect spoken by the people, Mark 
xiv. 70. 2. Samaria, which included the middle division of 
the kingdom, and separated Galilee from Judsea, John iv. 4. 
3. Judsea, which was nearly co-extensive with the ancient 
kingdom of Judah. 4. The district of JPercea (or beyond 
Jordan), which included Abilene, where Lysanius was tetrarch, 
Luke iii. 1, Trachonitis, Iturasa, or Auranitis, a Gaulonitis, b 
Batansea, the ancient Bashan, but less extensive, Persea proper 
(between the Arnon and the Jabbok), where John was be- 
headed, and Decapolis (or the district of the ten cities). 5. Idu- 
msea, a province which was added by the Bomans. It com- 
prised the extreme south parts of Judsea, with a small part 
of Arabia. After some time, the Idumseans became mingled 
with the Ishmaelites. 

388. In later times, these divisions have undergone various 
Later di- changes. In the fifth century, the country was di- 
visions, vided into three parts : Judaea and Samaria ; Galilee 
and Trachonitis; Persea and Idumsea. In the time of the 
Crusades, episcopal sees were established in the principal 
cities. Under the modern Turkish authority, the whole coun- 
try is divided between the pachaliks, or governments, of Acre 
ind Damascus. 

» 1 Chron. i. 31, (from Jetur.): Ezek. zlvii. 16, 18 : Hauran. 
b Josh. xx. 8. 



GEOGRAPHY — PALESTINE. 



299 



389. It will facilitate the study of Sacred Scrip- gtate (ag to 

ture "to have a distinct idea, both of the divisions govern- 

' ment) in 

of the countrv and of the changes of the government the days of 

J do our Lord. 

in the time of our Lord. 



Herod the Great reigns from B. C. 37 to B. C. 3, over 



Judaea, 
Samaria, Idumsea. 


Galilee, 
Peraea Proper. 


Trachonitis and 
Iturtea. 


Revenue, 4u0 talents (about 
one m'illiou sterling). 

These he bequeaths to his 
son, 

Archelaus, who is banished, 
and the province is put 
under procurators, of 
whom one of the chief 
was 

Pontius Pilate, A. D. 7 to 36 
(dies 36). 


Revenue 200 talents. 

These he bequeaths to his 
son, 

Herod Antipas, who be- 
headed John. 

Herod Antipas banished 
(40). 


Revenue, 100 talents. 

These he bequeaths to 
his son, 

Philip Herod (John iv). 
Philip dies (37). 



Herod Agrippa (grandson of Herod) made king of the whole (Acts xii.) A. D. 41-14, 
Herod Agrippa dies, A. D. 44. 



Roman Governors. 
Fadus Alexander. 
Felix (4th Governor). 
Festus (5th Governor). 



i Agrippa (son of H. Agrip- 
pa), tetrarch of Trachonitis, is made tetrarch of 
Galilee also. Paul pleads before him at Csesarea 
(Acts xxv. 26). 




Coin of Herod the Great. Very rare. From Akerman's "Numismatic Illustrations 
of the New Testament." On the left hand cut is a helmet, a star, and two o]ive 
branches: on the reverse, a tripod flaming altar, with the inscription u of King 
Herod," and numeral letters, "the third year," of his reign. 

390. The physical appearance of the country is remarkably 
broken and mountainous. The higher peaks of Leba- Physiea] 
non and of Sinai (which lie about 400 miles apart) appearance, 
rise to a height of nearly 10,000 feet above the Mediterranean. 



soo 



GEOGRAPHY — PALESTINE. 



The Jordan springs from the sides of the former, and at the 
lake of Tiberias its level is 750 feet below the Mediterranean. 
At the Dead Sea, the depression has increased to 1,312 feet; 
and, as the depth of that sea is 1,350 feet, we have, altogether, 
a more remarkable change of surface than is to be found in 
anv part of the world. From the plain of Esdraelon the hills 
to the south continue gradually rising, till at Jerusalem we 
reach a height, above the surface of the Dead Sea, of 3,900 
feet. In the hill country of Judah (south of Jerusalem) they 
reach a still greater height : eastward, the country falls rap- 
idly, so that Jericho, which is but twenty miles from Jeru- 
salem, is 3,406 below it : so accurate is the description given 
in the Bible, Luke x. 30 : John vii. 10 : Acts xxiv. 1. Com- 
pare Gen. xxvi. 2 : xlvi. 3. 

Many of these mountains abound in caverns. Their sides 
afford large sheep walks (Amos i. 2), and the plains which are 
found on the summits of some are covered with corn. In the 
crevices of the rocks, and wherever was any depth of earth, 
the olive nourished, and the fig. The vales were most luxu- 
riant and fruitful, and the very deserts were formed chiefly 
of extensive pasture-land, unfit for the plough, but rich in 
grass and timber. The products of all climes were thus found 
in Palestine, and upon the same range of hills were often 
growing the fig and date of the tropics, with the oak and fir 
of the temperate zone. A climate all soft and sunny would 
have injured the robust industry and manly character of the 
people : a country all rugged and mountainous would have 
driven them into alliance with their heathen neighbors. Moun- 
tains, which grew olives and wheat ; the snow-covered heights 
of Lebanon, and the hot deep valley of Jordan — pasture and 
tillage — all seem to have been adapted to the circumstances 
of the chosen people, and to have answered the description 
of the Bible — " a good land, a land of brooks of water, that 
spring out of the valleys and hills." 

391. In the time of David, the population was probably 
four oi' five millions (see 2 Sam. xxiv. 9), or between 400 and 



GEOGRAPHY — JERUSALEM. 



301 



500 to every square mile ; a proportion such as is 
now found in the West Riding of Yorkshire. The Populatlon - 
present population of Syria, which is four times the size of the 
kingdom under David, is about a million and a half.* Even 
this population seems sustained with difficulty, and a great 
part of the country is completely barren. Its former fertility 
is ascribed in Scripture to the special blessing of God, and its 
present barrenness to " the heat of his great anger :" see Lev. 
xxvi. 3-5 : Deut. vii. 12-14 ; xi. 8-15 ; xxviii. 1-12, compared 
with Deut. xxix. 23-25 ; xxviii. 16-24, 38-42. 

392. The capital of Judsea was Jerusalem. Its name in the 
days of Abraham was Salem, b and it was called Jebus 
when Israel obtained possession of the Holy Land. 
Its Jewish name was perhaps suggested by these facts, and 
means the possession, or home of peace. Part of the city be- 
longed to Benjamin, and part to Judah. The foundation of 
the whole is a high rock, with four heads or hills, and with a 
steep ascent on every side except the north. d A deep valley 
surrounds three sides, and beyond the valley are still higher 
hill's ; s.o that the city is not easily visible till the traveller is 
near it. The soil is very stony, and the country around is dry 
and barren. 

The extent of the city differed at different times. It was 
largest at the time of its final overthrow by Titus. It then 
included Zion, Acra, Mori ah, and Bezetha. Zion was on the 
south-eastern side of the city, and immediately north of it 
was Acra. Zion was the higher of the two ; the part of Jeru- 
salem which was built upon it was called the upper city, and 
the part built on Acra, the lower. They were divided by a 
high wall, first erected by David, who resided on Mount Zion. 
Zion is now the site of an English Protestant church. 

Moriah (where it is supposed Abraham was about to offer 
Isaac, when the angel stayed his hand) lay to the east of Acra, 
and was the site of the temple. The valley between it and 



* Dr. Bowring's Report. b Gen. xiv. 8. c Josh. xv. 8. d Psel cxxv. 2. 
26 



302 



GEOGRAPHY — JERUSALEM, 



Acra was nearly filled up, that access to the temple might be- 
more easy. With Zion, Moriah was connected by a bridge 
and terrace. It is now the site of the mosque of Omar. T.o 
the north was the hill Bezetha, which Agrippa joined to the 
city. The whole circumference of the walls was about four 
miles and a half. 

393. The name of the temple is applied in the English Scrip- 
tures not only to the place appointed for Divine worship — • 
the sanctuary and the holy of holies — but to the courts and 
buildings connected with it. The first temple had been 
erected by Solomon. It retained its original splendor only 
thirty-four years, when Shishak, king of Egypt, took it, and 
carried away its treasures. After undergoing repeated pro- 
fanations, it was finally plundered and burned by the Chal- 
dseans under Nebuchadnezzar, B. 0. 584, 2 Kings xxv. 13-15 : 
2 Chron. xxxvi. 17-20. 

The second temple was erected by Zerubbabel, but with 
greatly diminished glory, Ez. iii. 12 ; and was profaned by 
Antiochus Epiphanes, who erected an image of Jupiter on the 
altar of burnt offering, B. C. 163. In this condition it remained 
for three years, when Judas Maccabeus purified and repaired 
it, B. C. 160, 1 Mace. 162. 

About sixteen years before the birth of Christ (i. e., B. 0. 
20), the repairing, or gradual rebuilding of this temple was 
undertaken by Herod the Great. For nine years and a half 
he employed 18,000 workmen upon it, and spared no expense 
to render it equal in magnitude and splendor to the original 
structure. After his death, the Jews continued to ornament 
and enlarge it ; so that, at the beginning of the ministry of 
our Lord it was still unfinished, though forty-six years had 
elapsed since Herod had collected his materials and com- 
menced the work, John ii. 20. The Avhole pile was constructed 
of hard white stones, of very great size, and was surrounded 
by a wall of very great height. When Titus took Jerusalem, 
he wished to preserve the temple ; but his most strenuous 
efforts were unsuccessful, and the whole was destroyed by fire 



GEOGRAPHY — JERUSALEM. 



303 



on the same day, and in the same month, in which the first 
temple had been burned by Nebuchadnezzar, 15 Lois (August), 
A. D. 73. It contained no ark or mercy-seat — no shekinah — 
no sacred fire, first kindled from heaven, nor Urim and Tkum- 
mim — no prophetic spirit, as did the first temple — but it had 
been rendered "more glorious" through the presence and 
teaching of Him who was the Desire of all nations (Hag. ii. 9). 

But let us enter within these stupendous walls by one of 
the eastern gates, " the gate Beautiful." We are now in the 
outer court, the court of the Gentiles, and can walk around ; 
each side is 250 yards long. Here is a market ; salt, incense, 
and cattle — all used in sacrifice — are here on sale. Here also 
are the money-changers ; and here, or perhaps within one of 
the next inclosures, is the treasury. 

Before us, but raised a few feet, and separated by a low wall 
or partition, is the court of the women. On these pillars, which 
run along the whole of the wall, we may read inscriptions, 
warning Gentiles and unclean persons not to enter on pain of 
death. See Eph. ii. 13-14. 

An ascent of fifteen steps leads us into the inner, or men's 
court ; and in these two courts, called collectively the court 
of the Israelites, the people prayed, while the priest was offer- 
ing incense within the sanctuary, Luke i. 10. In the corners 
of this square are rooms appropriated for the purification of 
lepers and for the use of Nazarites. 

"Within the court of the Israelites is the court of the priests, 
who only are permitted to enter it. A flight of twelve steps 
leads into the temple itself. In entering, we pass through the 
portico, where are suspended the votive offerings of devout 
worshippers : see Luke xxi. 5. Here also are the rooms where 
the Sanhedrim used to assemble, till the frequent occurrence 
of violence rendered it necessary for them to hold their meet- 
ings in the outer inclosure. 

From this porch we enter the sanctuary, or holy place, and 
still in front of us is the holy of holies, concealed by a double 
veil, which, at the crucifixion of our Lord, was rent in two, 



3U4 



GEO GrR APHY — JER US ALEM . 



to indicate that the way into the holiest was made manifest 
and accessible to all by the one Mediator, J esus Christ, Heb. 
x, 19-22. The holy of holies was twenty cubits square (from 
thirty to forty feet), and was entered but once a year, on the 
great day of atonement, Lev. xvi. 2, 15, 34 : Heb. ix. 2—7. 

Here, on the destruction of Jerusalem, Titus found the golden 
candlestick, the table of skew-bread, and the sacred trumpets, 
which had been used to proclaim the year of jubilee. The 
arch of Titus has preserved the images of these relics, and it 
is still among the evidences of the truth of the Bible. 

But let us leave the temple. Here at the north-east corner 
_ _ was the sheep-market, and adjoining was the Pool 

The Sheep- 1 ' Jo 

market, etc. f Bethesda. At the market the sheep were sold 
for the temple-service, and in the pool they were washed be- 
fore being delivered to the priests. 

At the north-west corner of the temple wall was a strong 
fortress, built by Herod the Great, called Antonia, It was 
connected by a flight of steps with the temple-courts, and 
was guarded by a Boman garrison. It was from this place 
that the tribune with his soldiers ran to quell the tumult, 
which the Jews raised in consequence of Paul having (as they 
supposed) taken Trophimus within the sacred precinct of the 
temple. Here it is probable that Pilate resided, whenever 
he came from Csesarea to Jerusalem. This fortress was there- 
fore the Praetormm where the supreme judge held his court 
of justice, John xviii. 28, 33 ; xix. 9 : Matt, xxvii. 27, orig. 
Before the Pra3torium was a raised pavement, called Gabbatha, 
and on it stood the tribunal, or seat of judgment. This pave- 
ment was constructed that the Jews might have their causes 
decided without entering the Prsetoriurn, and thus becoming 
defiled. When Pilate examined Jesus apart from the Jews, 
he was within the Prsetorium : when in their presence it was 
on the raised pavement. There Pilate condemned him. In 
the Prsetorium the soldiers mocked him, Matt. xv. 16. Pro- 
bably to produce compassion in the minds of the Jews, Pilate 
again brought him to the pavement, and when Jesus was 



GEOGRAPHY — JERUSALEM. 



305 



finally delivered to them, lie was conducted through the gate 
of justice (west of the temple) to Calvary, which was just 
without the walls, and there they crucified him. 

394. On the night of our Lord's betrayal, he seems to have 
been taken from Gethsemane, to the house of Annas (on Acra), 
thence to the house of Caiaphas, on Mount Zion, thence to 
the Praetorium, thence to the palace of Herod, in Bezetha, 
thence again to the Prsetorium, and then lastly to Calvary. 

395. To the east of Jerusalem lay the Mount of Olives, with, 
the valley of the Brook Kedron between them. This valley 
has been for more than 3.000 years, and is to the present day, 
used as a burial-place. This is called in the Old Testament, 
the valley of Jehoshaphat, Joel iii. 2. 

396. Southward was the valley of Hinnom (Gehenna), where 
the Jews had once worshipped Moloch, and offered to it in 
sacrifice their own children. "When Josiah recalled them to 
the worship of the true God, the valley was made the recep- 
tacle for the filth of the city, and for the bodies of criminals 
who had been executed, 2 Kings xxiii. 10 : 2 Chron. xxviii. 3. 
To consume these substances, fires were kept continually burn- 
ing, and hence the place was used as an emblem of future 
punishment, Matt. v. 22. On the south declivity of the val- 
ley, lay the Potter's-field, afterwards called, from the circum- 
stances of its purchase, the field of blood. 

397. At the destruction of Jerusalem, more than a million 
of the Jews perished, and 97,000 were taken priso- 
ners. About sixty years afterwards, the Jews who iiisto^of 
had begun to gather around their ancient home, 

were all banished, their return prohibited on pain of death, 
and the nte of the temple ploughed up. Several hundred 
years afterwards, the city was again rebuilt. In 614 the Per- 
sians captured it, and 90,000 Christians were slain. In 637 it 
was taken by the Saracens, who kept it till 1079, when the 
Turks became its masters. It is still a large city, with about 
20,000 inhabitants, but trodden down of the Gentiles, a "'by- 
word and a reproach." 
26* 



306 



GEOGRAPHY — JERUSALEM. 



After the capture of J erusalem by Titus, many of the Jew^ 
removed to Tiberias, which was long the chief seat of theii 
literature and worship. 

398. A knowledge of geography will often explain a id 
reconcile the statements of the Bible, show the beauty and 
truthfulness of particular passages, and bring out the sense 
which might otherwise remain concealed. 

Asia, for example, means in the New Testament, a small part 
of Asia Minor, of which Ephesus was the capital : hence when the 
apostle was forbidden to go into Asia, he felt himself free to go to 
Bithynia, one of the provinces of Asia Minor, Acts ii. 9 : 1 Cor. xvi. 19: 
Rev. i. 4. 

The word "sea," is often applied in Scripture to great rivers. The 
Nile is so called, Nah. iii. 8. The description applies to No-Ammon, or 
Thebes, the ancient capital of Egypt, built on both sides of the Nile, 
and 300 miles from the Mediterranean ; see also Isa. xxvii. 1 : Jer. li. 36. 
Euphrates is so called, Isa. xix. 5. The Nile is still called by this name, 
el Bahr (the sea), Robinson's Researches, i. 542. The word "coasts," 
means borders or districts, Matt. ii. 16 ; xv. 21. 

In the time of our Lord the Jews called all civilized nations, except 
themselves, Greeks, Acts. xix. 10; xx. 21- Rom. i. 16; ii. 9, 10; x. 12; 
as the Greeks called all except themselves, Barbarians. Hence the woman 
whom Matthew calls a Ganaanite is called by Mark a Greek, and a Syro- 
Phcenician, Matt xv. 22 . Mark vii. 26; the word " Syro" being intended 
probably to guard Roman readers (for whom his Gospel was designed) 
against supposing that she belonged to Carthage, a " Phoenician city." 

The word " Grecian" or "Hellenist," however, refers to Jews who 
for the most part resided out of Judsea, and used the Grecian language 
and manners, Acts vi. 1 ; ix. 29 • xi. 20. 

The expression in John iv. 4, " he must needs go through Samaria," 
has sometimes been taken to imply that the "needs-be" was founded 
upon the Divine purpose. The fact is, that Samaria lay between Judaea 
and Galilee, and the direct road to Jerusalem led through that country. 

That the Gadarenee kept swine, has been regarded as a violation of 
the Jewish law, and on that account it is supposed our Lord allowed 
the demons to enter into the herd : Josephus states, however, that 
Gadara was a Greek city, and that it had been only recently annexed 
to Galilee, Luke viii. 37. 

On comparing Luke xxiv. 50, with Acts i. 12, it seems that our Lord 
led his disciples as far as Bethany, and yet he ascended from the Mount 
of Olives. In fact, the Mount of Olives has on the side of it, next to 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 



307 



Jerusalem, the garden of Gethsemane, and on the other side, the village 
of Bethany. The top of the Mount overlooks them both, and the two 
passages are quite consistent. 

In Isa. xxviii. 1, Samaria is called "the crown of pride," and her 
glory is compared to the fading flower of the drunk ard. The custom 
referred to in this passage (and which is mentioned in Wisd. ii. 7, 8), is 
that of wearing chaplets in seasons of festivity. Samaria, moreover, 
was built on the top of a round hill, and the fact suggested the appro- 
priate image of a wreath of flowers bound around the head of the 
drunkard. 

The chief city of Edom is described, with equal truth, as dwelling 
in the clefts of the rock, and holding the height of the hill, Obad iii. : 
a most accurate descrption of the wondrous city of Petra, whose ruins 
were discovered by Burckhardt, in 1811, and have been recently visited 
by Dr. Wilson. 

399. In using a modern atlas of Palestine, giving Arabic 

names, the following table will be of use : 

Mesjed — mosk, temple. 
Mukam — tomb of a 
Jebel, jebal — moun- saint. 

tain, s. 
Jisr — bridge. 
Kabr — tomb. 
Khan — inn. 
Khulat ^ 

castle. 



Nahr — river. 
Nukb — pass. 
Eas — cape, or head. 
Tel— hill. 



Wady | — valley, c 



Wely 



water-course. 



Ain, ayun — fountain. s.,Hajr — great stone 
Arabah — plain, or des-'Hummaun — bath. 

ert. Jebel, jebal — moun- 

Bahr — sea, or 
Beit — house. 
Bir — well. 
Burg — castle. 
Deir — convent, 

El, en, er, etc. — the. Kusr J>- 
Ghor — valley between J Kasr J 

two mountains. 'Merj — meadow. 

400. Under physical geography are included climate, 
weather, seasons, etc. ; and a knowledge of these will often 
throw light on Scripture. 

401. The heat of the climate of Judaea in summer is intense, 
and frequently proves fatal. Near Mount Tabor, 
many soldiers from the army of Baldwin IY. died 
from this cause, and at the very place (Shunem) where the 
child died in the days of Elisha, 2 Kings vi. 18-20. How 
impressive the figure of the prophet when speaking of the 
Saviour, " He shall be as the shadow of a great rock in a 
weary land," Isa. xxxii. 2. 

During the summer there was no rain in Palestine ; but in 
the evening the dew fell heavily and suddenly, often Rain- 
wetting the incautious traveller to the skin. It was as suddenly 



Heat. 



308 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 



dried up on the following morning. Compare with this fact the M 
lowing passages, Psa. cxxxiii. 3 : Hos. vi. 4 ; xiv. 5 : 2 Sam. xvii. 12. 
Philo tells us that there are no rains in Egypt ; and it is 
certain that rain in that country is exceedingly rare.* 

No ram _ J . 

in Egypt. Hence the evidence of the miracle of rain mentioned 
in Exod. ix. 18-26, and the hardness of heart displayed by 
Pharoah in resisting the message of Moses. 

Eain is generally preceded by a squall of wind. Compare 
2 Kings hi. 16, 17, and Prov. xxv. 14. 

The east wind of Palestine is very hurtful to vegetation. 
In winter it is dry and cold, and in summer dry and 

"Winds. 

hot. It carries off the moisture of the leaves too ra- 
pidly, and withers them. b When it sweeps over the Mediterra- 
nean it is peculiarly dangerous. It was this wind — Eurocly- 
don, or a Levanter, as modern sailors call it — which proved so 
fatal to the " Castor and Pollux. " d The west wind brought show- 
ers, and, after a long drought, heavy rain. 8 The north wind was 
cold and drying/ The south wind brought heat g and whirlwinds. 

These whirlwinds are sometimes used in Scripture to illus- 
trate the power of God in the punishment of the wicked, and 
the suddenness with which it overtakes them. h Mr. Bruce, in 
his travels to discover the source of the Nile, was suddenly 
caught by a whirlwind, which lifted up a camel, and threw it 
to a considerable distance. It also threw himself and his ser- 
vants down on their faces, so as to make the blood gush from 
their nostrils. Sometimes, Maillet informs us, whole caravans 
have been buried under the sand with which these winds are 

charged. When connected with the hot, pestilential 
' simoom, they are peculiarly fatal. Thevenot men- 
tions the suffocation from this cause of 4,000 persons in 1655, 
and of nearly 20,000 in 1688. Compare Isa. xvii. 13 : Hos. 
xiii. 3 : Isa. xxxii. 2 : Matt. vii. 27 : Prov. xxix. 1. 
Harmer's Observations, i. 164. 

a Zech. xiv. 18. b Gen. xii. 6: Ezek. xvii. 10; xix. 2: Hos. xiii. 15. 
c Psa. xlviii. 7. d Acts xxvii. 14. e Luke xii. 54 : 1 Kings xviii. 44, 45. 
f Prov. xxv. 23 : Job xxxvii. 9, 22. & Luke xii. 55 : Zech. ix. 14. 
* Prov. i. 27; x. 25. 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY — SEASONS, ETC. 



309 



The value of wells in the East can be fully appreciated only 
by those who know the scarcity of water in the sum- 

. Wells. 

mer season. These wells were a source of strife be- 
tween Abimelech and Isaac, Gen. xxvi. ; and Moses commemo- 
rates God's bounty in giving the Israelites wells which they 
digged not, Deut. vi. 11. Travellers crossing the deserts some- 
times go as much as 80 miles without water. The wells, too, are 
often very deep, many of them 160 feet, and then filled only with 
rain-water. In going to Jerusalem, the devout Israelites 
went from strength to strength, the rain filling the pools, 
Psa. lxxxiv: see also Gen. xxiv. 16. The comparison of false 
teachers to wells without water is thus seen to be peculiarly just; 
bitterly disappointing the hopes of their hearers, 2 Pet. ii. 17. 
The mirage, or glowing watery appearance of distant sand, is 
also a figure expressive of disappointment. Camels and travel- 
lers are both deceived, and when they reach what seemed a sheet 
of water they find burning dust. See Jer. xv. 18, marg. 

Between the days and nights of Europe, there is no very great 
difference as to the qualities of heat and cold. In Frosty 
the East it is quite otherwise. In the height of sum- nights, 
mer the nights are often as cold as at Paris in the month of 
March, and the days scorchingly hot. Compare Gen. xxxi. 40, 
and Jer. xxxvi. 30 : Isa. xlix. 10 : Rev. vii. 16. 

Sir J. Chardin, Harmer i. 182. 

402. It is instructive to notice that the Scriptures always 
represent the weather, whose laws are apparently the most 
difficult to ascertain, as under the control and superintend- 
ence of the Creator, Matt. v. 45 : Acts xiv. 17 : Jer. v. 24 : 
Psa. cxlvii. 16-18 : Nahum i. 5, 6. 

Harmer's Observations will be found a rich store-house of illustrations 
on the physical geography of Palestine. Recent travellers, and especially 
Dr. Robinson, Dr.Kitto, and Dr. John Wilson, have largely added to our 
knowledge. 

403. Combining the mode of reckoning common among the 
Jews with the facts of physical geography, and the seasons 
fixed for the various annual feasts, we obtain a table of much 
interest and value. 



310 



CALENDAR OF THE JEWS, 



The first month of the sacred year was the one whose full moon 
answered to March and sometimes to 



Month of 


Name. 


Answering 

to the 
Months of 


Festivals and Lessons. 


Sacred 
Year. 


Civil 
Year. 

7th 


1st 


Abib, or Nisan (30 
days), Exod. xii. 2: 
Ezra vii. 9 : Neh. ii. 
1: Esther iii. 7. 


Parts of 
Mar. and 
April. 


3. Lev. vi. : Jer. vii. 21. 
14. Paschal lamb slain. The Pas- 
sover. 

16. The first-fruits of the barley 
harvest presented. 

21. End of the Passover and un- 
leavened bread. 


2d 


8th 


Tyar, or Zif (29 days), 
1 Kings vi. 1. 


Parts of 
Apr. and 
May. 


11. Lev. xvi. 1 : Ez. xxii. 

14. The second Passover (Numb, 
ix. 10, 11), for such as could 
not celebrate the first. 


3d 


9th 


Sisan, or Siuvan (30 
days), Esther viii. 9. 


Parts of 
May and 
June. 


6. Pentecost, or feast of weeks. 
First-fruits of wheat-harvest 
(Lev. xxiii. 17, 20), and first- 
fruits of all the ground, Deut. 
xxvi. 2; x. 16: 1 Kings xii. 
25-33. 
10. Numb, i.; Hos. i. 


4th 


10th 


Thammuz (29 days). 


Pts. of June 
and July. 


3. Numb, xiii.l: Josh. ii. 
26. Numb. xxii. 2 : Mic. v. 7. 


5th 


11th 


Ab (30 days), Ezra 
vii. 9. 


Pts. of July 
and Aug. 


3. Numb. xxx. 2 : Jer. i. 
20. Deut. i.: Isa. i. 


6th 


12th 


Elu'l (29 days), Neh. 
vi. 15. 


Pts. of Aug. 
and Sept. 


3. Deut. vii. 12 : Isa. xlix.14. 
20. Deut. xvi. 18 : Iga. Ii. 12. 


7th 


1st 


Tisri, or Ethanim (30 
days) 1 Kings viii. 2. 


Parts of 
Sept. and 
Oct. 


1. Feast of trumpets. Lev. xxiii. 

24 : Numb. xxix. 1. 
10. Dav of atonement, Lev. xxiii. 
27^ 28. 

15. Feast of tabernacles, or of the 
in-gatherings, Ex. xxiii. 16: 
Lev. xxiii. 34. First-fruits of 
wine and oil, Lev. xxiii. 39. 

21. Gen. i.: Isa.xlii. 5. 


8th 


2d 


Marehesvan, or Bui 
(29 ds.)l Kings vi.3S 


Pts. of Oct. 
and Nov. 


8. Gen. xxiii. i. : 1 Sam. i. 1. 


9th 


3d 


Chdsleu (30 days). 
Zech. vii. 1: Neh. i. 
1. 


Parts of 
Nov. and 
Dec. 


10. Gen. xxxvii. i. : Amos ii. 6. 
25. Feast of the dedication,l Mac. 
iv. 52-59: John x.22, 23. 


10th 


4th 


Thebeth (29 days). 
Esther ii. 16. 


1 fXx US \J1 

Dec. and 
Jan. 


9ft ThIyaH y 1 • Tpr vlvi 1^ 


11th 


5th 


Shevet,orShebat(30 
days), Zech. i. 7. 


Parts of 
Jan. and 
Feb. 


17. Exod. xxi. 1 : Jer. xxxiv. -s. 


12th 


6th | Adar (29 days), Ezra 
| vi. 15. 

' VeAdar. or 2d Adar 


Parts of 
Feb. and 
Mar. 


1. Ex. xxxviii.2l:lSam.xvii.l3. 
14, 15. Feast of Purim. 
25. Lev.i. 1: Isa. xliii. 21. 



SHOWING THE SEASONS OF THE YEAR, ETC. 81.1 



lonowe-i next fitter the vernal equinox, and tnereiore sometimes 
April, and sometimes to parts of both. 



Seasons and Weather. 

i 


Productions. 




The latter rain begins to fall, Deut. xi. 14 : Zech. 
x. 1. 

The weather during: the rains chilly, Ezra x. 9 : 




1 




V 

Harvest 
begins. 


.jvjiia xv in. ±<>. 

This rain prepares the corn for harvest. 
Great heat especially in the plains. 
The rivers swell from the rains, Josh. iii. 15 : 
x vjiiron. ah. 16 : jki. Ad i. 


Barley ripe at Jericho; wheat 
partly in ear: fig-tree blos- 
soms: winter-fig still on the 
*™f Mat vxi.li): Mar.xi.23. 




The latter rains still frequent. 
These rains often preceded by whirlwinds, 
I ilings xv iii. -iO, alt. viii. 2-1. 


Barley gener'lly three weeks 
earli'r than wheat. Barl'y ge- 
n pr al 1 v o. n 1 1 h i s m onjh . Ru t h 
i. 22. Wheat begins to ripen. 


9 imm'r 
segins. 


Excessive drought. From April to Sept. no rain 
or thunder, 1 Sam. xu. 17 : Prov. xxvi. 1. 
The morning cloud seen early, but soon disap- 
> pears, Hos. vi. 4; xiii. 3. 
Copious dews at night. Jobxxix.9: Psa.cxxxiii.3. 
North and East winds increase drought, Gen. 
xli. 6- Jer. iv. 8. 


Wheat ripening on the hills 
in June ; in the vallevs, early 
in May. 

Grass in some places a yard 
high, John vi. 10. 




Heat increases. 


Early vintage, Lev. xxvi. 5. 
Rice and early figs ripen. 


Hot 
season. 


Heat intense ; country apparently burned up. 
Lebanon nearly free from snow. 


Ripe figs at Jerusalem; olives 
at Jericho ; grapes ripening. 




Heat still intense, 2 Kings iv. 19, 20 : Psa. exxi. 6 : 
Isa. xlix. 9, 10: Rev. vii. 16. 


Grape harvest general. 


Seed- 
time 

ucgma. 


neat in tne day: nignts frosty, txeii. xxxi. *v. 
Showers frequent; the former, or early rain. 
"Ploughing and sowing begin. 






Sometimes the early rain begins now. 
Wheat and barley sown. 


The latter grapes gathered. 


Winter 
begins. 


'Trees lose their foliage. 

Snow begins to fall on the mountains, Jos. xxxvi. 
1 22. 






On the mountains the cold is severe. 
Hail; snow, Josh x. 11 : Psa. xlvii. 16,17. 
Weather warm at intervals. Ezra xxxiii. 30. 31. 


Grass and herbs spring up 
after the rains. 


Co d 
season. 


Corn still sown. 

At the beginning of the cold season the weathei 
cold, but gradually becomes warm. 


The winter-fig found on the 
trees, though they are 
stripped of their leaves. 


— k 


Thunder and hail frequent 
Barley sometimes sown. 


The almond-tree blossoms. 



812 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY — UTILITY. 



404. The perusal of this table will suggest one or Wo obvi- 
ous analogies. The summer and winter in Palestine coincide 
with the same seasons in England ; as does the time of greatest 
heat, July and August, and of greatest cold, January. Seed 
time is in our autumn ; and harvest begins in our spring, and 
extends through the early summer. 

The rainy seasons in Palestine begin about the Equinoxes; 
the rain in our autumn is the early or seed rain ; the rain in 
our spring is the latter or harvest rain. The one quickens 
the seed, the other fills the ear. The rains generally come 
from the west (Luke xii. 54), driven up from the Mediterra- 
nean Sea. During harvest and summer, rain is most unusual, 
a fact which explains the surprise of the people as described 
in 1 Sam. xii. 17. 

The Israelites crossed the Jordan in April, when the river 
was swollen with the winter rains, and hence the necessity for 
the miracle recorded in Josh. iii. 

In Scripture, dates are often fixed by a reference to the sea- 
sons or productions, 2 Sam. xxi. 9: Numb. xiii. 20; or by a 
reference to the feasts, John x. 22. 

The fact recorded in Luke iv. 17, has been thought to fix 
the time of our Lord's visit to the synagogue at Nazareth. 
The reading of the Law was completed in the fifty-two Sab- 
baths of each year, and was begun in Tisri (or Sept.), a cus- 
tom founded on Neh. viii. 2 ; and Deut. xxxi. 10, 11. Gen. 
i.-vi. was read at the feast of tabernacles ; and on the Sab- 
bath before, Deut. xxix. 10, with Isa. lxi. 1 ; lxiii. 10. This 
reckoning, which is Lamy's, fixes the visit on the 14th Tisri. 
The time seems fixed by the context, however, nearer to Pen- 
tecost, and the phraseology of Luke rather intimates that 
Christ had chosen the passage, than that he found it in the 
general order of reading. Lamy has given all the lessons 
(App. Bibl. Bk. i., chap. v). The preceding Table gives the 
commencement of a few only. 

The zeal of the people mentioned in 2 Chron. xxx. 23, be- 



INTERPRETATION OF ALLEGORIES. 



813 



comes more obvious, when it is remembered that they kept 
the feast other seven days, in the midst of the harvest. 

Important lessons are often suggested by an accurate know- 
ledge of such facts as this table contains. Our Lord, for 
example, was crucified on the day when the paschal lamb was 
offered, and rose on the day when the first fruits of the early 
harvest were presented, "the first fruits of them that slept." 
The Spirit was poured out at Pentecost, when the first fruits 
of the ground were presented at the temple : and on that 
da} 7 " 3,000 persons, " out of every nation under heaven," were 
added to the church, Acts ii. 5, 41. The feast of tabernacles 
(when thanks were offered for the ingathering of all the fruits 
of the land), is yet to come. 

The language of our Lord (Matt, xxiii. 27, 29), comparing 
the Pharisees to whited sepulchres, becomes clearer from the 
fact, that it was spoken just before the Passover, and after 
the winter rains, when the Jews were busy whitewashing the 
burial-places near Jerusalem, and preparing for the feast. 

Sec. 7. — On the Application of these Eules to the 
Interpretation of the Allegories, Parables, Types 
and Symbols of Scripture. 

" The Scriptures being written to the thoughts of men, and to the 
succession of all ages .... are not to he interpreted only according 
to the latitude of the proper sense of the place, and respectively towards 
that present occasion whereupon the words were uttered .... but 
have in themselves, both distributively and collectively, infinite 
springs and streams of doctrine to water the church in every part 

not that I wish men to be bold in allegories .... but that I 

do much condemn that interpretation of the Scripture, which is only 
after the manner men use to interpret a profane book." — Bacon; Ad- 
vancement of Learning. 

" Our Lord might have uttered the common places of morality, but 
he teaches by parables, because he knew that they would more con- 
stantly inhabit both the memory and the judgment." — Sir P. Sydney. 

" Manifeste dicta absolvent parabolas." — Irenceus, lib. ii. c. 47. 

405. We have been engaged thus far in collecting the sense 
of Scripture, and in order to ascertain that sense, it has only 
been necessary to find the meaning of the words. There are 
27 

✓ 



314 ALLEGORICAL AND FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 



some parts of the Bible, however, where we need an addi- 
tional kind of interpretation. Hitherto the meaning of the 
words has been regarded as the Bible. In the passage to 
which we are about to refer, however, there is a further 
meaning called the allegorical or spiritual. To this class 
belong the allegories and parables, types, typical actions, and 
symbols of the sacred volume, and as they agree in the prin- 
ciples of interpretation applicable to them all, we class them 
under one name as allegories. 

Fi uresand 406. They differ from the figures of Scripture in 
Parables. several particulars. 

First, They present to our view only the less important meaning they 
are intended to convey, the moral or spiritual one being for a time 
concealed ; while in figures, the secondary or important meaning is 
generally the prominent one. When it is said, for example, that the Son 
of Man is the sower, we use a figure, and the meaning -of the word 
" sower" is fixed by its place in the sentence. But when we say, " A 
sower went forth to sow,' we express but one meaning, though there is 
an ultimate meaning in view which is not expressed. 

Secondly, Figures always represent one thing as another thing, and 
the meaning is at once fixed by excluding the points in which they 
■differ and combining those only in which they agree. In the case of 
allegories or parables, it is never said that one thing is another, though 
this may be said when the parable is explained. 

Thirdly, In figures there is but one meaning consistent with the 
context and scope : in the allegory and parable there are two, the 
verbal and the allegorical ; the verbal being the explanation of the 
words, and the allegorical, of the thing or things signified by them. 

407. It must be remembered, that in an allegory or type, 
we are not to expect an agreement between the verbal sense 
and the allegorical meaning in all points. The allegory, so far, 
is like a figure of speech. In the latter, it is enough if the 
two things compared touch the one point, and in the former, 
things must not be expected to touch in all. At the same 
time, the allegory so far differs from the figure, that it gene- 
rally touches in more than one. It is in its very nature a 
continued comparison, and an expositor may safely proceed 



ALLEGORIES — THE SCOPE. 



315 



on the presumption that there is contact in most points ; nor 
need he desist from his comparison till the resemblance refuses 
to appear, unless it be forced, or till it is evident that the cir- 
cumstances under consideration is added only to give beauty 
or energy to the narrative. 

408. The occasions on which it is proper to use an allego- 
rical representation are numerous. It tests a teach- Parables 
able disposition (Matt. xiii. 13). It is peculiarly when used, 
useful in giving a figurative exhibition of truth, before it is 
intended to reveal it clearly. It often serves this purpose in 
the Old Testament, and in the book of Eevelation. It is 
useful in gaining a man's judgment against himself, as in the 
case of David, and as in many of the parables ; and even 
when there is no need of concealment, it often attracts the 
attention of men who might otherwise remain indifferent. 

409. All the rules of allegorical interpretation take as 
granted, that the verbal interpretation of the pas- ' ^ 
sage has been completed, and that if the allegory words to be 
be a type or symbol, we have ascertained precisely 

what the action or symbol is, whose allegorical meaning we 
are about to investigate. Till this be done, no step can be 
taken in the real interpretation : we must first know what the 
thing is, before we can know what it is intended to represent. 

410. (1.) The first rule of interpretation is : ascertain what 
is the scope, either by reference to the context, or to Firstrule . 
parallel passages ; and seize the one truth which the scope, 
the type or parable is intended to set forth, distinguishing it 
from all the other truths which border upon it, and let the 
parts of the parable which are explained, be explained in 
harmony with this one truth. 

In the case of allegories the scope is generally told us, as in Psa. 
Ixxx ; the whole being explained in verse 17, where the man of God's 
right hand is introduced in such a way as directs us to Israel as the 
Vine. Sometimes, however, we have to look to other parts of the 
Bible. 

The entire book of Canticles is an extended allegory, and under this 



316 



ALLEGORIES— SUBORDINATE TRUTHS. 



form is shadowed forth, the spiritual affection between Christ and hig 
church. To explain the book, we have recourse to other places, where 
the relation between God and his church is described under a similar 
representation. So also Isa. v. 1-7 : Ezek. xv. 19, 10, 14 ; xix. 1-9 ; 
xxiii. ; xxxi. 3-17. 

In the parables, the scope is generally told us in the context ; some- 
times by our Lord himself (Matt. xxii. 14), sometimes by the inspired 
narrator in his own words (Luke xviii. 1). 

Sometimes it is set forth at the commencement of the parable (Luke 
xviii. 9; xix. 11); sometimes at the close (Matt. xxv. 13 ; Luke xvi. 
9) ; sometimes at both, as in Matt, xviii. 23 ; see verses 21 and 35. 
So again in Matt. xx. 1-16: Luke xii. 15-21. 

Sometimes, though rarely, we need to turn to a parallel passage; as, 
for the full interpretation of Luke xv. 3, we turn to Matt, xviii. 
12, etc. 

When from none of these circumstances the scope can be gathered, 
we must then have recourse to the occasion or the subject of the para- 
ble itself. The meaning of the parable of the barren fig-tree (Luke 
xiii. 6, 9), and the prodigal son, is gathered in this way. The progress 
of the parables, and the study of the circumstances under which they 
were spoken, will clearly show the design of our Lord in uttering 
them. 

411. In the case of a type, it is important to remember that 
Scope of ^ ne SC0 P e or intention of God in instituting it can 
types. be gathered only from the Bible. Sometimes from 
the Old Testament, as in the case of Moses, Deut. xviii. 15, 
frequently only from the New, as in John iii. 14 ; vi. 32 ; 
1 Oor. v. 7, 8 : Matt. xii. 40, etc. The principle laid down in 
the Epistle to the Hebrews, is that the whole of the previous 
dispensation was typical — a shadow of things to come. In 
applying this principle, the rules found below must be care- 
fully observed. 

Views in- 412. Any interpretation of a parable or allegory 
w^th\he nt that is inconsistent with the great truth, which it 
rejected. 136 ^ s tnus seen to involve, must be rejected. 

The parable of the good Samaritan, for example, has been supposed 
to refer to our Lord ; the wounded traveller, to our sinful race ; the 
priest and Levite, to the moral and Levitical law ; the inn, to the 



ALLEGORIES — SUBORDINATE TRUTHS. 



317 



church : an interpretation entirely inconsistent with our Saviour's 
designs. It is enough, therefore, that the truths which we suppose to 
be contained in the allegories and types of Scripture are Scriptural; 
they must be evidently shown to be involved in the purpose of God in 
instituting the one, and of inspired teachers in speaking of the other. 

This remark is applicable to all parts of the parables, and it may be 
reversed. We have the right interpretation when all the main circum- 
stances are explained. If any important member of the narrative is 
rendered by our interpretation nugatory, or is paralysed, the inter-!, 
pretation is false ; and when we have a true interpretation of the whole, 1 
that interpretation of any part is to be rejected which does not con- 
duce to the consistency and force of the whole. In interpreting the 
parable of the prodigal son, for example, some expositors have de- 
scended to details which are quite inconsistent with the obvious scope 
and force of the narrative. The alienation of the prodigal from all 
home affections — his resolution to seek happiness where God is not — 
the fearful change in his position, and his consciousness of that change 
~^his attempt to repair his broken fortunes — his bitter disappointment 
and wants — the resolve to return — the father's love and welcome — the 
festal rejoicing which his return created — the discontent and grudging 
spirit of the elder brother — the father's noble remonstrance— all illus- 
trate the great truth of the passage, that God welcomes the return of 
the vilest of his children, and all are important. To deny, as some 
have done, that the prodigal's desertion of his home has any reference 
to man's apostasy, weakens the parable- and to teach that the ring is 
the everlasting love of God, or the seal of the Spirit — that the sinner 
is called the younger son, because man as a sinner is younger than 
man as righteous — that the citizen to whom he went was a legal 
preacher — that the swine were self righteous persons — that the huska 
were works of righteousness — that the fatted calf was Christ — that 
the shoes were means of upright conversation, the doctrines and pre- 
cepts of the Scripture — that the music which the elder brother heard 
was the preaching of tne Gospel — is to call our attention from the 
great lesson of the parable to doctrines which the disciples could not 
have found in the parable itself. By turning the most delicate touches 
into important Scriptural truths, the great design of the whole is 
obscured, and we learn to bring a meaning into the passage, and not 
out of it ; a habit which we are likely to employ with more serious 
mischief in other places. 



413. But while everything that is explained, must be ex- 
27* 



318 



ALLEGORIES — OTHER RULES. 



plained with reference to the writer's scope, it is an 

How far de- 1 . 

tails to be important question, now far the details of the para- 
bles and allegories of Scripture have a reference to 
corresponding facts, in the application of them. From the 
inspired interpretation of parables given us in Scripture, we 
may gather that we are to avoid both the extreme of sup- 
posing that only the design of the whole should be regarded, 
and the extreme of insisting upon every clause as having a 
double meaning. 

In the parables of the sower and the tares, for example, which our 
Lord himself interpreted, the moral application descends to the minu- 
test particulars of the narrative; the birds, and thorns, and stony 
ground, have all their meaning : and, as Tholuck has remarked, it may 
be said generally that the similitude is perfect, in proportion as it ie on 
all sides rich in applications. Even in these parables, however, not all 
*he circumstances are explained. "While men slept," in the parable 
of the tares (Matt. xiii. 25), and the phrase, " I cannot dig," and " to 
beg I am ashamed," in the parable of the unjust steward, have neither 
of them any application in the explanation which our Lord himself 
gave So in the longest allegory in Scripture — the book of Canticles — 
the description given of the bride is probably no more than an expres- 
sion of the love and complacency of Jehovah towards his chosen. 

The two following rules, in addition to the one just given 
as to the scope of the parable, will be sufficient to guard us 
in the interpretation both of the parables and allegories of 
Scripture. 

414. (2.) Even of doctrines consistent with the design of 
d j the parable or type, no conclusion must be gathered 
of interpre- from any part of either of them, which is inconsistent 
with the clearer revelations of Divine truth. 

The high priest, under the law, offered first for his own sin, and then 
for the sins of the people. It does not, therefore, follow that Christ 
partook of our sinful nature; the contrary is the fact; "for in him was 
no sin." So of the paschal lamb ; it was a type of our Lord ; it sha- 
dowed forth his death and person, but not the efficacy of his death, nor 
at all adequately the holiness of his nature. 

If it be attempted to prove from the fact that the rich man in the 



ALLEGORIES — OTHER RULES. 



319 



parable prayed to Abraham, that therefore we are to pray to glorified 
saints, we reject the interpretation as inconsistent with the express state- 
ments of Scripture ; or if, from the parable of the faithful servant, or 
the prodigal son, it be gathered (as by the ancient Pelagians) that God 
pardons us without sacrifice or intercession, on the ground simply of 
our repentance or our prayers, we reject the interpretation as inconsist- 
ent with the whole tenor of the Bible (John viii. 24: Heb. x) Nor 
can we gather from Luke xv 7, that the Pharisees were just men who 
needed no repentance, or from verse 29, that the elder brother had 
never transgressed his father's command ; nor from Luke xvi. 1, that 
dishonesty is m any good sense true wisdom. David was, in his kingly 
character, a type of our Lord ; and also in his family descent, but not 
in his sins 

415. (3.) It is important that neither types nor parables be 
made the first or sole source of Scripture doctrine. 

_ _ . . 1 „ . ... Third rule 

Doctrines otherwise proved may be further illus- of interpret 
trated or confirmed by them, but we are not to 
gather doctrine exclusively or primarily from their represen- 
tations. 



From the parable of the unjust steward, some of the early Scripture 
expositors gathered, without reason, the history of the apostacy of Satan. 
He was said to be the chief among the servants of God, and being driven 
from his place of trust, he drew after him the other angels, whom ho 
tempted with the promise of lighter tasks and easier service. Nor can 
we conclude, from the parable of the ten virgins, that because five were 
wise and five foolish, half of those who mak^ a profession of religion 
will finally be saved and half finally perish. In the parable of the lost 
sheep, one in a hundred only went astray : in that of the lost piece of 
silver, one in ten was lost: neither circumstance can be made the foun- 
dation of a doctrine. 

Both these rules are a modification, as it will be seen, of the 
rule which bids us interpret according to the analogy of faith, 
and to look to passages that are clear for the meaning of those 
that are abstruse. 

416. The interpretation of symbols, and of symbolical 
actions, is regulated by the same principles as the 
interpretation of allegories. A symbolical expres- Symbols - 



820 



PARABLES CLASSIFIED. 



sion is simply a figurative one, founded on analogy or resem- 
blance, and is interpreted on the principles common to the 
interpretation of all figurative language. 
Parabies,etc. 417. The following are the parables and fables of 
Testament, the Old Testament. 

Jotham's: the trees making a king, Judges ix. 7. 

Nathan's : the poor man's ewe lamb, 2 Sam. xii. 1. 

Two brothers striving together, 2 Sam. xiv. 6. 

The prisoner that made his escape, 1 Kings xx. 39 

Micaiah's vision, 1 Kings xxii. 19-23. 

The thistfc and cedar, 2 Kings xiv. 9. 

The vineyard yielding wild grapes, Isa. v. 1, 

The parables in the Gospels will be found enumerated 
chronologically in the introduction to the Gospels. 

418. Neander has classified the parables of our 

Parables of . 

the New Lord with reference to the truths taught in them, 

Testament. . ■ . , 

and their connection with his kingdom. 

Parables on the progress of the kingdom of Christ : 

1. The sower, Matt, xiii, 3 : Mark iv. 3 : Luke viii. 5. 

2. The tares, Matt. xiii. 24. 

3. The mustard-seed, Matt. xiii. 31 : Mark iv. 31 : Luke xiii. 

18, 19. 

4. The leaven, Matt. xiii. 33 : Luke xiii. 20, 21. 

5. The net, Matt. xiii. 47. 

Moral requisites for entering the kingdom of Christ. 
Anti-pharisaic parables, or negative requisites. 

6. The lost sheep, Matt, xviii. 12 : Luke xv. 4. 

7. The lost piece of money, Luke xv. 10. 

8. The prodigal son, Luke xv. 11-32. 

9. The Pharisee and the Publican, Luke xviii. 9-14. 

10. Strife for the first places at feasts, Luke xiv. 7-12. 
Positive requisites. 

11. The two sons, Matt. xxi. 28. 

12. The hidden treasure, Matt. xiii. 44. 

13. The pearl, Matt, xiii. 45, 46. 

14. The tower and the warring king, Luke xiv. 28-33. 

15. The wedding garment, Matt. xxii. 11. 
Call to enter the kingdom of Christ. 



PARABLES CLASSIFIED. 



321 



16. The feast, Luke xiv. 16-24: Matt. xxii. 1-14. 
Activity in the kingdom of Christ. / 

17. The vine, John xv. 1. 

18. The wicked vine-dresser, Matt. xxi. 33-41. 

19. The talents, Matt. xxv. 14-30 : Luke xix. 12-27. 

20. The barren fig-tree, Luke xiii. 6. 

21. Favor independent of works, Matt. xx. 1-16. The laborers. 
The true spirit of the kingdom of Christ. 

Forgiveness. 

22. The good Samaritan, Luke x. 25-37. 

23. The unforgiving servant, Matt xviii. 23 : Luke vii. 41. 
The right use of worldly possessions. 

24. The unjust steward, Luke xvi. 1-23. 

25. The rich man and Lazarus, Luke xvi. 19. 
The Christian spirit under the name of prudence. 

26. The ten virgins, Matt. xxv. 
Prayer. 

27. The importunate widow, Luke xviii. 1. 

28. The friend on his journey, Luke xi. 5-10. 

419. Other authors have adopted a different division. Dr. 
Gray divides them into 

(1.) Such as represent the nature and progress of the Gospel discen- 
sation. 

(2.) Such as represent the rejection of the Jews, and the calling of 
the Gentiles. 

(3.) Such as deliver moral instruction. 

Greswell divides them into the prophetic and moral. 

420. Lisco's division is preferable to either. He regards 
them as of three classes. 

i. Such as represent the heavenly kingdom as containing truths and 
powers Divine in their origin, and blessed in their effects. See prece- 
ding list, 1, 3, 4, 11, 12. 

ii. Such as represent the heavenly kingdom founded on these truths, 
and these are : 

1. Those that respect the church as a whole, 20, 18, 16, 15 (call- 

ing and election differ), 2, 5. 

2. Those that respect the entrance of individuals into the chnrch, 

6 f 7, 8, 14. 



322 ALLEGORICAL INTERPRETATION OF HISTORY. 



iii. Such as represent the heavenly kingdom in the faith, love, and 
hope of its members. In relation — 

1. To Faith and humility, etc., 21, 9, 11, 25, 26. 

2. To love (Luke vii. 41), 23, 22. 

3. To hope, 26, 19. 

These classifications are important, chiefly as showing the 
views of eminent authors on the scope of each parable. Care 
must be taken not to adhere so rigidly to the classification we 
adopt as to miss obvious moral lessons. 

421. The principles which are applicable to the interpre- 
Aiiegoricai ^ a ^ on °f allegories and parables, properly so called, 
tfonofhis" a PPty e( l ua lly to much that is historical in Scrip- 
t01 T- ture. The ancient Jewish people, for example, 
sustained to God the same relation as is now sustained by the 

Christian church and by each Christian. Their 

Foundation _ > J 

of ^ sufferings in Egypt, their deliverance under Moses, 
their wanderings in the desert, their entry into Canaan, pre- 
figure important facts in the history of all Christians. The 
Israelites not only lived under the same authority with us, 
and were governed by an economy of discipline like our own, 
but the facts of their history were typical of the history of 
the church (Rom. ii. 28 : 1 Cor. x. : Heb. iv. : 1 Pet. ii. 10 ■ 
Rev. xv. 5). 

422. It is observable, too, that the relation between the 
Jewish people, and some of the nations that surrounded them, 
is a type of the relation between the Christian church and its 
adversaries : Sodom and Ishmael : Egypt and Babylon, have 
all their representatives in the history of the true Israel (Gal. 
iv. 25 : Rev. xiv. 8). 

423. It may be added, that while in one aspect Israel as the 
son, is the representative of our Lord, eminent characters 
among the Israelites were types of Him ; as Moses among the 
prophets, David and Solomon among the kings ; and hence 
expressions, which were originally true of the type, are applied 
to Christ as the antitype or fulfilment. See Hos. xi. 1, com- 
pared with Matt. ii. 15, etc. 



ALLEGORY — ABUSE. 



323 



424. And as the people, so the rites and worship of the 
Old Testament were typical. The whole dispensation was the 
shadow of good things to come, not the very image or sub- 
stance of them. That substance was Christ (Heb. x. 1). 

Thus it is, that since the beginning of our race, there has 
been a connected series of representations, each embodying 
some truth, and all tending to illustrate the office and work 
of our Lord, or the character and history of his people. 

Jewish history and worship form one grand type. The 
Old Testament (as Augustine long ago remarked), is the New 
veiled, and the New Testament is the Old unveiled. 

425. In the interpretation of all these types, and of history 
in its secondary or spiritual allusions, we use the R U i es . 
same rules as in interpreting parables and allegories 
properly so called : compare the history or type with the 
general truth, which both the type, and the antitype embody; 
expect agreement in several particulars, but not in all, and let 
the interpretation of each part harmonize with the design of 
the whole, and with the clear revelation of Divine doctrine 
given in other parts of the sacred volume. 

426. In applying these rules, it is important to remember 
that the inspired writers never destroyed the his- c 
torical sense of Scripture, to establish the spiritual 

(as some inquirers have done), nor do they find a hidden 
meaning in the words (as do the Jews), but only in the facts 
of each passage ; which meaning is easy, natural, and Scrip- 
tural ; and that they confine themselves to such expositions 
as illustrate some truth of practical or of spiritual importance 
(Heb. v. 11 ; ix. 5). Indeed, an examination of the passages 
quoted from the Old Testament in the New, will show that 
they are adduced exclusively with reference either to the per- 
sonal history and mediatorial office of our Lord, to the 
spiritual character of his kingdom, or to the future destiny 
of his church. 

427. The allegorical interpretation of Scripture ^ . 
has been so greatly abused, that it becomes import- abuse of 
ant to illustrate these remarks at greater length. 



324 



ALLEGORY — ABUSE. 



428. The ancient Jews allegorized on the words of Scrip- 
ture. 

In the original of the word translated " created," for 

Jeis ngthe instance > Gen - i- the > T find the first letter of tla e Hebrew 
for Father, Son, and Spirit, and hence they prove the doc- 
trine of the Trinity. They refer Psa. xxi. 1, to Christ, because the 
letters of the original, for "shall joy," made by transposition, Messiah. 
The letter j$ occurs six times in Gen. i. 1, and as ^ represents 1000, 
they suppose that the existence of the world for 6000 years, is the 
truth included in this fact, jij^ the sign of the definite accusation in 
Hebrew, they regard as including the whole essence of a thing, because 
it is made up of the first and last letters of the Hebrew alphabet. In 
the same spirit, the pseudo-Barnabas says that Abraham circumcised 
318 men of his house, Gen. xiv. 14, because this number in Greek 
letters represents Jesus and the cross, I = 10, H = 8, and T = 300. 

429. Some writers, on the other hand, allegorize Scripture 
by destroying its facts. 

John the Baptist, for example, is said to have had no real existence, 
but to be only a mythic representation of the collective body of the 
Jewish prophets in their relation to Christ. The narrative of the inn 
and manger at Bethlehem, exhibits nothing more (they add), than the 
common birth into our world of everything Divine. 

In the same spirit, the seven days' creation were held to imply 
merely the perfection of the work of God, and the moving of the Spirit 
of God on the face of the waters, to indicate the spiritual washing of 
Christian baptism. 

430. A practice more frequent, though scarcely less mis- 
chievous, has been adopted in all ages, of admitting the his- 
torical truth of the inspired narrative, and basing upon every 
part of it some spiritual doctrine, not as illustrated, but as 
proved and intended by the Holy Spirit. 

To this tendency may be traced the impression that the seventh 
thousand years in the history of the world, will be the millenium. 
The division of animals into clean and unclean, was held on a similar- 
principle to represent virtue and vice in human nature. The simplest 
statements were thus made ridiculous. Moses had said, " All that 



ALLEGORIES AND TYPES. 



325 



divideth the hoof and cheweth the cud, ye shall eat," indicating, says 
the Epistle of Barnabas, that we should hold fast to those who meditate 
on the command, and who (divide the hoof, that is) live in this world, 
but have their expectation in another. Heaven and earth in the Lord's 
Prayer, refer (says Tertullian) to the body and the soul of man, Luke 
xi. 2. The five loaves with which our Lord fed the multitude, repre- 
sent, says Clement, the five senses, John vi. 9. Another writer (Cyril), 
regards them as the five books of Moses, and the two fishes as the 
Grecian philosophy, which is generated and carried through heathen 
waters : or our Saviour's teaching, as apostolic and evangelical. Origen 
even builds upon the images of Scripture, as he calls them, the doctrine 
of the final restoration of the whole spiritual universe to its original 
blessedness and purity. 

Justin thinks that the wrestling of Jacob was a type of the tempta- 
tion of our Lord, that the injury he received represented the sufferings 
and death of Christ. 

Athanasius, who sometimes condemned this style of interpretation, 
expounds Matt. v. 29, and supposes the body to mean the church, the 
eyes and hands the bishops and deacons, who ought to be cut off, if 
they commit acts hurtful to the church. 

Hilary thinks that the fowls of the air (Matt. vi. 26-30), are unclean 
spirits, to whom God gives life without trouble. The lilies are the 
angels : the grass, the heathen. The mother of Zebedee's children re- 
presents the law : her children the believing Jews. 

Cyril thinks Malchus a type of the Jews, and that as Peter cut off 
his right ear, so they were to be deprived- of right hearing, their hear- 
ing being only sinister or disobedient. 

These interpretations were all justified on principle. The obvious 
historic sense of a passage was always regarded as the less important, 
sometimes even as altogether untrue; while the spiritual or allegorical 
was alone deemed worthy of an enlightened mind. Hence Origen 
maintains that the history of the creation, of Lot's incest, of Abra- 
ham's two wives, of Jacob's marriage with Leah and Rachel, is all an 
allegory ; so readily do extremes beget each other. 

These examples were widely copied among the various sects which 
sprang up in the early church. All justified their dogmas by allegori- 
cal interpretations of Scripture : and in the end the literal historic 
sense with all the moral and spiritual lessons it conveyed was over- 
looked or denied. 



431. Intelligent piety will reject all these fabulous interpre- 



326 ALLEGORY — LITERATURE. 

tations, the result of a vagrant fancy, and will be at no loss 
to elicit from the historical parts of Scripture, the chief 
lessons of holy wisdom they were designed to supply. The 
essential points are, that many characters and transactions 
recorded in the Old Testament are typical, that many more 
exhibit qualities which we are to imitate or condemn, that 
others illustrate principles of Divine government which are 
still in force, and that none must be intepreted without a 
reference to the clear revelations which are given in other 
parts of the Divine word. 

432. Types (it may be added), are prophetic, and may be 
Types, both usec l to prove, as well as to illustrate the Gospel. 
andpf!> al Examples, analogies, and resemblances, not an- 
phetic. nounced as typical, are illustrative only. They 
explain truth rather than prove it. 

433. On the subjects discussed in this section, see especially 
on the parables — 

Dodd's Discourses on the Miracles and Parables, 4 vols., 1757. 

A. Gray's Delineation of the Parables, 1777. 

Lisco on the Parables. Clark, 1840. 

Trench's Notes on the Parables of our Lord, 1847. 

On the Types, besides M'Ewen and Wilson (of Irvine) — 

The Gospel of the Old Testament, from St. Matthew, by Charlotte 
Elizabeth. 

Marsh's Lectures on Biblical Criticism and Interpretation, where it 
is maintained that nothing is a type unless formally recognised as such 
in the New Testament : Fairbairn (Typology of Scripture, 2d Series), 
maintaining that the whole of the previous economy is affirmed in the 
New Testament to be typical. This principle he applies to -the patri- 
archal and Mosaic institutions and history. 

Edwards on the Types of the Messiah. 

On Allegorical Interpretation, see — 

Olshausen on Biblical Interpretation, as taught by the inspired 
writers : or, on the deep spiritual sense of Scripture. Neufch., 1841, and 

Maensciter on the Types, and the Typical Interpretation of Scrip- 
ture. Am. Bibl. Rep., January 8 1841. 



* 



prophetic language. 327 
Sec. 8. — On the Interpretation of Prophecy. 

" In a certain sense, history has been justly called the interpreter of 
prophecy ; but to the Israelite, prophecy was more the interpreter of 
history, for it gave him intelligible notice of approaching events, and 
it supplied him with the reasons of God's providence in bringing those 
events to pass." — D avisos: Lectures on Prophecy. 

434. All the difficulties of Scripture interpretation to which 
we have referred are to be found in prophecy. Its 

• . . n • Peculiar dif- 

language is largely figurative, and often allegorical, ficuity of 

__ & . & _ & \ . & ' . _ prophetic 

Allusions to the history and circumstances of the mterpre- 
times are frequent. The events recorded are for 
the most part future, and but dimly revealed. On all grounds, 
therefore, the utmost attention is required rightly to under- 
stand the meaning of the inspired predictions. 

As the prophets are called seers, the prophecies of the Old 
Testament are commonly called visions, Numb. xxiv. Prophecies . 
17:2 Chron. ix. 29 : Ezek. xxxvii. : Hab. ii. 1. Some visiom - 
of them were recorded in writing, for the information of the 
church throughout all time ; others were communicated orally 
by the prophets to their cotemporaries : the whole in language 
taken largely from the customs and worship prevalent among 
them. Hence have originated several peculiarities Hence pe- 

p , i i i- a • i culiarities 

ol the prophetic scriptures, in indica- 

tions of 

435. As to time : time - 

1. The prophets often speak of things that belong to the 
remote future as if present to their view. 

Thus in Isa. ix. 6, it is said, " Unto us a child is born, unto us a son 
is given ;" so in Isa. xlii. 1. 

2. They speak of things future as past. 

In Isa. liii., for example, nearly the whole of the transactions of the 
life of the "servant" of God are represented as finished; the prophet 
seeming to stand between the death of our Lord and his coming glory. 



3. When the precise time of individual events was not 



328 



PROPHETIC LANGUAGE. 



revealed, the prophets describe them as continuous. They saw 
the future rather in space than in time ; the whole, therefore, 
appears foreshortened, and perspective rather than actual 
distance is regarded. They seem often to speak of future 
things as a common observer would describe the stars, group- 
ing them as they appear, and not according to their true 
positions. 

In Jer. 1. 41, for example, the first conquest and the complete destruc- 
tion of Babylon are connected, without any notice of the interval be- 
tween them ; in fact, nearly a thousand years elapsed between the first 
shock of the empire in the attack of the Persians and the final overthrow 

the city. 

In Isa. chaps, x., xi., the deliverance of the Jews from the yoke of 
the Assyrians is connected with the deliverance which was to be effected 
by the Messiah. 

In the same way, Isaiah, Micah, Hosea, Ezekiel, and Jeremiah all 
connected these two events, without intimating, however, that the Mes- 
siah was to take part in both. 

Zechariah, again, who lived after the exile, connects the spiritual sal- 
vation of the church in the distant future with the temporal deliverance 
of the Jews under Alexander and the Maccabees. 

In the description which is given of the humiliation and glory of the 
Messiah, there is seldom any notice taken of the time which is to elapse 
before his kingdom is established. Both are often connected in the same 
verses, as in Zech. ix. 9, 10. Joel connects in the same way the effusion 
of the Spirit on the day of Pentecost, and its general effusion in later 
times, chap. ii. 28, etc. 

Sometimes, indeed, the precise time was revealed to the prophet, and 
is recorded, as in the case of the sojourn of Abraham and his posterity 
in Egypt, Gen. xv. 13 ; the sixty-five years in which Israel was to be 
broken, Isa. vii. 8; and the captivity in Babylon, Jer. xxix. 10; but 
more commonly the prophets were ignorant of it, as the apostle Peter 
tells us, and as Zechariah has acknowledged, 1 Pet. i. 10-12: Zech. 
xiv. 7. 

V ery often the events, instead of being represented as continuous, are 
blended together. The latter parts of Isaiah, and some of the prophe- 
cies of our Lord, concerning the destruction of Jerusalem and the final 
judgment, illustrate this remark, Matt. xxiv. 28, 29. 

436. As to language ; — As the future was thus represented 



PROPHETIC LANGUAGE. 



*329 



in visions, and under a typical dispensation, it can ^j"^ r e t ^" 
excite no surprise that the whole is often described of phra- 
in figurative, and allegorical or symbolic terms. If 
prophecy had everywhere consisted of literal description, it 
would have defeated its object, and either have prevented the 
fulfilment, or have taken from the fulfilled prophecy all evi- 
dence of a Divine original. Besides, as everything earthly 
supplies images for describing things spiritual, so does the 
whole of the Jewish economy. Language borrowed from na- 
ture and the law is therefore as appropriate as it is necessary. 
The unity and vastness of God's plans are illustrated by it all. 

Under the Gospel, for example, Messiah is to be king, and hence the 
prophets represent him as possessed of all the characteristics of the 
most distinguished princes of the Jewish theocracy, and more than once 
apply to him the title of David, who was, in many respects, the ideal 
of kingly authority, Hos. iii. 5 : Jer. xxx. 9 : Acts xiii. 34. They de- 
scribe his character as prophet or priest in the same strain, multiplying 
images in each case adapted to give the most exalted ideas of his office, 
Psa. ex.: Zech. vi. : Heb. vii. In the same way they speak of his 
kingdom, either of grace or glory, as the highest perfection of the Jew- 
ish economy. It is called Jerusalem, or Zion, Isa. lxii. 1, 6, 7 ; lx. 15- 
20: Gal. iv. 26-28 : Heb. xii. 22. See, also, Isa. lx. 6, 7; lxvi. 23. a To 
Joel, the outpouring of the Spirit appears as a general extension of the 
three forms of Divine revelation which occur in the Old Testament. 
The idea that all nations should worship the true God, Zechariah ex- 
presses by the declaration that they will join in the feast of tabernacles 
(xiv. 16). The perfect love and fidelity of the people of God appear to 
Hosea and others as the removal of the worship of Baal, and the aban- 
donment by the church of Assyria and Egypt, Zech. xiv. 16 : Isa. xix. 
19-21: Zech. chaps, ii., xiv., xiii.: Mic. v. The glory of the Messiah's 
days is represented by the prosperous times of David and Solomon, 
Zech iii. 10 : 1 Kings iv. 25. The prevalence of peace, by the union of 
Judah and Israel, Hos. i. 11 : Isa. xi. 13. In the same way, the ene- 
mies of the kingdom of the Messiah are not only called by the name 
given to the enemies of the ancient theocracy, viz., the nations of the 
Gentiles, but they often bear the name of some one people who, at the 
time, were peculiarly inimical or powerful. In Isa. xxv. they are 

a See " Bickersteth on the Prophecies," p. 50. 
28* 



330. 



LANGUAGE FOUNDED ON JEWISH HISTORY. 



called by the name of Moab ; in Isa. Ixiii. and Amos ix. 12, by the 
name of Edom ; and in Ezek. xxxviii., by the name of Magog. There 
are, of course, specific prophecies concerning most of these nations and 
cities, but their names are also used generically, or figuratively, in these 
and other passages. Hence we have foretold the restoration, in the 
latter days, of Moab and Elam, Jer. xlviii. 47; xlix. 39. Hence, also, 
.the "blessing to the earth" is to proceed "in that day" from Israel, 
Assyria, and Egypt, Isa. xix. 18-25. 

437. Nor need this peculiarity of prophetic language excite 
This pecuii- surprise. It is found pervading the whole ancient 
prietic Ian- dispensation. That dispensation began with the 
monfnaff 1 promise to Abraham. His descendants were to be 
Scripture. ag ^ e s £ arSj anc [ i n him and his seed all nations 
were to be blessed. The first part of this prediction was fulfilled 
in his literal seed, as Moses implies, Exod. xxxii. 13 : Deut. 
i. 10, 11. Paul also applies it to his spiritual seed, even to all 
who believe, Kom. iv. 16 : Gal. iii. 8, 9. The blessing upon 
all nations, the second part of the promise, is also upon all 
as believers, and is received through Christ, who is the seed 
according to the flesh, Gal. iii. 16, 19, 29. 

The next remarkable fact in the history of the Jews is their 
deliverance from Egypt, and in connection with that deliver- 
ance the most remarkable expressions are used to indicate the 
favor which God bore them. All of these expressions, how- 
ever, are in the New Testament applied to the church. God 
is said to have chosen them (Deut. x. 15 : Ezek. xx. 5 : Eph. 
i. 4). He delivered and saved them (Exod. iii. 8 ; xiv. 30 : 
Gal. i. 4 : 1 Thess. i. 10 : 2 Tim. i. 9) ; He created and called 
them (Isa. xliii. 1; xliv. 2: 1 Cor. i. 8: Col. iii. 10). Both 
are sons, helpless, and dear (Ezek. xvi. 3-6 : Isa. xliv. 2 : 
Deut. xxxii. 6 : Gal. iii. 26 : 1 Pet. i. 3) ; both are brethren 
(Deut. i. 16 : Col. i. 2) ; a house, a family (Numb. xii. 7 : Heb. 
iii. 6) ; a nation (Deut. iv. 34 : 1 Pet. ii. 9) ; both fellow-citi- 
zens, with aliens around them (Exod. xx. 10 : Eph. ii. 19) » 
and both heirs of their appropriate inheritance (Numb. xxvi. 
53 : Heb. ix. 15). Compare in the same way the application 



LANGUAGE FOUNDED ON JEWISH HISTORY. 



331 



of the following words under the two dispensations. " Ser- 
vants;" "husband" and " wife;" "mother" and " children ;" 
" adultery ;" " sanctuary" or "temple;" "priests;" "saints" 
or "holy;" "near" or "nigh," and " afar off;" "congrega- 
tion" or "church ;" " vine," "vineyard ;" " shepherd," " flock ;" 
"inheritance" or "heritage;" or the privileges and duties 
which these terms imply, and it will be found that nearly all 
the characteristic names of Israel are applied to the body of 
believers. In the first case, the blessings and relations, so far 
as the people were concerned, are earthly and temporal ; in 
the second, spiritual and eternal : individual spiritual blessings 
being enjoyed in both. 

The apostles reason throughout their writings on the same 
principle. We who believe, and are united to Christ, are 
children of Abraham and heirs of his promise (Gal. iii. 29 : 
Rom. iv. 11, 16) ; the Israel of God (Gal. vi. 16), as distin- 
guished from the Israel according to the flesh (1 Cor. x. 18) ; 
the true circumcision (Phil. iii. 3), who therefore appropriate 
ancient promises (Gen. xxii. 16, 17, applied to all believers: 
Heb. vi. 13, 20: Deut. xxxi. 6: Josh. i. 5, quoted Heb. xiii. 
4, 5 : Hos. i. 10 ; ii. 23, quoted Rom. ix. 24-36). 

438. After the exode comes the institution of the ritual law, 
its sacrifices, priesthood, mercy-seat, tabernacle and Levitical 
temple, and worship. All these, it need hardly be law - 
remarked, are represented in the prophets as being restored 
in the latter days, and in the Gospels each expression is ap- 
plied to our Lord or to his. church. He is priest, and propi- 
tiatory (fcao-ryptov), tabernacle (o-xwn, John i. 14), and temple 
(mo?, John ii. 19) ; as also, since his ascension, is his church 
(1 Cor. iii. 16). Her members offer spiritual offerings. They 
form a royal priesthood, a holy nation. 

439. The next prophetic era begins with Samuel. His chiet 
office was to prepare for the establishment of kingly 

. £_ r & J Establish- 

authority. He was commissioned, moreover, to give men^ofthe 

to David an assurance that his seed should sit upon 

his throne forever, i. e. } literally till the end of the kingdom, 



332 



LANGUAGE FOUNDED ON JEWISH HISTORY. 



or, spiritually, in the person of his greater Son, till all things 
should be put under his feet. Of this enlarged meaning 
Samuel says nothing, nor does Nathan ; but David, himself a 
prophet, clearly understands it, applies it in part to himself 
(2 Kings ii. 4), but passes on the fulness of the promise to 
his Lord, Psa. ii. ; lxxii. ; ex. All these Psalms are applied, 
in the New Testament, to the kingdom which Christ com- 
menced when he appeared on earth (Heb. i. 5), or rose from 
the dead (Rom. i. 4). 

440. This prophetic era is closed with the predictions of 
Later pre- Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, and the later prophets. The 
dictions. great theme of their predictions is the restoration 
of the Jews, and the re-establishment of that dispensation 
which seemed hastening, without hope of remedy, to decay ; 
and under a twofold form this theme is presented. The pro- 
phets who preceded the captivity, and those who lived in it, 
foretell a restoration, and borrow from it phrases to describe 
the establishment of a new kingdom. Haggai and Zechariah 
foretell the rebuilding of a temple, and under that figure speak 
of the church. After the temple was finished, Jewish wor- 
ship was selfish and insincere. Malachi therefore foretells the 
coming of one who shall purify the sons of Levi, and secure 
from all a spiritual offering. 

In a word, not only the prophets, but all the inspired writers 
describe the church in terms borrowed from successive stages 
in the history of the ancient economy. Whether because Old 
Testament prophecy is expressed m terms founded on that 
Question of econom y> therefore, when applied to the church it 
interpreta- k as no further or more literal fulfilment, is another 

tion hence 

arising. question. In the meantime, mark the fact from 
which that question arises. That fact is itself of great im- 
portance in explaining both the Gospel and the law. 

441. From the typical character of ancient dispensations 
arises another peculiarity of prophecy. It not only speaks 
their language, but it has often a double application. It applies 



DOUBLE APPLICATION OF PKOPHECY. 



333 



to one object by anticipation and partially, and to JJ?caSoi?S 
another completely ; the earlier object being the re- g^heTpe 
presentative of the later. In the promises to andtotS 

... antitype. 

Abraham (Gen. xv. etc.), in the prediction of Jacob 
concerning Judah (Gen. xlix.), and of Balaam (Numb. xxiv. 
17), of Nathan (2 Sam. vii. 12-17), and of David in some of 
the Psalms, in many parts of Isaiah and other prophets, there 
is 'this double reference. As the history of the Jews fore- 
shadows the history of the church, so does prophecy the 
experience of both. Not all parts of prophecy are thus ap- 
plicable, nor, judging from examples given in the New Testa- 
ment, are any parts thus applicable to be applied indiscrimi- 
nately. In fact, the double application is restricted to similar 
events under two different and remote economies, and is 
never extended to two different events under the same 
economy. Prophecies on the restoration from Babylon (Jer. 
xxxi. : Isa. Hi.), on the setting up of the tabernacle of David 
(Amos ix.), and on his kingdom (2 Sam. vii.), had all, to a 
certain extent, an immediate fulfilment, and are yet applied 
in the New Testament to the gospel dispensation. To that 
dispensation in itself, or in its results, this double application 
must be confined. 

442. It follows from this double sense that, as in the first 
fulfilment there is a limit to the blessing foretold, 
so, in the second, there is a fulness of meaning filled in 
which it seems impossible to exhaust. To David, . case * 
for example, the promise was partly conditional, partly 
absolute. As conditional, it cannot be applied to Christ, and 
as absolute, it cannot be applied in its fullest literal meaning 
to David. " I will establish the throne of his kingdom for 
ever. If he commit iniquity I will chastise him with the rod 
of men . . . but my mercy shall not depart away from him as 
I took it from Saul," 2 Sam. vii. 13-15. The condition both 
David and God repeat (1 Kings ii. 4 ; ix. 4), and the promise 
that David's seed should occupy the throne for ever, had of 
course, in a literal sense, but a limited fulfilment. For ever 



334 



BEPEATED FULFILMENTS. 



may mean till the end of the kingdom, or till the end of the 
polity ; the phrase implying perpetuity of duration through- 
out the period — a system of things to which reference is 
understood to be made. In fact, David's family occupied the 
throne till the end of the kingdom, holding it through twenty 
descendants for upwards of 400 years; while, in the brief 
duration of Israel (254 years), there were nineteen kings, of 
nine different families. There was, therefore, a literal fulfil- 
ment of the promise, but clearly a fulfilment less glorious 
than when applied to the Messiah. In truth, prophecy bor- 
rowed from previous types is as unequal to describe his king- 
dom as is narrative, founded on ritual institutions, to describe 
his office. We call him prophet and priest ; our sacrifice 
and intercessor ; but no one of the institutions whence these 
names are taken, nor all combined, can speak his glory or tell 
his worth. 

443. We must add that, while there is in reference to types 
Repeated and antitypes a double application of prophecy, 
of pioph? there are prophecies which are of the nature of 
cies * general moral principles, and which are therefore 
repeatedly fulfilled. The proud shall be brought low (Isa. ii. 
11), They that forsake God shall be consumed (i. 31), The 
bread of the upright shall be given him, and his water shall 
be sure (xxxiii. 15, 16), are instances. Each prediction was 
spoken on a particular occasion, and each is applicable as a 
general truth to all time. In such moral predictions the pro- 
phetic writings abound ; and in reference to them the remark 
of Leighton is peculiarly appropriate, that the " sweet stream 
of prophecy did, as the rivers, make its own banks fertile 
and pleasant, as it ran by and flowed still forward to after 
ages." 

444. Such being the structure of prophecy, the rules of 

interpretation of most importance are clearly such 

Rules. 

as refer to the history and circumstances of the 
authors — the use and meaning of figurative language generally, 
— parallel predictions and partial fulfilment, and especially 



RULES OF INTERPRETATION. 



335 



such as are suggested by the application made in the New 
Testament, of ancient predictions. 

1. Let the student of prophecy ascertain the exact position 
of the prophet in relation both (1), to his age, and Ascertain 
(2), to his predictions. (1.) Each prophet was a ^flaehpS 
messenger to his own times. From the circum- P het - 
stances of his country he borrowed his imagery, and to the 
moral and physical condition of his country as existing or as 
foreseen, he adapted his message. If he foretells impending 
evil, the more distant future is the opposite of the evil he 
foretells. If he describes immediate good, the future is the 
completion of the good he describes. And even when that 
future is more distant, it is ever linked with the present by 
phrases level to the capacity, and adapted to the wants of the 
age. (2.) Ascertain also his standing point in relation to his 
own predictions. Let the student also take his place if 
possible by the prophet's side, and look with him on the past 
and on the future. If his country lies desolate around him, 
realize and learn to describe its condition. If he seem in 
vision amidst the scenes of the Gospel, stand near him at the 
birth, or death, or in the kingdom of ->ur Lord. 

To understand Isaiah, for example, read repeatedly 2 Kings 14-21 : 
2 Chron. 16-22. Mark also the connection, and if possible, the centre 
of each prediction (see p. 286). When and where the last six chapters 
of Zechariah were written is a question essential to a right under- 
standing of that part of his prophecies. If written by him (and not 
as some suppose, by Jeremiah), these chapters must refer to the time 
of our Lord, the second destruction of Jerusalem, and subsequent events 
(xiv. 2). If, again, they were written after the return of Ezra, with 
the last band of the captivity, the predictions ot chapter x. have not 
yet received even a partial fulfilment. See Introductions to the pro- 
phetic books. 

2. Familiarize yourself with the language of prophecy — its 
figures and symbols. In these prophecy is more gtud the 
rich than common history. Its poetic style and fj^Xof 
other reasons make its usage in this respect both Scripture. 



336 



RULES OF INTERPRETATION. 



necessary and appropriate. The meaning of these figures it, 
pretty nearly fixed : and though perhaps not clear to those 
who first used them, to us with the completed Bible in our 
hands they ought to he familiar. 

Compare, for example, the following passages : — 

Descriptions of afflictions and distress, Psa. xlii. 7: Isa. xiii. 13; 
xxix. 6; xxxiv. 4: Jer. iv. 23-26: Ezek. xxxii. 7, 8; xxxviii. 20: Joel 
ii. 10, 30, 31 : Amos viii. 8, 9. 

Interpositions of Divine Providence and grace in delivery from 
dangers, Psa. xviii. 7-17 : Nah. i. 4, 5 : Hab. iii. 5-11 : Zech. xiv. 4. 

The joy of deliverance, Isa. xxxiii. 17; xxxv. 1-7; lv. 12, 13; lx. 
13 ; lxv. 25 : Joel iv. 18. 

See also the classification of Scripture symbols, at the close of this 
Section. 

Further light may often be obtained in determining whether 
words be used figuratively or not : 
(a.) From the words themselves. 

To this rule belong numerous illustrations founded on the typical 
character of the Jewish people. The kingdom of David is foretold after 
he had appeared, and the earlier occurrences of Jewish history, are 
spoken of as if they were to be repeated, Isa. xi. 15, 16 : so in Zech. 
x. 11 : Hos. ii. 14, 15 : Isa. iv. 5. 

(b.) Sometimes from the context: 

To interpret Isa. lxvi. 20 literally, requires that verses 21, 23 should 
also be interpreted literally ; involving the re-establishment of the 
Jewish priesthood and worship. This last view seems inconsistent 
with the reasoning of Heb. x. In the last eight chapters of Ezekiel, 
the literal interpretation seems, at first, to have much in its favor, and 
yet many passages cannot be explained literally. In chapter xlvii. 
1-12, for example, a stream of water of unfathomable depth is said to 
flow out from the temple, restoring the waters of the Dead Sea, and 
spreading life wherever it comes. The aptness of this passage to de- 
scribe the progress of the Gospel through the outpouring of the Spirit, 
is obvious : so in Zech. xiv. 8. In any case, the whole must be consist- 
ently explained. 

(<?.} Sometimes we need to refer to parallel passages: 



RULES OF INTERPRETATION. 



337 



In Isa. xi. the kingdom of Messiah is spoken of as a kingdom of 
peace ; and in chapter ix. the prophet speaks of the wars and victories 
of his reign. A reference to the New Testament, or to other parts of 
the same prophet, shows that chapter ix. is figuratively expressed. The 
war and peace are real, but not literal. 

3. It is a golden rule, that as prophecy is not "self-inter- 
pretative" (of private interpretation, 2 Pet. i. 20, compare 
21), each of the predictions of Scripture must be with known 
compared with others, on the same topic, and with tulnlments - 
history, both profane and inspired. Parallel predictions will 
often throw light upon one another, and recorded fulfilments 
will explain predictions or parts of predictions still unfulfilled. 
History and the New Testament will thus often fix the mean- 
ing of individual passages, and these will illuminate and 
explain their respective connections. 

Compare in this way. the parallel predictions on Babylon, Tyre, 
Egypt, Ammon, Nineveh, Edom, and Moab (see Epitome of the Pro- 
phets, Part ii.), and on th< man of sin, 2 Thess. ii. : 1 John ii. 18 : Dan. 
vii. : Kev, xiii. 

A few instances of recorded fulfilments, taken fiom profane 
history, may be seen in the Section on Evidences. 

Fulfilments recorded in the New Testament may be seen in 
the chapter on Scripture Difficulties. 

4. Mark the principles of prophetic interpretation sanc- 
tioned by the New Testament. It gives from God Mark th 
the meaning of the Old, and while fixing the sense principles 

° ; "of mterpre- 

of particular passages, it suggests principles of in- ^Sdly"*" 
terpretation applicable to all (see chap. vi. sec. 1). ^ e e st ^ v t 

Instead of pointing out these principles at length, 
we may notice and illustrate one which is suggested in almost 
every chapter of the later Revelation. 

The great end and theme of prophecy is Christ ; either in his person 
and office, or in the establishment of his kingdom. Under 

Its °r££lt 

this twofold division most of the Old Testament predictions end is 
may be ranged : some of them are already fulfilled, others Chri st. 

29 



338 



TWO SYSTEMS OF INTERPRETATION. 



are in course of fulfilment, and others, again, are to be fulfilled at some 
future day. 

In paradise prophecy gave the first promise of a Redeemer. In 
Abraham it connected the covenants of Canaan and of the Gospel. In 
the law it spoke of the second prophet, and foreshadowed in types the 
doctrines of Christianity. To David it revealed the kingdom of his 
greater Son. In the days of the later prophets it pre-signified the 
changes of the Judaic economy ; gave the history of the chief pagan 
kingdoms, and completed the announcement of the Messiah. After the 
captivity it gave clearer information still of the advent of the Gospel. 
In the days of our Lord it spoke in parables and direct predictions ; 
and at last, in dark symbolical language, foretold the history and final 
glory of his reign. "The testimony of Jesus" is indeed "the spirit of 
prophecy," John v. 39: Acts iii. 18; x. 43: Rom. i. 2; iii. 21, 22: 
Rev. xix. 10. 

This fact is of the greatest importance. It proves the 
general scope of ancient predictions, and limits them. It 
teaches us to seek Christ everywhere, under both Dispensa- 
tions, and it makes plain the general meaning of these pre- 
dictions themselves. 

445. While most inquirers concur on the whole in these 
rules, the application of them has led to very dif- 

Two sys- . . 

tems of in- ferent results, owing chiefly to the importance which 
terpretation. a ^ ac j ie( j various classes to particular rules. 
In much that is essential these results agree : 

1. The literal fulfilment of predictions which refer to our 
Points of Lord's first coming is admitted by all. Passages 
agreement. w hich might seem sufficiently fulfilled in a general 
sense by the events of his life, were nevertheless fulfilled to 
the letter. His riding upon an ass, the division of his raiment, 
the appointment of his death with the wicked, and of his 
grave with the rich, are examples, Zech. ix. 9: Psa. xxii. 18: 
Isa. liii. 9. 

2. The literal fulfilment of many predictions in relation to 
the history of the Jews, and of other nations, is admitted by 
most ; and both facts are used by one class of inquirers as 
evidence of the truth of Scripture ; by the other class they 



TWO SYSTEMS OF INTERPRETATION. 



339 



are likewise used as evidence of the truth of Scripture, and 
also as illustrations of the principles of interpretation which 
we ought to apply to prophecy not yet fulfilled. 

3. As to the scheme of prophecy generally, most admit 
that it has two centres, around which all events revolve: 
these centres marking the eminences from which the history 
of the world and of the church may be best surveyed. The 
one is the first advent of our Lord, to suffer ; the other is his 
second advent, to reign ; the latter to be followed, after an in- 
terval, by the judgment. 

4. The future conversion of the Jews, and the general pre- 
valence of truth, in fulfilment of the glorious predictions of 
both Testaments — ending, after various struggles, in the final 
overthrow of the enemies of the faith, are also generally ad- 
mitted. To this view many from both classes add the resto- 
ration of the J ews to their own land. 

In describing these events, there is also extensive agree- 
ment. Predictions of spiritual blessing to be enjoyed under 
the Gospel are applied by both parties, without scruple, to 
the Christian Church; and the reign of righteousness, it is 
held on both sides, will be visible as well as spiritual, affecting 
social relations, and modifying by its influence all human 
society. So far, there is substantial agreement among most 
students of prophecy. 

446. The above is (in brief) all which the one class of in- 
quirers find there. Giving great weight to the facts, Points of 
that the Jews were types, that the distinction be- dlfference - 
tween Jew and Gentile is formally abolished, and that our 
dispensation is spiritual ; thinking, moreover, that the descrip- 
tions in prophecy, if taken literally, would lead to a belief in 
the restoration of Judaism, and in the introduction of a system 
adapted to the infancy rather than the maturity of the church; 
finding that these descriptions, as far as the re-establishment 
of the Jews is concerned, are not repeated in the New Testa- 
ment, and that many prophecies which seem to apply to them 
as a nation, are referred in the New Testament to the church, 



340 



SYSTEMS OF PROPHECY. 



or to the conversion of the Jews, Acts ii. 17-21 : Eom. xi. 26; 
they conclude that a spiritual interpretation of the whole se- 
ries is most consistent with the tenor of Scripture. 

The other class go further. Much of this reasoning they 
admit to be true ; deeming it, however, not all the truth. 
Finding that predictions even of spiritual blessing have had 
for the most part a literal accomplishment, that the Jews are 
spoken of in both dispensations as still beloved for their father's 
sake, that many prophecies (those, for example, which speak 
of Israel and Judah in terms, either inapplicable to the first 
return, or written after it, Isa. xi. 12 : Hos. iii. 15: Zech. xiv.), 
remain unfulfilled, that the language of these prophecies, 
though often applicable in a general subordinate sense to the 
Christian church, cannot be confined to it without doing vio- 
lence to the commonest rules of speech. That in the New Tes- 
tament prophecies having undoubtedly an early fulfilment in 
Jewish history, or in the Christian church (as Isa. xiii. 9, 10; 
xxv. 8 : Hag. ii. 6), seem referred to as having fulfilments still 
future (Matt. xxiv. : 1 Cor. xv. 54 : Heb. xii. 26), they main- 
tain, that besides a first accomplishment of many predictions 
in the history of the Jews, and the spiritual accomplishment 
of others under the Gospel, many remain to be accomplished 
in a literal and more extended sense. They hold, therefore, 
throughout, the principle of literal interpretation, whether 
predictions refer to the restoration of the Jews, to the second, 
i. e. as most think it, the pre-millenial advent of Christ, or 
the establishment of his reign. 

447. A complete view of these two systems of interpreta- 
tion may be obtained from the following Tables, 
systems One is taken from Powel's " Concordance*' (1673); 

the other, from Mr. Bickersteth's "Guide to the 
Prophecies.'* 

i. The Jews shall he gathered from all parts of the earth and Drought, 
(a) in re- to their own land, Isa. xi. 11; xxvii. 12, 13; xliii. 5, 6; 
ke°Jews. xlix ' U ' 12 ; lx - 4 ' Compare Jer. iii. 18 ; xvi. 14, 15- xxiii 



SYSTEMS OF PKOPHECY. 



341 



3; xxx. 10; xxxi. 7-10; xxxii. 37: so Hos. xi. 10, 11: Zeph. iii. 10: 
Zech. vii. 7, 8; x. 8-10. 

ii. They shall be carried by the Gentiles to their place, who shall join 
themselves with the Jews, and become the Lord's people, Isa. xlix. 22; 
xiv. 2; lx. 9; lxvi. 18, 20; ii. 2-4. Compare Jer. iii. 17; xvi. 19: Ezek. 
Xlvii. 22, 23: Mic. v. 3: Zech. ii. 11; viii. 20-23. 

iii. Great miracles shall be wrought when Israel is restored. 

1. Drying up the Euphrates, Isa. xi. 15, 16: Zech. x. 11: Rev. xvi 
12: Hos. xi. 15: Mic. vii. 15. 

2. Giving rivers in desert places, Isa. xli. 17-19; xlviii. 20, 21; xliii, 
19, 20. 

3. Sending prophets, Isa. lxvi. 18-21 : Hos. xii. 9, 10. 

4. The Lord Christ himself as their head, Isa. xxxv. 4; Hi. 12; lviii. 
8: Hos. i. 10, 11: Mic. ii. 12, 13. 

iv. The Jews restored from a state, with judges and counsellors; the 
Lord Christ their king, who will then be acknowledged as king over 
the other nations, Isa. i. 26; lx. 17. Compare Jer. xxiii. 4; xxx. 8, 9, 
21: Hos. iii. 5: Ezek. xxxiv. 23, 24; xxxvii. 24, 25: Isa. liv. 5: Obad. 
xxi.: Zech xiv. 5, 9: Psa. xxii. 27, 28. 

v. They shall have victory over all enemies, and all kingdoms and 
nations shall submit themselves unto them, Isa. xi. 13, 14; xiv. 1, 2; 
xli. 14-16; xlix. 23; lx. 12; xxv. 10, 12: Joel iii. 7, 8, 19, 20: Obad. 
xvii. 18: Mic. iv. 6-13; v. 5-7; vii. 16, 17: Zech. ii. 13; ix. 13-16; x. 
5, 6; xii. 6: Numb. xxiv. 17: Isa. lx. 10-16; lxvi. 19, 20. 

vi. The Jews restored will live peaceably, without division or conten- 
tions, Isa. xi. 13, 14; xiv. 1, 2: Jer. iii. 18; 1. 4: Ezek. xxxvii. 21, 22: 
Hos. i. 11. 

Be very numerous, Isa. xxvii. 6 ; xliv. 3, 4 ; xlix. 18-21 ; liv. 1-3 ; 
lxi. 9; Jer. xxiii. 3; xxx. 18-20; xxxi. 27: Ezek. xxxvi. 37, 38. 

Have great outward prosperity, Isa. xxxii. 16-18; xxxiii. 24; liv. 
13-17; lx. 18, 21: Jer. xxiii. 3-6; xxx. 10; xxxi. 34-40; xxxiii. 6-9; 
1. 9, 10: Joel iii. 17, 18: Mic. vii. 18-20: Zeph. iii. 13. 

Be a blessing to the earth, Isa. xix. 24, 25; lxi. 9: Jer. xxxiii. 9: 
Ezek xxxiv. 26: Jeph. iii. 19: Zech. viii. 13. 

vii. The land of Judaea shall be eminently fruitful, Isa. xxix. 17: 
xxxv. 1-9: li. 3, 16; liv. 11-13; lv. 12, 13; lx. 13, 17; Ixv. 25: Ezek. 
xxxiv. 26, 27; xxxvi. 36: Joel iii. 18: Amos ix. 13, 14. 

viii. Jerusalem shall be rebuilt, never to be destroyed, Isa. Iii. 1; 
xxvi. 1; lx. 18; xxxiii. 6: Joel iii. 17: Obad. xvii.; Zech. xiv. 10, 11: 
Jer. xxxi. 38-40: Ezek. xxxviii. 11. 

ix. A little before the time of the conversion of the Jews there shall 
be great wars and desolation, Isa. xxxiv.: Joel iii. 1-10: Zeph. iii. 8, 9; 

29* 



342 



SYSTEMS OF PROPHECY. 



Ezek. xxviii. 25, 26: Hag. ii. 21-23: Jer. xxx. 7-10: 2 Chron. 
xv. 3-7. 

Such is one view. Each passage is taken literally as it 
stands. The other view, looking at the typical character of 
the ancient Jews and the nature of prophetic language, re- 
gards the whole as applicable either to the first return from 
captivity, or subsequent return to the church of Christ under 
the dispensation of the Gospel, or the conversion of the Jews, 
and the establishment among them of that system which their 
own law prefigured. 

Before deciding on either view, let the student compare, 
humbly and prayerfully, the inspired interpretation of ancient 
prophecy as given in the New Testament. 

448. Mr. Bickersteth's Table gives events, in part, contem- 
poraneous with the preceding ; in part, subsequent to it. 

i. As the times of the Gen idles are passing away, their power is over- 
^ j j thrown, though vast numbers have been converted to the 
tio'n to the faith (Dan. ii. 7: Rev. vii. 9-14: Eom. xi. 25-32: Luke 
aricfcomine xx ^ 2 ^> 25) ; the Jews are visibly recalled into the church, 
of our Lord. Dan. ix. 27: Ezek. xx. 32-44: Isa. xlix. 9-12; lxii. 1. 

ii. They partake of renewed favor, are restored to their own land,* 
and are exposed to persecution from apostate Gentiles, who, under the 
last Antichrist, come against restored Israel. b 

ni. Soon, signs in the sun and stars appear, and the sign of the Son 
of Man himself is seen in the heavens. d 

iv. Christ raises his dead, changes his living saints, and they rise to 
be with him in the air, Matt. xxiv. 31 : Rev. xi. 15, 18: 1 Cor. xv. 

a Ezek. xxxvi. 1-38; xxxvii. 20-23: Psa. xxxvii. : Isa. xi. 11, 12; 
lxii. 4; lx. 21: Jer. xxxi. 1-6: Gen. xiii. 14-18 ; xv. 18-21 ; xvii. 7, 
8; xxvi. 3, 4: Exod. vi. 2-8: Lev. xxvi. 40-44: Deut. xxx. 4-6; 
xxxii. 43. 

b Jer. xxx. 1-9: Isa. x. 20-27: Dan. ix. 27: Isa. xxxi.; xxxiii. 
1-10: Ezek. xxxviii. 1-16: Dan. xi. 41-45: Joel ii. 1-20: Mic. iv. 
3-10; Dan. xii. 12. 

c Matt. xxiv. 20-29 : Luke xxi. 24-26 : Heb. xii. 26-28 : Hag. ii. 6, 
Isa. xiii. 9-11; xxxiv. 1-4: Joel ii. 12-15; ii. 31, 32: Mai. iv. 1-6. 

d Matt. xxiv. 29, 30: Isa. xviii. 3-7; xi. 12-14: Dan. viii. 13, 14: 
Matt, xxiii. 39 : Luke xvii. 24. 



SYSTEMS OF PROPHECY. 



843 



51-54: 1 Thess. iv. 15-17: 2 Thess. i. 7: Isa. xxvii. 12, 13: Rev. iii. 
10 : Isa. xxvi. 19-21 : Mai. iii. 17. 

v. The beast and the kings of the earth combine against the Lord, 8 
and he pours his judgments on Antichrist and his adherents, pleading 
with all flesh by fire and sword. b 

vi. The character of this dispensation is discriminating, punishing, 
and purifying (1 Cor. iii. 12-15 : Mai. iii. 3 : Zech. xiii. 9 : Mark ix. 42, 
50: Jer. xx. 9 ; xxiii. 29: Psa. xcviii. 3 : 1 Pet. iv. 12 : 2 Pet. iii. 10-13 : 
Rev. iii. 18). The Jews have a special promise (Isa. li. 16). The fire 
and tribulation have a crisis at the beginning (Ezek. xxxviii. 22; 
xxxix. 6 : Isa. lxvi. 15, 16), and again at the close of the millennial 
kingdom (Rev. xx. 9), Matt. xxiv. 1 : Dan. xii. 1 : Jer. xxx. 7 : Rev. 
xix. 20; xx. 9. 

vii. Christ descends on Olivet, with his saints, in sight of Israel, 6 
who welcome his coming. d Satan is bound : the millennial kingdom 
begins, over his saints and the nations not yet consumed.* 5 

viii. This reign very blessed, but rebellion still lurks among the 
nations. Satan loosed for a season, Zech. xiv. 17-19 ; Rev. xx. 9. 

ix. The final judgment, Rev. xx. 10-15. 

x. The new heavens and the new earth ; no more sea. The holy 
city descends, God is All in all, and the saints reign for ever and ever, 
Rev. xxi. ; xxii. 5. 

Whether all the details of this scheme are to be fulfilled 
literally and precisely in this order is not agreed, but the 

» Matt. xxiv. 30 : Rev. xi. 18 ; xvi. 14 : Isa. viii. 8-10 ; x. 24-26 ; 
xxiv. 21, 22; xxvii. 4; xxxi. 4; liv. 15; ixvi. 18: Joel iii. 1, 2: Mic. 
iv. 11-13 : Zeph. iii. 8, 9 : Zech. xii. 2-5 ; xiv. 1-5 : Rev. xix. 19. 

» Matt. xxiv. 36-39: Rev.xv. 1; xvi. 1 : Dan. ix.27: Isa. x. 24, 26; ■ 
xiv. 24, 26; xxiv. 21-23; xxxiv. 63: Rev. xix. 10-21: Joel iii. 11-16: 
Nah. xix. 11, 15 : Isa. xxx. 27-33 : Ezek. xxxviii. 17-23 : Dan. vii. 
9-14: Mai. iv. 1, 3 : Matt. iii. 12: 2 Thess. i. 8 ; ii. 8 : Rev. xix. 15, 20: 
Isa. lxvi. 16 : Rev. xix. 

c Acts i. 11: Zech. xiv. 4, 5, 10-14: Isa. lxiv. 1; lxvi. 1 ; lx. 13: 
Ezek. xliii. 7-9 : Isa. lxvi. 18, 19 : Isa. xxv. 9 : Matt, xxiii. 29 : Rom. 
xi. 26: Isa. lix. 20: Zech. ii. 10, 12. 

J Zech. xii. 10-14: Jer. xxxi. 8-12: Acts iii. 19-21: Isa. xii. 2,4: 
Psa. cxvii ; cxviii. 98 : Rev. xix. 1-6. 

e Isa. xxxii. 1: Dan. vii. 18, 27; xii. 4: Luke xxii. 28-30: John i. 
51 : Rev. xi. 18 ; xx. 4, 6. 



344 



THE COMING OF CHRIST. 



general plan itself is, on this system of interpretation, as ia 
here described. 

The other view of these passages we can only indicate. 
Those that are taken from ancient prophets, and have not yet 
been fulfilled, are interpreted spiritually of the church and its 
enemies, either in its present state, or when augmented by 
the conversion of the Jews, and yet large accessions from the 
Gentiles : those in 1 and 2 Thess. and in 1 Cor., that speak 
of the resurrection of the dead, are referred to the one resur- 
rection : and those that speak of the coming of our Lord 
are interpreted according to one or other of the following 
facts. 

i. " The coming of Christ" is an expression applied to his coming in 
the flesh, either— 

(a) . At his birth, John xvi. 28 : 1 John iv. 2, 3 : 2 John vii. : Matt, 
xviii. 11 ; xx. 28: Eph. ii. 17 : 1 Tim. i. 15. 

(b) . On his entering upon his ministry, Matt. iii. 11 : Mark i. 7 : 
Luke iii. 16: John i. 15, 30: Matt. xi. 17: John v. 43 ; ix. 39. 

ii. It is applied to any great, though invisible, interposition. 

(a) . As for punishment, or reward, Rev. ii. 15, 16; iii. 3: Matt. x. 
23 (?). 

(b) . As in the remarkable gift of the Spirit, John xiv. 18, 28 : Matt, 
xvi. 28 : Mark ix. 1. 

(c) . As in the destruction of Jerusalem, Matt. xxiv. 27 : Luke xxi. 
6, 7, 27 : Mark xiii. 26, ver. 30. 

iii. It is applied to his appearance for general judgment, Matt. xvi. 
27. and in many other places. 

i 

From this language it is concluded that, as Christ came in 
the flesh, at Pentecost, in Asia Minor to remove the privileges 
of apostate churches, in Judaea to destroy the ancient temple, 
so he will come in the fresh and enlarged outpouring of his 
Spirit, and at last, in person, for judgment. All " comings" 
for punishment being taken from the last, and all " comings" 
in grace from the first. His reign began at his resurrection 
and at Pentecost (Psa. ii. : Mark ix. 1: Rom. i. 4 : Heb. i. 5). 
After struggles of great principles, such as many of the pas- 



THE COMING OF CHRIST. 



345 



sages above quoted indicate, it will be completed, so far as 
eaetbly manifestation is concerned, in millennial glory. 

449, Having stated these different systems, we deem it un- 
necessary to examine or defend them. We mark Substantial 
rather their substantial agreement. The coming harmony, 
triumph of truth, the spirituality and glory of Christ's reign, 
the dignity and blessedness of his church, the consequent 
diminution of earthly evils, are common to both. Where they 
differ is rather in relation to the modes of accompaniments of 
these changes than to the changes themselves ; and in relation 
to these accompaniments, we can but commend the student to 
the disclosure of the New Testament and to the general 
principles of interpretation sanctioned in its quotations from 
the Old. See Chap. VI. 

450. In the interpretation of the times of prophecy, it is 
generally agreed that when years are not men- 0nthein . 
tioned, days are reckoned as years. This rule is terprefation 

' J •* of time in 

funded on several analogies, and is at least highly prophecy, 
probable. See Numb. xiv. 34 • Ezek. iv. 5, 6 ; where God 
expressly appoints " each day for a year." 

Again t the expression, " Time, times and a half time," is 
understood as meaning three prophetic years and a half, i. e. 
years of 360 prophetic days each, or 1260 years in all, the 
period assigned for the rise and fall of Antichrist, Dan. vii. 
25. See also Rev. xi. 2, 3, where the same period seems 
spoken of as 1260 days, or 42 months. 

Some of the most remarkable predictions of Scripture, how- 
ever, specify the time in years. Such are the 430 and 400 
years of the history of Abraham's descendants, Gen. xv. 13 : 
Exod. xii. 40 ; the sixty-five years foretold by Isaiah, in which 
Israel was to be broken, Isa. vii. 8; the seventy years of 
Judah's captivity ; and the seventy weeks of years (for the 
word day is not found in this passage), in which Messiah was 
to be cut off, Dan. ix. 26. 

Concerning the precise times foretold in the Scripture, it is 



346 



INTERPRETATION OF TIME. 



Time often clearly not God's intention to give us exact know- 
mterpreta- ledge. These are put in his own power, and there 
when fS is often very little of a sanctified spirit in seeking 
to know them. The prophecy sustains our hope, 
and elevates our feelings. It assures us of the final issue, and 
lays down certain prognostics highly useful for a moral and 
spiritual discernment of the Divine purpose, which, however, 
is very different from the merely mechanical process we have 
above condemned. Even in prophecies which have been ful- 
filled, the dates are often difficult of adjustment; a fact that 
should suggest humility and modesty in interpreting prophe- 
cies whose fulfilment is yet to come. 

The captivity, for example, lasted seventy years, and there are at least 
two different dates from which it may begin. 

From the carrying away of Daniel, to the decree of Cyrus, 2 Chron. 
xxxvi. 5-7 ; xxii. 

From the destruction of the temple in the days of Zedekiah, to the 
decree of Darius to restore it, 2 Chron. xxxvi. 14-21 : Ezek. vi. 

Prideaux adds a third, from the final deportation by Nebuzaradan, 
to the dedication of the temple, Jer. lii. 30 : Ezek. vi. 

The interpretation of the seventy weeks in Daniel is subject to alike 
difficulty. Volumes have been written on the precise date when the 
period begins, and though the meaning is now comparatively clear, the 
passage gave to the ancient Jew but a general idea of the time of the 
coming of our Lord. See Bickersteth on the Prophecies, p. 191 ; Hales, 
quoted by Dr. Kitto ; and Fuller on the Apocalypse, Dis. 30. 

"What, and what manner of time," are both proper sub- 
jects of inquiry in studying the prophets : but then we must 
remember that God gave us their predictions rather as part 
of our moral training than to gratify our curiosity and " he 
means that his providence, and not ours should be manifested 
by them to the world." — Sir I. Newton. 

451 Amidst all these .difficulties, two facts are highly con- 
solatory to the ordinary reader. 

Witb care, he will easily distinguish between prophecy, and 



SPIRITUAL LESSONS. 



347 



those parts of the prophetical writings which are Moral les- 

r * r ° . sons and 

purely historical or moral. Such portions are, as general 

. * meaning al- 

we have seen, frequent and highly instructive, ways clear. 
They contain affecting descriptions of the guilt and 
degradation of the Jews, powerful appeals, and striking exhi- 
bitions of the Divine character, but they must not be con- 
founded with the prophetic narrative. However mysterious 
the prophecy may be, the moral lesson is generally plain. See 
Jer. ix. 11-14. 

452. When the precise reference of any particular prophecy 
is not clear, its general meaning can often be ascertained. 

On reading Rev. vi. 1, 2, for example, it is plain that whatever be 
understood by the white horse, the era or event to which the prophet 
refers, and which is the first of a series, will be peaceful and prosperous ; 
as the era, or event described (vi. 3, 4), is one of persecution and blood- 
shed. Verses 5, 6, describe an era of equitable government, united with 
famine; verses 7, 8, an era of mortal sickness and ruin; verses 9-11, 
of severe protracted persecution; verses 12-17, the era of universal 
change, the oreaking up of empires, and the overthrow of established 
institutions. There may be a great difference of opinion as to what 
particular era or event these predictions refer, but the general charac- 
teristics of the era are admitted almost on all hands. 

So of the whole book of Revelation ; whatever be the meaning of 
specific terms, it clearly reveals the coming of our Lord in power and 
great glory; till that coming, the suffering and affliction of his church, 
and after it, her triumph and blessedness. How consolatory are these 
truths in every age, and how impressively are they revealed in nearly 
all the prophetic writings of Scripture. 

The moral and spiritual lessons, therefore, of prophecy, 
remain, and may be applied by all to stimulate their efforts, 
and sustain their faith. Obedience to these lessons is, more- 
over, the best preparation for understanding what is myste- 
rious : a special blessing being given to them " that read, and 
hear, and keep" the sayings which prophecy contains. 

453. In addition to predictions on the coming and work of our Lord 
(see part ii.), and those given in the prophets (ser, Introduc- 
tion to Prophetical Books, part ii.), it is important to no- ofScripture. 



348 



SYMBOLIC LANGUAGE. 



tice that nearly all the books of the Old Testament contain prophecies 
The principal events of Jewish history were, as Mr. Davison has re- 
marked, all foretold. A complete view of these predictions may be seen 
in Brown's "Harmony of the Scripture Prophecies," or in Simpson's 
"Key to the Prophecies," London, 1809/'' 

In the historical books, for example, from Gen. to 2 Chron., there are 
upwards of a hundred predictions recorded, with their fulfilments ; the 
whole supplying evidence of the truth of Scripture, or illustrating 
principles of prophetic interpretation. 

The flood, Gen. vi. 17 (vii. 21, 23). Canaan and Shem, ix. 25, 26 : 
(Josh. ix. 23 : 1 Kings ix. 20, 21). Ishmael's history, xvi. 12 (see Heb.: 
Job xxxix. 5); xxi. 20 (Isa. xxi. 17); xvii. 20 (Gen. xxv. 18). The re- 
building of Jericho, Josh. vi. 26 (1 Kings xvi. 34). Eli's house, 1 Sam. 
ii. 30; iv. 14, 17; xxii. 9-23 (1 Sam iv. 11 ; ii. 27: see Ezek. xliv. 15). 
Name and conduct of Josiah, 1 Kings xiii. 1-3 (2 Kings xxiii. 15-20 ; 
350 years after). 

454. The interpretation of symbolic or figurative language is a sub- 
ject of much difficulty. Full information in reference to it 
tionoTsym- must be sought for in such works as Wemyss's " Key to Sym- 
bol,s- bolical language/' Edin. 1835 ; Mills's " Sacred Symbology," 

1853 ; or Daubuz's " Preliminary Discourse in his Commentary on Reve- 
lation." The nature of this language may be gathered from the fol- 
lowing examples : 

Adultery, unfaithfulness to covenant, and so a symbol of idolatry, 
especially among an enlightened people, Jer. iii. 8 : Rev. ii. 22. 

Arm, s. of strength or power, Psa. x. 15: Isa. Hi. 10; a. made bare, of 
power put forth. 

Babylon, s. of an idolatrous, persecuting enemy of the church ; Rome 

especially, pagan and papal, Isa. xlvii. 12: Rev. xvii. 18. 
Balance, s. of fair dealing, Job xxxi. 6 ; or (when the sale of corn, 
etc., is indicated) of scarcity, Lev. xxvi. 26: Ezek. iv. 16: Rev. vi. 5. 
Beast, s. of a tyrannical, usurping power, or power merely worldly, 
Dan. vii. 3, 17 : Ezek. xxxiv. 28. 

Bear, s. of a fool-hardy, ferocious enemy, Prov. xvii. 12: Isa. xi. 
7 : Rev. xiii. 2. 

Bull, s. of a furious enemy, Psa. xxii. 12: Ezek. xxxix. 18; bul- 
locks = people, Jer. 1. 26 : and stalls = cities or houses. 

Dog, s of uncleanness and apostacy, Prov. xxvi. 11: Phil. iii. 2: 
Rev. xxii. 15 ; also of watchfulness, Isa. lxvi. 10. 

Crocodile (in Heb. of Job. vii. 1 2 : Isa. xxvii. 1 ; li. 9 : Ezek. xxix. 3 : 



SYMBOLIC LANGUAGE. 



349 



xxxii. 2: Psa. lxxiv. 13), s. of Egypt, and so of any anti- 
christian power, Eev. xi. 18 ; xiii. 1. 
Goat, s. of Macedonian kings (iEgeades), and especially of Alex- 
ander, Dan. viii. 5-7; s. of the wicked generally, Matt. xxv. 
32, 33. 

Hoese, s. of agencies fit for war and conquest, Zech. x. 3 : s. for 
speed, Joel ii. 4 : to ride, is to have dominion, Deut. xxxii. 13 : 
Isa. lviii. 14. 

Leopard, s. of a cruel and deceitful foe (Isa. xi. 6: Jer. v. 6: Hab. 

i. 8), Dan. vii. 6 : Rev. xiii. 2. 
Liosr, s. of one having energy and dominion, 2 Kings xxiii. 33 : 

Amos. iii. 8: Dan. vii. 4: Rev. v. 5. 
Locust, s. of a hostile, destroying army, Joel i. 2: Eev. ix; the 
chief called Abaddon, or Apollyon, i. e. th& destroyer, ver. 11. 
Bee, s. of Assyrian king, Isa. vii. 18, so represented in hieroglyphics ; 

also of any fierce invader, Deut. i. 44: Psa. cxviii. 12. 
Book, received, s. of inauguration, 2 Kin^s xi. 2 ; written within and 
without, of a long series of events ; sealed, of what is secret ; to eat a 
book, s. of consideration, Jer. xv. 16: Rev. x. 9; "the booh of life," 
the list in which the names of the redeemed are enrolled ; see Ezra 
ii. 62: Rev. iii. 5; a book opened, s. of the beginning of judgment, 
Rev. xx. 12. 

Bow, s. of conflict and victory, Rev. vi. 2; or (because apt to start 
aside) of deceit, Hos. ix. 16 : Jer. ix. 3. 

Brass, s. of baseness and obduracy, Isa. xlviii. 4 : Jer vi. 28 ; or of 
strength and firmness, Psa. cvii. 16 ; Isa. lxv. 4. 

Breast-plate, what protects a vital part, and strikes terror into an 
adversary, Isa. lix. 7 : 1 Thess. v. 18 : Rev. ix. 9. 

Brim (i. e. burning) stone, s. of torment, Job xviii. 15: Psa. ix. 6: 
Rev. xiv. 10 ; xx. 10. 

Chariot, s. of government or protection, 2 Kings ii. 12 : Psa. lxxx. 8 ; 
chariot and two riders, Isa. xxi. 7 ; Cyrus and Darius (Lowth). In 
Zech. vi. 1 ; the four great empires. Chariots of God, the hosts of 
heaven, Psa. lxviii. 18 : Isa, Ixvi. 15. 

Cherubim, s. of God's regal glory (Wemyss), Psa. xviii. 12; or of the 
Trinity and human nature of Christ (Parkhurst) ; of angels (Low- 
man, Pierce, Mack.) ; of the excellencies of God's servants (Taylor, 
Newc.) ; of angels and, in Revelation, of the redeemed (Mede) ; of 
God's manifested perfections: see Gen. iii. 23: Exod. xxv. 18, 22; 
xxxvii. 7, 9: Lev. xvi, 2: Numb. vii. 8, 9 : 1 Kings vi. 23; viii. 7: 
2 Chron. iii. 10, 13: Ezek. i. 10. - 

Color, s. of the nature of the thing to which it is applied ; black s. of 
30 



350 



SYMBOLIC LANGUAGE. 



anguish and affliction, Job xxx. 30: Rev. vi. 5-12; pale, of morta 
disease, Rev. vi. 8; red, of bloodshed, or victory, Zech. vi. 2: Rev. 

xii. 3 ; or of what cannot be discharged, Jsa. i. 18 ; white, of beauty 
and holiness, Ecc. ix. 8 : Rev. iii. 4 ; white and shining was the Jew- 
ish royal and priestly color, as purple was the Roman. 

Crown, s. of delegated authority, Lev. viii. 9 ; or of imperial authority 
and victory, Rev. xix. 12 (Greek, diadem). 

Cup, s. of enticing luxury, Rev. xvii. 11 ; of idolatrous rites, 1 Cor. x. 
21 ; of a man's portion, Rev. xiv. 10; xviii. 16. 

Drunkenness, of the folly of sin, Jer. li. 7 ; and of the stupidity pro- 
duced by Divine judgments, Isa. xxix. 9. 

Earthquake, s. of violent agitation, Joel, ii. 10: Hag. ii. 21: Rev. 
vi. 12. 

Eating, s. of meditation and communion with truth, Isa. lv. 1, 2; s. 
of results of previous conduct, Ezek. xviii. 2 ; s. of destruction of a 
man's peace or property, Rev. xvii. 16: Psa. xxvii. 

Egypt, s. of a proud, persecuting power, as Rome, Rev. xi. 8. 

Eyes, s. of knowledge, fidelity, glory, Zech. iv. 10 ; of government, 
Numb. x. 31. Evil eye = envy ; bountiful eye = liberality. 

Fire, s. of God's word, Jer. xxiii. 29: Hab. iii. 5: of destruction, Isa. 
xlii. 25: Zech. xiii. 9 ; of purification, Mai. iii. 2; of persecution, 
1 Pet. i. 7; of punishment and suffering, Mark ix. 44. 

First-born, had power over their brethren, Gen. xx. 37 ; were the 
priests of the family, Exod. xxiv. 5; were consecrated to God, Exod 

xiii. 1, 13; sanctified the family by their own acceptance, and had a 
double share of the inheritance, Deut. xxi. 17. See fleb. ii. 10, 11 ; 
iii. 1: Col. i. 12. 

Fish, s, of the rulers of the people, i. e. of the sea, Ezek. xxix. 4, 5 : 
Hab. i. 14. 

Forehead, written on, the mark of a priest, Lev. xix. 28; of a servant 
and of a soldier : see Rev. xxii. 4. Servants of idols wore a mark, a 
name, or a number : see Rev. xiii. 16. 

Forest, s. of city or kingdom ; tall trees the rulers, Isa. x. 17-34 ; xxxii. 
19 : Jer. xxi. 14 : Ezek. xx. 46. 

Frogs, s. of unclean, impudent enemies, Rev. xvi. 13. 

Garments, s. of qualities or condition; clean garments, s. of purity; 
white, of holiness, Psa. li. 7, or happiness, Isa. Iii. 1: Rev. iii. 4: 
Zech. iii. 3 ; to bestow garments was a mark of favor, 1 Sam. xvii. 4. 

Gems, s. of magnificence, beauty, variety : see table of gems. 

Grapes, ripe, s. of people ready for punishment, Rev. xiv. 18 ; gleaned, 
s. of a people carried away, Jer. Iii. 28-32. 

Hands, s. of actions ; pure hands, hands full of blood, etc., indicate 



SYMBOLIC LANGUAGE. 



351 



such actions, respectively, Psa. xc. 17: Job ix. 30: 1 Tim. ii. 8: Isa. i, 
15. To wash the hands,- s. of expiation, or of freedom from guilt, 
1 Cor. vi. 11 : 1 Tim. ii. 8 ; s. of power : the right hand is the place 
of favor, Mark xvi. 19 ; to give the hand of fellowship, s. of commu- 
nication of rights and blessings, Gal. ii. 9. To give the hand is to 
yield to another, Psa lxviii. 31 : 2 Chron. xxx. 8 (Heb.) ; to lift up the 
right hand was a sign of swearing, Gen. xiv. 22: Dan. xii. 7. Mark, 
on the hand, s. of servitude and of idol worship, Zech. xiii. 6 ; hands 
put on another, s. of transmission of blessing, authority, or guilt, 
Gen. xlviii. 14-.20: Dan. x. 10; hands of God laid on a prophet, in- 
dicates spiritual influence, 1 Kings xviii. 46 : Ezek. i. 3 ; iii. 22 ; his 
finger, less influence ; his arm, greater. 

Harp, a s. of praise and joy, Psa. xlix. 5; xxxiii. 2; used especially 
after victory, 2 Chron. xx. 28: Isa. xxx. 32: Rev. xiv. 1, 2. 

Earvest, s. of time of destruction, Jer. Ii. 33: Isa. xvii. 5: Rev. xiv. 
14-18 ; sickle, the s. of the instrument, Joel iii. 13 ; s. of time of com- 
plete deliverance, or ingathering ; so (Horsley) Hos. vi. 11 ; s. of the 
field of labor for the church, Matt. ix. 26. 

Heaven and Earth, used in a threefold sense ; the invisible and 
moral, the visible and literal, and the political. In the last senses 
heaven is a s. of rulers ; earth, of the people ; heaven and earth, of 
a kingdom or polity, Isa. Ii. 15, 16 ; lxv. 17 : Jer. iv. 23, 24 : Matt, 
xxiv. 29. 

To fall from heaven, is to lose dignity ; heaven opened, is a new phase 
in the political world ; a door opened in heaven, the beginning of a 
new government: see Hag. ii. 6-22. Sun, moon, stars, are s. of au- 
thorities, supreme or secondary, Isa. xxiv. 21, 23 : Joel ii. 10 : Rev. 
xii. 1. 

Horn, s. of power, Amos vi. 13 (Heb.): Deut. xxxiii. 17 (see Josh. xvii. 

14-18) : 1 Kings xxii. 11 : Mic. iv. 13 ; so of regal dignity, Jer. xlviii. 

25: Dan. viii. 9: Rev. xiii. 1. Horns of the altar, when touched, 

formed a sanctuary, Exod. xxi. 14: Amos iii. 14: Jer. xvii. 1. 

Horns, or rays, were part of the glory ascribed to God, Deut. xxxiii. 

2: Hab. iii. 4 (Heb.), and to Moses. 
Incense, a s. of prayer, Psa. cxli. 2: Rev. viii. 4: Mai. i. 11 ; it was 

offered with fire taken from the burnt offering. 
Key, a s. of authority ; a commission to open or shut, Isa. xxii. 22 : 

Rev. i. 18; iii. 7; xx. 1. 
Lamp (so "candle" should be translated), a s. of light, joy, truth, and 

government, Rev. ii. 5: see Exod. xxv. 31, 32: 1 Kings xi. 36; i.e. 

a successor shall never fail, Psa. cxxxii. 17. 



352 



SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 



Manna, s. of Divine, immortal sustenance, Rev. ii. 17: see Exod. xvi« 
33, 34. 

Maeeiage, s. of a state of union under covenant, and so of perfection, 

Isa. liv. 1-6: Rev. xix. 17. 
Measuee, to, or divide, s. of conquest and possession, Isa. liii. 12: 

Zech. ii.. 2: Amos vii. 17, where re-measurement implies re-possession. 
Mothee, s. of the producer of anything, Rev. xvii. 5 ; s. of a city, 

whose inhabitants are her children, 2 Sam. xx. 19 : Isa. xlix. 23 ; of 

the metropolis, whose daughters are dependent cities, Isa. 1. 1 : Hos. 

ii. 2, 5; of the New Testament church, Gal. iv. 26.. 
Mountain, s. of stability and greatness, Isa. ii. 2: Dan. ii. 35. 
Teees, tall, s. of rulers, Ezek. xxxi. 5-9 ; low, s. of common men, Rev. 

vii. 1 ; viii. 7. 

Teumpet, blown, s. of the warning of the approach of important 
events. 

Vine, s. of luxuriant productiveness, Jer. ii. 21 : Hos. xiv. 7: Rev. xiv. 

18 ; vintage, of the destruction of such, Rev. xiv. 19. 
Viegins, s. of faithful servants, uncorrupted by idolatry, Rev. xiv. 4. 
Wind, agitating the air, s. of commotions ; restrained, of tranquility, 

Rev. vii. L 



CHAPTER V. 

ON THE SYSTEMATIC AND INFEEENTIAL STUDY OF THE 
SCEJPTUKES. 

" Inferences from Scripture that appear to be strictly legitimate must 
be received with the greatest caution, or, rather, decidedly rejected, 
except as they are supported by explicit Scripture declarations."— 
Beidges : On the Christian Ministry. 

l< No science is more strictly inductive than theology. -. . .The Bible 
is a record of words and facts . . . and our duty is to analyze them : 
reducing them, by a method strictly inductive, into a proper order, and 
then deducing" (rather gathering) " from them the legitimate general 
truth." — Bishop of Kentucky. 

" A Bible Christian insensibly borrows and unites what is excellent 
in all systems, perhaps without knowing how far he agrees with them, 
because he finds in all the written word." — Newton: Works, vi. 418. 



SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 



353 



Sec. 1. — On the Study of the Doctrines of Scripture. 

455. It is obvious that truth may be revealed in different 
forms; either authoritatively, as law ; or historically, by way 
of example; in promise, or in doctrine. The truths of the 
Bible are revealed in all these forms, and each often involves 
the other. A command includes a doctrine ; a doctrine, a 
promise ; and both doctrine and promise, correspondent duty. 

456. If the commands, and doctrines and promises of Scrip- 
ture were respectively placed by themselves, we geripture 
should have a system of truth on one principle of arranged 

. . P i . , according 

arrangement. And if the doctrines and precepts to theforms 
which refer to each truth of Scripture were placed 
together, we should then have a system of truth on a different 
principle. In the first case, Scripture truth would be classi- 
fied under the form of the statement, which may be percep- 
tive, promissory, or doctrinal. In the second, the „ 

r . 'Or accord- 

Various forms of Scripture statement would be clas- in § , t0 the 

truths 

sified under the truths to which they respectively themselves, 
refer. By the careful student, both principles of arrangement 
are combined. That view of the whole which puts the cor- 
rect meaning upon every part of the Divine word, and assigns 
to every truth and duty such a place, both in order and im- 
portance, as properly belongs to it, each truth and duty honor- 
ing the rest, and itself appearing to the greatest advantage, 
is the true system of divinity. 

457. Nor is the necessity of such arrangement peculiar to 
the Bible. Both in nature and in providence facts , 

. 1 Arrange- 

and obi ects are scattered in endless variety. It is mentnot 

. . peculiar to 

the business of science to detect amongst them all scripture, 
unity and order. The general laws that regulate the universe 
therefore, and the rules of conduct by which men govern 
their lives, are alike facts reduced to system by intelligence 
and care. In both cases, too, we employ the same principle 
of investigation — the great principle of the inductive philo- 
sophy. The texts of Scripture form the basis of theology, as 
30* 



354 SYSTEMATIC STUDY OF SCRIPTURE IMPORTANT. 



the facts of nature form the basis of natural science, or as the 
facts of consciousness form the basis of mental philosophy. In 
the Bible, however, we have this advantage, that while in 
nature facts are the only data from which we gather general 
laws, in Scripture we find the general laws of truth and duty, 
as well as particular instances in which those laws are seen to 
be applied, the uses of life. 

458. The systematic study of the Bible (it must be observed) 
interpreta- differs very materially from the interpretation of it. 
tion and Interpretation is concerned only with the meaning 

systematic x J n 

truth differ, of individual passages: Systematic Theology con- 
siders them in their relation to one another and to ourselves. 

459. When it is said that we study the doctrines of Scrip- 
Precept ^ Ure * n ^ S P rece P^ s > we em hody an important truth, 
involves Between the doctrines and precepts of Christianity 

doctrine. . / * J 

there is an essential connection. Not only does doc- 
trine contain by implication a command, but it exhibits such 
views of truth as are adapted by God to excite holy affections, 
and those affections are the immediate principles of holy con- 
duct. The belief of the doctrines of the Gospel, and obedi- 
ence, are therefore inseparable. " Morality is religion in 
practice, and religion is morality in principle." He that loves 
God keeps his commandments, and he that keeps the command- 
ments loves God. Man may attempt to put asunder the 
things which God has thus joined. He may explain truth so 
as to destroy morality, making " void the law through faith," 
or he may hold "the truth in unrighteousness." . But God's 
design is that truth should always promote holiness, as it is 
essential to it. Holiness, therefore, is never found without 
truth; and if ever truth be found without holiness, it is be- 
cause the perverseness of human nature has succeeded in 
parting them. 

460. The systematic study of Scripture has been singularly 
importance misrepresented. Some hold that there can be no 
tematic intelligent knowledge of Scripture without it, and 

Btudyof . . . 

Scripture, others, that it is useless; a remnant, in fact, of 



RULES FOB, FRAMING A SYSTEM. 



355 



scholastic habits, which it is for the interest of the church 
to destroy. Both these views, however, are wrong. The 
passages of the Bible which contain clear summaries of 
truth are so numerous (Tit. ii. 11-14 : Eph. ii. 4-10), that a 
good man will often gather, without knowing it, a compre- 
hensive and sound system. On the other hand, to repudiate 
system compels us either to confine ourselves in statements 
of doctrine to Scripture language ; or it exposes us to the risk 
of misrepresenting one doctrine in enforcing another; or, 
more commonly still, it tempts us to overlook the due pro- 
portion or connection of doctrines, and so lead us into error, 
the more seductive that it is founded partially on truth. 
" General principles drawn from particulars," says Locke, 
"are the jewels of knowledge, comprehending great store in 
little room : but these are therefore to be used with the 
greater care and caution, lest, if we take counterfeit for true, 
our loss be the greater when our stock comes to a severe 
scrutiny." 

461. The Bible may be studied systematically for a double 
purpose ; either, first, to ascertain the doctrines of Theol 
Scripture, or secondly, to determine its rules of anf practi- 
morality and holiness. The system of doctrine cai - 
thus framed is called dogmatic, or doctrinal theology ; and the 
system of duty, moral, or practical theology ; both, however, 
being most closely interwoven in Scripture as they are in 
human experience. 

462. In gathering doctrinal truth from Scripture, we bring 
together all the texts that refers to the same sub- „ 

° _ How 

ject, whether they be doctrines, precepts, promises, framed, 
or examples ; impartially compare them ; restrict the expres- 
sions of one text by those of another ; and explain the whole 
consistently. When the proposition which we derive from 
the passages examined embodies all they contain, and no more, 
it may then be regarded as a general Scriptural truth. 

463. The following rules are equally obvious and import- 
ant. 



356 



RULES FOR FRAMING A SYSTEM. 



Rules. We must gather our views of Christian doctrine 

New 1 Testa- 6 primarily from the New Testament, interpreting its 
statements consistently with one another, and with 
the facts and clear revelations of the Old. 

In carrying out this rule it is necessary to explain ambigu- 
ous and figurative passages by those that are clear and literal; 
2 Local anc ^ P assa S es i 11 which a subject is briefly described 
classical. with those in which it is largely discussed ; and 
general assertions by others (if such they be) which treat of 
the same truth with some restriction or exceptions. 

Not only must the passages which speak of the samejioo- 
id ^ ne ^ e ex plai ne( i consistently with one another, 
consist- but each doctrine must be held consistently with 
other doctrines. 

The Scriptures teach, for example, on a comparison of passages, that 
repentance, faith, and obedience, are the gifts of God. a Do we there- 
fore gather that men are guiltless if they do not repent and believe, 
and obey the gospel ? or do we deem it needless to exhort men to re- 
pentance, obedience and faith ? If so, our views are unsound, for the 
guilt of impenitence is charged entirely upon man. b His unbelief is 
declared to be his great sin and the ground of his condemnation ; c and 
not to obey God is everywhere condemned. Men are exhorted, too, to 
repent, d and believe, and obey. So Samuel taught the Israelites, and 
so Peter exhorted Simon Magus and the murderers of our Lord. 6 

Though truths may be revealed in Scripture which it is 
dim cult for us to harmonize, yet one truth so held as to con- 
tradict another is not held as the Bible reveals it. 
4. Truth to Employ and interpret the doctrines of Scripture 
practical 01 with special regard to the practical purposes for 
purposes, which the Scripture reveals them. 

The use made in Scripture, for exmaple, of the doctrine of election 
is highly instructive. However the doctrine itself be regarded, all 
agree in admitting that it can involve no capricious fondness without 

• John xv. 5 : Acts vi. 31 : Eph. ii. 8 : Phil, i, 29 ; ii. 13 : 1 Pet. i. 2. 
b Matt. xi. 20, 21 : Rev. ii. 20, 21. c John iii. 18 ; xvi. 9. 
d Mark i. 15. ■ Acts iii. 19 ; viii. 22. 



RULES FOE, FRAMING A SYSTEM. 



357 



reason or wisdom; nor can it be regarded as affection founded upon 
our merit, or as seeking for its ultimate end our happiness. It is rather 
an exhibition of the character of God, which represents him as acting 
in pursuance of his own purpose, and while securing that purpose, as 
displaying his glory and promoting the general good. The doctrine is 
introduced in Scripture, too, only for such objects as these; to declare 
the source of salvation to be the undeserved favor of God, and to cut 
off all hope of acceptance by works, as in Eom. xi. 5, 6 ; to account for 
the unbelief of the Jews without excusing it, as in Rom. ix. ; or to 
show the certain success of Christ's kingdom in defiance of all hostility, 
as in Matt. xxi. 42: John vi. 37. Considered without reference to 
these facts, it might be made the ground of a charge of caprice, or it 
might become (as among the Jews) the nourishment of self-conceit ; or 
it might be used to destroy the doctrine of human responsibility or 
the duty of Christian devotedness. The doctrine systematically con- 
sidered, viewed, that is, in connection with the truths among which it 
stands, and applied for the purposes for which the inspired teachers 
used it, has a humbling and sanctifying tendency. 

The doctrine of Satanic influence, again, is taught in Scripture ; but 
only to give us a clearer perception of the value of the work of Christ, 
and to excite us to greater watchfulness and prayer, 2 Cor. iv. 4 : Eph. 
ii. 2; vi. 12: John xiii. 27: Luke viii. 30: Rev. xii. 9: 1 John iii. 8: 
Eph. vi. 11-18, etc. 

The mysterious connection between the first offence and the fact that 
all are under condemnation is clearly affirmed in the 5th chapter of the 
Epistle to the Romans, and in 1 Cor., but only to magnify the grace of 
God in our redemption by Christ. 

The doctrine of the Trinity is a revelation of God in relation to man; 
and, though sometimes introduced as an article of faith simply, (as in 
the rite of baptism), it is generally in connection with spiritual bless- 
ings, and especially with the scheme of redemption, 2 Cor. xiii. 14. 

It must be remembered, again, that deductions drawn by 
reason from propositions founded on the statements 5- Deduc- • 

~ -i . tions from 

of Scripture are not to be deemed inspired unless Scripture 

, , , i not necessa- 

those deductions are themselves revealed. niy true. 

It is certain, for example, that distinct acts of personal agency, which 
are in some passages ascribed simply to God, are ascribed elsewhere to 
the Father, or to the Son, or to the Holy Ghost, and that worship and 
adoration are claimed for each. We may say, therefore, that there .are 
three Persons in the Godhead, and but one God : or that there is a 



358 



EELATIVE IMPOBTANCE OF TRUTH. 



Trinity in Unity. We thus express Scripture truth in a convenient 
form. But if we attempt to explain this truth, or to draw from the 
phraseology employed other remote conclusions, we may either darken 
counsel by words without knowledge, or gather lessons which God has 

not taught. 

Or again, that all men are sinners, and that the holiest acts of the 
best men come short of the requirements of the Divine law, are truths 
revealed in Scripture, and we comprehend them both in the general 
statement that men are totally depraved ; but if from this statement we 
gather the conclusion that all men are sinners in the same degree, the 
conclusion, though seemingly involved in the statement, is not a lesson 
of Scripture, but an inference drawn by human reason, not from God's 
word, but from the imperfect language of man. All men are bound to 
believe Scripture, and he that believes Scripture believes all that is seen 
to be contained therein. But " no man," says Jeremy Taylor, "is to be 
pressed with consequences drawn from thence, unless the transcript be 
drawn by the same hand that wrote the original. For we are sure it 
came, in the simplicity of it, from an infallible Spirit ; but he that bids 
me believe his deductions bids me believe that he is an unerring logician ; 
for which God has given me no command, and himself can give me no 
security."* 

Concerning all doctrines, indeed, which are peculiar to 
Scripture, the rule of the martyr Ridley is as Christian as it 
is philosophical. " In these matters," says he, " I am so fear- 
ful that I dare not speak further ; yea, almost none otherwise 
than the text doth, as it were, lead me by the hand." 

But besides ascertaining the truths of the Gospel, it is not 
6 Truth in ^ ess i m P or tant in framing a system of truth to as- 
jl^ompara- certain their relative importance ; and if possible, the 
portance. order in which Scripture reveals them. With this 
view, notice : 

1. What things are omitted in one book, or in several, or in 
Compara man y> an( l then gather the conclusion that what are 
tive impor- omitted are probably not as important as those that 

tance. now r J A 

ascertained. are included in all. 

2. Mark the subjects which are oftenest recommended to 
attention by our Lord, and by his apostles. 



a " Dissuasives against Popery." 



GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 



359 



If it be asked, for example, what is the most memorable circumstance 
in the institution of the last supper, the reply is, its commemorative 
character: for this peculiarity is thrice mentioned in the words of the 
institution, 1 Cor. xi. 24, 25, 26. 

A rule of the Divine procedure is on the same ground of obvious 
importance. Thrice is it intimated by our Lord, and in each case with 
much emphasis, that gifts habitually exercised are increased, while 
gifts habitually neglected are withdrawn. Matt. xiii. 12; xxv. 29: 
Luke xix. 26. So of humility, which is mentioned with peculiar honor 
iio less than seven times in the first three Gospels, Matt, xviii. 4, etc. 

3. Observe carefully what is common to the two dispensa- 
sations, the Christian and the Jewish. 

In both the unity and spirituality of God, his power and truthful- 
ness, are frequently revealed. So among our first duties are gratitude 
and love. The numerous injunctions in the law, respecting sacrifices, 
and the prominence given to the truth, that Christ was "once offered to 
bear the sins of many," illustrate the paramount importance both of the 
doctrine, and of appropriate feelings in reference to it, Heb. ix. 28. 

4. Observe the value ascribed in Scripture itself, to any 
truth or precept which it contains.* Sometimes a quality is 
set forth as essential, " Without faith it is impossible to please 
God." Sometimes one quality is preferred to another, as love 
to both faith and hope, 1 Cor. xiii. It is on this principle 
that much importance is attached to the qualifications which 
are to regulate the decisions of the day of judgment. Such 
as faith, and the right government of our thoughts, words, 
feelings, actions, habits and dispositions. b 

The reader may apply the foregoing rules to ascertain the 
importance of the death and resurrection of our Lord, and the 
connection of both with justification and holiness, e. g. 

a See 'Exposition of the Gospel of Luke," by James Thomson, D.D., 
Introd. 

b John iii. 15: Matt. xv. 18, 20; xiii. 43, 49; xvi. 27: Rom. ii. 6: 
Gal. vi. 8: Rev. xiv. 13: 1 John iii. 23. These passages all prove that 
the design of the Gospel is not only pardon but holiness, and that 
meetness for heaven includes both title and character. 



360 



APPARENT CONTRADICTIONS. 



Gal. ii. 20; iii. 1; iii. 13; v. 24; v. 11 ; vi. 12, 14. 1 Cor. i. 13, 17, 
18, 23 ; ii. 2, 8 ; v. 7 ; viii. 11 ; xi. 26 ; xv. 3. Rom. iii. 24, 25 ; iv. 24 
25; v. 8, 19 ; vi. 5-8, 10 ; yiii. 3, 32 ; xiv. 15. Eph. i. 7 ; ii. 16 ; v. 2 : 
Col. i. 14, 18-20, etc. 

The fact of the resurrection and ascension of our Lord, as 
an evidence of the completion and acceptance of his work, and 
as a pledge of the resurrection of his people, is mentioned in 
the Epistles alone, more than fifty times. Any view of the 
Gospel, therefore, which gives to these doctrines a second place, 
is clearly not the Gospel of Scripture. 

464. One or two general principles may be laid down to aid 
Canons on * n application of these rules, 
theappiiea- \ m Nothing must be made a matter of faith which 

tionot these _ & 

rules. ig no t a matter of revelation. 

2. In studying the Bible, there must be an indifferent judg- 
ment till the truth itself decides. Allow no bias but what is 
received from the Scriptures themselves, otherwise our knowl- 
edge will be only inclination and fancy. 

3. The same prominence should be given to each doctrine, 
as is given to it in Scripture. 

4. Where the doctrine of Scripture is important and neces- 
sary, the Scripture will be found full and clear. Where Scrip- 
ture is not full and clear, the doctrine is either in itself not 
important, or the certain knowledge of it does not belong to 
our present state. 

5. The Bible being inspired cannot really contradict itself. 
Of apparent contradictions, some are merely verbal, and the 
right interpretation of the words will remove the difficulty. 
Others, which originate in the doctrines themselves, may be 
solved by one or other of the three following rules. 

(a.) When the same action is affirmed of different persons, 
there is a sense in which it is true of both. 

It is said, for example, ten times, -that Pharaoh hardened his heart, 
and ten times, that God hardened Pharaoh's heart ; and both statements 
are in a sense true. What the sense is not, may be gathered from Scrip- 



APPARENT CONTRADICTIONS. 



361 



ture revelations of God's character ; what the sense is, may be told us 
in Scripture, or it may not. If it is not, that sense is one of the secret 
things which "belong unto God." If it is, then both the sense which 
reconciles the statements, and the statements themselves are revealed. 

Instances in which the same act is ascribed in Scripture to different 
persons. 

Exod. xviii. 17-26: Deut. i. 9-13, in relation to the appointment of 
judges. Numb. xiii. 1-20: Deut. i. 22, on sending the spies. 2 Sam. 
xxiv. 1 : 1 Chron. xxi. 1, in the numbering of the people by David. 

(£.) When apparently contradictory qualities are ascribed 
in Scripture to the same person or object, there is a sense in 
which both assertions are true. 

There is a sense, for example, in which all men are sinners, and there 
is a sense in which some men (those born of God), do not commit sin 
(1 John), and both senses are Scriptural. What those senses are must 
be gathered from the Bible, if they be revealed. If not revealed, we 
believe the statements and wait for further light. There is a sense, 
also, in which God visits the sins of the fathers upon the children, and 
there is a sense in which the children do not bear the sins of the fathers, 
Exod. xx. 5; Ezek. xviii. 20. Either the effects of the father's sin fall 
temporarily upon his children, though each man's final destiny is the 
result of his own conduct, or the first passage may be limited to those 
who hate him ; in their case there is an accumulation of punishment. 

(<?.) When one thing is said in Scripture to secure salva- 
tion, and the want of another thing is said to exclude from it, 
the existence of the one necessarily implies the existence of 
the other. 

It is said, for example, that faith saves us, and yet no one can be 
saved who hates his brother. Both statements are true; and, in fact, 
we find that faith and love are never disjoined. 

This is the canon that reconciles the prerogatives of faith 
with the promises made to character, as in the sermon on the 
Mount. It is not that such characters having faith, are 
blessed, for the promise is absolute; but it is, that faith forms 
such characters, and so brings the believer within the range 
of the promise. 
§1 



362 



PRINCIPLES OF MORALITY. 



Sec. 2. — The Precepts of Scripture. 

465. The study of Scripture doctrine lias been placed first 
^, in this chapter for a double reason. Most of the 

sentiaito rules applicable to the study of the first, are appli- 
cable to the study of all. It will be found, more- 
over, that Scripture doctrine is at the foundation of all true 
morality. The Gospel begins its message with the "story of 
peace," unfolding the pardoning mercy of God through the 
death of his Son. It then exhibits its truths as motives to 
holiness When these truths have taken possession of the 
heart, they teach us to perceive in Scripture the requirements 
of a high and spiritual obedience : and under their influence 
we learn to serve in newness of spirit, and not in the oldness 
of the letter. This is the order, therefore, of human expe- 
rience ; knowledge in the heart, or truth, precedes knowledge 
in practice, or goodness : or, in simple Scripture language, 
man is sanctified by faith, through the operation of the Holy 
Spirit. 

466. When the reader of the Bible has examined and clas- 

sified its precepts, he will find that it is rather a 

Scripture . „ 

a book of book of principles than of directions. And of prin- 
prinop.c s. c -pj eg ^ n a c[ ou b;[ e gense : Its precepts refer rather 

to motives than to actions, which motives are called the prin- 
ciples, or beginnings of action : and moreover, its precepts are 
comprehensive maxims, and are, therefore, rather principles 
of morality than specific rules. When it speaks of holiness, 
it means faith, well-regulated affection, inward purity, and 
moral rectitude of disposition, and these it represents, not as 
the ground of our salvation, but as its evidence and result. 
. of The law of the ten commandments, which seems at 
motives. fi rs fc to refer to practice only, is summed up by our 
Lord, in the form of love to God and to man ; humility and 
evangelic faith towards God, and all holy conduct towards 
our fellows being the appropriate utterance of these inward 
feelings. This apparent peculiarity of the Gospel scheme was 



PRECEPTS, MORAL AND POSITIVE. 



363 



the more striking in the time of our Lord, from the fact that 
Jewish tradition had given undue importance to ritual zeal 
and punctuality : and it accounts for much of the opposition 
which the first teachers of the truth encountered. That it is 
a peculiarity also of the law is plain, both from the nature of 
its precepts and from the teaching of our Lord, for when he 
impresses upon his hearers the importance of inward disposi- 
tions, he never speaks of the law as faulty, but merely frees 
it from the glosses of the Pharisees, and unfolds its spiritual 
meaning. See also Mark xii. 32-34. 

467. Even when the precepts of the Gospel are given in a 
specific form, they are often intended as descriptive „ 

r J r Even speci- 

rather of character than of specific acts. The com- nc rules in- 

x . volve prin- 

mand of our Lord, "If any man will sue thee at the cipies. 
law to take away thy coat, let him have thy cloak also," 
is an instance, Matt. v. 40. A specific compliance with the 
precept would be seldom practicable. To wait for the occa- 
sion when it can be applied, or even to apply it at all, might 
be of little service ; but to cherish the disposition at which it 
aims is to take one of the likeliest means of promoting our 
holiness. 

468. It is another peculiarity of the precepts of the Gospel 
that they are generally expressed in comprehen- 
sive terms, and that the application of them, and general 
the distinctions that attend it, are left to the reason maxims * 
of the reader. It is true that the laws are so plain as to j 
leave a conscientious and teachable mind in little danger of mis- 
take. Still, it is part of our discipline that we are left to apply 
them. There is such clearness in the command, that he that 
runneth may read ; but withal, such possibility of error as 
proves God to be testing " what is in our hearts, and whether 
we will keep his commandments or not." 

469. Applying these distinctions to the moral law, whether 
given in the Old Testament or in the New, it may The moral 
be observed — law - 

1. That whatever evil it prohibits in the highest degree it 



364 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MORAL AND POSITIVE PRECEPTS. 



prohibits in the lower. Murder and the malignant passions 
in every stage, adultery and the sins of the flesh, fraud and 
wrong, false accusation in private intercourse and in courts of 
law, theft, and covetous, discontented desires, are all con- 
demned ; and 

2. That when sin is forbidden, the opposite duty is enjoined, 
and when any duty is enjoined, the opposite sin is forbidden. 
It forbids the use of images of invisible things for purposes 
of worship, and thus enjoins spiritual service. In excluding 
every other object of religious worship, it implies that God is 
to be worshipped, reverenced, and loved. It surrounds the 
parental relation with sanctity and honor, and thus condemns 
the difference of false independence which are too often in- 
dulged. This apparent extension of the meaning of inspired 
precepts is the necessary result of the general truth that 
the Scriptures are a book of principles, checking or fostering 
dispositions, and speaking in the language of comprehensive 
command. 

470. Keeping in mind that the precepts of Scripture refer 
chiefly to the dispositions of the soul, that they are expressed 
for the most part in general terms, and that the application 
of them is left to the reader, we need still to notice an im- 
portant distinction between these precepts themselves. 

Some are called moral and others positive, and the distinc- 
Morai pre- ^ on ^ s ^ ounc ^ e( i on Scripture itself. Bishop Taylor 
cepts and defines moral precepts as having their measure in 

positive de- . . 

fined. natural reason, while in positive precepts the rea- 
sons and measure are incidental, economical, or political. The 
reason of the first is eternal, the reason of the second tem- 
porary. Bishop Butler and Dr. Doddridge, again, define the 
first as precepts, the reasons for which we see ; and the second 
as precepts, the reasons for which we do not see. By com- 
bining these definitions, we may, perhaps, obtain one sounder 
than either. Positive precepts refer only to outward acts, and 
to such outward acts as do not naturally flow from an obedient 
heart ; moral precepts, on the other hand, have reference to 



RELATIVE CLAIMS OF EACH. 



365 



inward holiness, or to acts as the natural expression of hoi/ 
feeling. Both are, within certain limits, obligatory, and the 
neglect of either has its peculiar aggravations. To violate 
moral laws is to disobey our reason and God. To violate 
positive laws is to sin where temptation is commonly feeblest, 
and where disobedience involves a direct denial of Divine 
authority. 

Some precepts (it is obvious) are mixed in their nature, 
being partly moral and partly positive. Such is 
the law of the Sabbath. That creatures, framed as 
man is, should present some united worship is a moral duty ; 
but whether that worship be presented on the seventh or the 
first day of the week must be decided by positive law. It is 
obvious, too, that in the use of the words of this distinction 
we are liable to mistake. Moral duties are positive, in the 
sense of being expressly commanded ; and positive duties are 
moral, in the sense of requiring holy motive in fulfilling them ; 
guilt, too, is incurred, if they be regarded witn indifference or 
contempt. 

471. Positive laws however differ widely from those which 
are strictly moral. T ,. ,. ,. 

J Distinction 

between 

In their nature. The moral are intrinsically holy and them - 
immutable ; the positive are the indifferent till the precept is given. 
Under the law, for example, to look at the brazen serpent, to sprinkle 
the door-posts with blood, were acts of no obligation till God had 
commanded them, and both were temporary in their duration. 

In their evidence. The moral precept is written, though often nearly 
effaced, in the heart ; but the positive precept in the Bible only. The 
latter, therefore, is a matter of pure revelation, and differences among 
Christians in reference to them are more easy and (may we not say ?) 
less inexcusable. 

In their ground. Moral precepts are founded in the nature of God 
and of man, and in the relation that subsists between them ; positive 
precepts in God's will alone. That will is doubtless guided by wisdom, 
and the general design of many positive precepts are even obvious. 
Baptism, and the Lord's Supper, and the Sabbath, for example, are all 
adapted to a specific end; but why these ordinances only, and not 
others, is not revealed. 
31* 



366 



RELATIVE CLAIMS TO EACH. 



In the extent of their obligation, moral precepts are universally 
binding. There is no state conceivable to which God's moral dominion 
does not extend. Positive precepts, on the other hand, are particular. 
The ceremonial law included the Jews, but not the Gentiles. Worship- 
ping in groves was allowed to the patriarchs (Gen. xxi. 23), but wa3 
forbidden to the children of Israel (Deut. xvi. 21). Under the Gospel 
it is different (John iv. 21). Other observances were binding on the 
priests but not on the people. So, under the Gospel, those only must 
partake of the Lord's Supper on whom that ordinance is enjoined. 

They differ, further, in their observance. Moral precepts, inculcating 
principles, are obeyed by a thousand different actions. Positive pre- 
cepts, controlling conduct only, are uniform, and are to be observed 
according to the prescription and letter of the law. 

And lastly, in their connection. Moral precepts are necessarily con- 
nected. Positive precepts may be so by authority, but are not so in 
nature. Faith is followed by hope, and joy, and love. Love to God 
strengthens our sorrow for offending and our fear' to offend; and love 
to man, fidelity and beneficence. But circumcision did not imply 
holiness or ceremonial purity. Institutions may be observed apart, 
"but virtues go ever," says Bishop Hall, " in troops." 

472. In reference to the application of these laws, moral 
and positive, it must be remembered — 

Rules for r ' 

applying 1. That moral precepts never really contradict 
one another. If there be apparent contradiction, 
we have misinterpreted the meaning or the limits of the law. 

2. Positive institutions, being founded exclusively on the 
law of God, admit of no additions in number to those it 
reveals. Institutions professedly of Divine original must not 
only not be forbidden in Scripture, they must be expressly 
commci tided. To increase the number of such institutions, says 
Dr. Whichcote, " lessens the number of things lawful, brings 
the consciences of men into bondage, multiplies sin in the 
world, makes the way narrower than God has made it, and 
his church." 

3. When positive precepts interfere with the observance of 
the moral law, they must yield the outward rite to the expres- 
sion of holy feeling, the offering of sacrifice to the dictates of 
mercy, the keeping of a Sabbath to the law of love. 



PROMISES UNIVERSAL AND PECULIAR. 367 



4. God rejects his own positive institutions when men make 
them final, or put them in competition with holiness, or sub- 
stitute them for it, Isa. i. 11-17; lxvi. 3: Mic. vi. 7, 8: Jer. 
vii. 4, 5 : Amos v. 21. 

Seo. 3 — The Promises of Scripture. 

473. Faith in the promise of the Gospel is, by the opera- 
tion of the Holy Spirit, the great medium of man's renewal 
and holiness. When born again, that is, restored to the con- 
dition and character of children, it is, under the operation of 
the same Holy Spirit, by the incorruptible seed of the Divine* 
word, received into the heart. When justified, it is by faith ; 
and by faith they are made holy: faith is our "shield," our 
" work," our " victory," our " life." 

In studying and applying the promises of the Bible, it i3 
important that we remember the following particulars. 

474. The general promises of the Bible are the expression 
of God's immutable counsel. Men have often at- 

• • i p Promises 

tached this idea of counsel to the secret purposes the counsel 
of God only, as if those purposes contradicted his 
word, or were intended to nullify and frustate his statements. 
But in Scripture the promises are always spoken of as the 
revelation of his purpose, and the violation of his promise as 
the denial, not of his word only, but of himself. He had pro- 
mised " before the world began," Titus i. 2 ; and the promises 
are quoted in proof of his immutability, Heb. vi. 17, 18. 

475. Some of the promises are universal, and others pecu- 
liar and temporary ; and it is important to distin- 
guish between them. There are promises made to and pecu- 
Noah, to Moses, to David, to Peter, which cannot 

apply to us. The promise to the Israelites, of outward pros- 
perity, was temporary, being suited to their dispensation, and 
adapted (in a state where eternal things were less clearly re- 
vealed) to secure obedience. So the gift of miracles, and of 
infallibility for writing or confirming the Scriptures, were pro- 
mised to the first age of the church only, but is now with- 



368 



PEOMISES, ABSOLUTE AND CONDITIONAL. 



drawn. The Gospel is the universal promise, and the only 
one. It is, therefore, the ground and measure of our faith. 
Many promises, however, made to individual believers are 
branches of the universal promise, and are, as such, to be 
applied to believers still. Paul, for example, applies to the 
Hebrew Christians the promise of God to Joshua, " I will never 
leave thee ;" and Nehemiah prayed for the fulfilment of the 
promise given to Moses, Josh. i. 5: Heb. xiii. 5: Neh. i. 5-11. 

To this class belong the promises that refer to the present 
life, especially those that are contained in the Old 
temporal Testament. "When applied to a consistent Christian 
blessing. ii ie y em b oc [y a general truth, namely, that religion, 
by making men honest, and sober, and industrious, has a con- 
stant tendency to secure temporal blessing. The hand of the 
diligent maketh rich, and diligence is enforced by the Gospel. 
But then the constancy of this law is corrected by three con- 
siderations. 1. Persecution and suffering are expressly fore- 
told of the church, and for Christ's sake ; and such suffering 
is itself the theme of a promise. 2. The temporal promises 
of the Old Testament have a limit in the very character of the 
later dispensation. It is one of faith rather than of sight. 
3. And besides,' temporal mercies are now employed to pro- 
mote the Christian's spiritual welfare, and are given or with- 
held, as may prove most for his highest good. Under the 
law, the rod of the wicked less frequently rested upon the lot 
of the righteous, because the lessons of Providence were among 
the grand teachers both of the church and of the world. Now, 
however, the Bible is complete ; and God is free (so to speak) 
to adapt his discipline to the wants of each of his children. 
In asking, therefore, for the fulfilment of temporal promises, 
even when universal, we must remember that prosperity has 
ceased to be the universal expression of Divine favor, and that 
providence is now administered in subservience to the spiritual 
discipline of the church. 

476. Some of the promises are absolute, and others are 
conditional. 



PEOMISES NOT THE 'RULE OF DUTY. 



369 



The promises of the coming of the Messiah and and°eo£ 
of the call of the Gentiles were absolute. The pro- ditionai. 
mise of pardon and of blessings essential to salvation is sus- 
pended upon our faith. The Christian's progress, again, in 
holiness, and his freedom from chastisement, are dependent 
upon his diligence, and obedience, and prayer. 

It may be said generally that every promise of spiritual 
blessing to individual Christians is given to character, and on 
conditions. So Nehemiah believed, and therefore his prayer 
ended with the acknowledgment that the promise was made 
to such only as turn to God and keep his commandments to 
do them. See also 1 Chron. xxviii. 9, 19 : Ezek. xxxiii. 13-15 : 
Jas. i. 5-7 : 1 Sam. ii. 30 : Rom. iv. 3-12 : Heb. iv. 1. These 
promises are made to character ; sincerity and faith are always 
required. Do we seek Abraham's blessing, we must walk in 
Abraham's steps. Do we wish for special tokens of Divine 
regard, we must cherish the poor and contrite spirit with 
which God is pleased to dwell. And they are made on condi- 
tions. Further light and richer gifts are ever bestowed in 
proportion to our industry, and fervor, and fidelity, and 
prayer. 

So far, therefore, as any promise of Scripture is common, 
and we fulfil its conditions, we may apply it to ourselves as 
boldly as if our name were there. If even it be a particular 
promise given to one saint, but a branch of the universal 
promise of the Gospel, and we do as he did to whom it was 
originally given, it becomes our own. 

477. This connection of the promises of Scripture and the 
conditions attached to them is often overlooked. 
Men apply the promises as if they were made to neetion 

t , x n , ... overlooked. 

sorrow or distress. In iact, no promise is given to 
mere distress, but only to distress crying for relief, and seek- 
ing it in the way of Divine appointment : " Call upon me in 
ihe day of trouble, and I will deliver thee, and thou shalt 
glorify me," is the uniform language of Scripture, Psa. L. 15. 
In this respect its promises differ from its invitations. The 



370 



PROMISES NOT THE RULE OF DUTY. 



latter are commands addressed to all, even to the impenitent 
and the unbelieving (Mark i. 15) ; the former to the penitent 
and believing only, or to the impenitent, on the supposition 
that they turn and believe. 

478. God often promises a blessing without fixing the time 

when it is to be bestowed. God will deliver the 

Time or 

fulfilment righteous out of his troubles, but the time is not told 

not fixed. _ 

us (Psa. xxxvii). Christ is to come again, and to 
take us to himself (John xiv. 1-3); but "of that day and 
hour knoweth no man." To trust in the promise, therefore, 
includes both patience and faith. He that believes will not 
make haste, Isa. xxviii. 16 : Rom. i. 7 : 2 Thess. iii. 5. 

479. Rightly to employ the promises, we must use them, 
Promises no * i^eed as the ground or measure of duty, but 
w£ y made as m °tives to exertion and prayer. 

motives to 

prayer. ^ ag p rom i se( j to deliver his church and to destroy her 

adversaries ; but these promises are not our guide. Paul had received 
a promise that he should see Rome, and yet, when the conspiracy was 
framed to assassinate him, he immediately took steps to protect his life, 
as if no promise had been given (Acts xxiii. 11-17). In every case, the 
precept is our rule, though the promise may influence our motives and 
encourage our prayers. 

God promised David to establish his house, and David therefore 
pleaded the more earnestly with God to fulfill his promise, 2 Sam. vii. 
16-25. 

God had promised, in the days of Elijah, to "send rain upon the 
earth," 1 Kings xviii. 1, and yet Elijah prays with the greater earnest- 
ness and perseverance, 1 Kings xviii. 42-44. 

Daniel knew that the seventy years' captivity was expiring when he 
set his face by prayer to seek its accomplishment, Dan. ix. 2, 3. 

When our Lord had promised the gift of the Holy Ghost, the disci- 
ples continued in prayer till the promise was fulfilled, Acts i 14 

480. Rightly to employ the promises, we must use them to 
And when P rom °te our holiness. They were given that we 
MoteC m ight be partakers of a Divine nature. Nor is the 
tineas, design of God answered, unless they deepen our 
thankfulness, and bind us to a life of holy and devoted obedi- 
ence, 2 Pet. i. 4 : 2 Cor. vii. 1. 



SCRIPTURE EXAMPLES. 



371 



Sec. 4. — The Examples of Scripture. 

481. In considering and applying the examples of Scrip- 
ture, there are several points to which attention Instudyin< , 
needs to be directed. Scripture 

examples 

1. Many things are recorded in Scripture with remember- 
censure. There are examples of injustice and idolatry which 
are either discountenanced by the law, or were at the time 
expressly condemned. The record of them is not intended 
to hallow the facts, or to justify us in copying them, but to 
illustrate the wickedness of human nature and the justice of 
God, or to serve some holy and important end. 

2. The actions of a good man which were nevertheless wrong, 
or which are not, on other grounds, intended for our imitation, 
are sometimes recorded without censure. To this class belong 
the equivocation of Abraham before Pharaoh ; the falsehood of 
Bebecca and Jacob ; the dissembled madness of David, 1 Sam. 
xxi. 13 ; and the massacre at Jabesh Gilead. To this class, 
also, belong such actions as were allowed under the law, but 
are forbidden under the Gospel. Polygamy, for example, was 
only permitted to the Jews "because of the hardness of their 
hearts;" never enjoined. The reasoning of our Lord con- 
demns it (Mark x. 6), nor must we, from the pattern of chil- 
dren learn the measures of duty in men. 

3. Many acts under the old dispensation were done by ex- 
press command. Abraham offered up his son ; Joshua destroyed 
the Canaanites ; the Levites put to death the idolaters in the 
camp ; Jehu rebelled against the house of Ahab, 2 Kings ix. : 
but each of these acts was performed under the authority of 
a peculiar and positive precept. The fact that God expressly 
commanded them takes them out of the list of imitable actions. 
To make similar actions commendable we must have similar 
authority. 

It may be observed that when a peculiar command was 
given, the reason is generally appended, showing the command 
to be but temporary. Abraham was commanded to offer up 



372 



SCRIPTURE EXAMPLES. 



his son to test his faith. ; Joshua destroyed the Oanaanites be- 
cause the time of their probation was past, and they had proved 
irretrievably idolatrous ; idolaters in Judaea were put to death 
because, there, idolatry was treason against the supreme author- 
ity of the invisible King. 

4. In judging of Old Testament examples we must ascertain 
the principle on which the actions were performed. This is 
the rule suggested by the 11th chapter of the Hebrews, where 
some acts are recorded as imitable only in the principle of 
faith from which they sprang. Without this rule Scripture 
may be made to sanction the most contradictory acts. In 
Gen. xxi. 9, for example, Ishmael mocked Isaac, and from 
Galatians iv. 29, we learn that this mockery was the expres- 
sion of a spirit of persecution, and of contempt of God's pro- 
mises. Elijah, on the other hand, mocked the priests of Baal 
to prove the folly and wickedness of idolatry. Elijah's con- 
duct, in calling fire from heaven (2 Kings), was not the result 
of angry feeling, but of a desire to convince a wicked prince 
and an idolatrous people; when James and John wished to 
exercise the same power, however, our Lord rebuked them ; 
partly because his kingdom forbade such agency, and partly 
because the temper in which they spoke was passionate and 
revengeful. 

482. All these considerations may be expressed in the form 
of rules : and it follows that we are not to copy the practices 
which Scripture records and condemns ; nor practices which 
Rule of ^ records without censure, unless those practices 
arlcf rifle* of were holy as well as lawful; nor what was done 
imitation, under specific and temporary command; nor what, 
was done in consequence of inferior knowledge ; nor raust'we 
copy or judge the good acts of even a good man, without con- 
sidering their motives and end. 

Or the whole may be summed up in one principle. In 
relation to Old Testament examples, the rule of judgment is, 
that we estimate each act as the individual who performed it 
was bound to estimate it by the law, under which he lived, 



NOT OUR RULE. 



373 



and the negative rule of imitation is, that we are not to copy 
it, if it be inconsistent with the precepts of the New Testa- 
ment. The positive rule of imitation will be found below. 

483. Of what use then are the examples of Scriptures, and 
how are we to employ them ? They are of great Uge of 

USe. example. 

In interpreting the rules of Scripture where the sense is 
questioned. If the example be set by men who x i n inter- 
were at the time inspired, and that example is in pretation. 
obedience to the rule in question, we have then an inspired 
interpretation of its meaning. The conduct of Paul in op- 
posing Peter on the question of circumcision, and the practice 
of the apostles generally, decides the signification of many 
passages of Scripture. In such cases we copy the example, 
not because good men have left it, but because, under the cir- 
cumstances, it proves to us what is in the mind of Christ. 

"We may thus often find an explanation of the meaning of Scripture, 
in the examples which inspired men have left us. " Swear not at all," 
for instance, is one of the commands of our Lord, Matt. v. 33-37. In 
the same chapter he tells us that he came not to destroy the law (ver. 
17, 18), and as the law permitted oaths, it may be presumed that all 
oaths for all purposes, are not forbid len in this prohibition. On refer- 
ring to 2 Cor. xi. 31-33 : Rom. i. 9, it becomes plain that the precept 
refers to our ordinary communications, which should be yea, yea, nay, 
nay. The vice which is thus condemned was very common among the 
Jews. " Resist not evil," in the same chapter, will be found by the 
same reasoning to mean,- "cherish not a spirit of retaliation and 
revenge." Our Lord did not complain of the law in the hands of the 
magistrate, nor did he forbid his disciples appealing to it where public 
justice was concerned. He himself remonstrated against unjust smit- 
ing, John xviii. 23 ; and Paul so far resisted evil, as to protest against 
cruel indignities offered him, and, on another occasion, to appeal to 
Caesar, Acts xxv. 11. The meaning of the precept therefore is, rather 
fufler injury than revenge yourselves. 

They are of use again — ■ 

In teaching us to apply the rules of Scripture to particular 

32 



874 



SCRIPTURE EXAMPLES. 



2 in teach cases - ^he New Testament, is in a great degree, a 
Scripture )ly ^ >00 ^ °^ principles, and not of specific directions 
rules. an oL it requires great wisdom to apply them. 

If, for instance, it be asked whether it is the duty of all Christians to 
speak of the true God, or of his Son, and to exhort others to believe 
in Him, we appeal to the precepts of the Gospel, precepts addressed to 
all saints, and we illustrate and learn to apply the precepts from Scrip- 
ture example. Abraham, Gen. xviii. 19. The Captive Maid, 2 Kings 
V. 3. The restored Demoniac, Mark v. 20. Anna, Luke ii. 38. An- 
drew and Philip, John i. 41, 46. The woman of Samaria, John iv. 29. 
Persecuted Christians, Acts viii. 4. Apollos, Acts xviii. 25. Aquila 
and Priscilla, Acts xviii. 26. Phoebe and others at Rome, Rom. xvi. 
12. Philemon, ver. 6. 

The value for examples for this purpose, may be well illustrated by 
comparing the moral principles laid down in the Book of Proverbs, 
with the application of them in the ditferent characters mentioned in 
Scripture. It is said for example, " There is that maketh himself rich, 
and yet hath nothing, and there is that maketh himself, poor and yet 
hath great riches." Of the first principle we have illustrations, in 
Ahab, 1 Kings xxi. 4, 16, 22: in Hainan, Esther v. 11-13: the self- 
righteous Pharisee, Luke xviii. 11-14: in the self-conceited Corinthians, 
1 Cor. iv. 8 : in the false teachers alluded to by Peter, 2 Pet. ii. 18, 19: 
and of the second, in Matthew, Luke v. 27, 28 : Zaccheus, Luke xix. 
8,9: Paul, 2 Cor. vi. 10: Phil. iii. 8. The Ephesian converts, Acts 
xix. 19 : Eph. ii. : and in the church of Smyrna, Rev. ii. 9 : compared 
with the church at Laodicea, R,ev. iii. 17. 

The great use of Scripture examples, however, is not tor 
purposes of interpretation, but for increase of our 

rnotingour holiness. They illustrate Divine truth and human 
duty — they show the possibility of obedience- -they 

rebuke our imperfections, and by exhibiting the sins of good 

men, excite our watchfulness and charity. 

Does the Christian ask, for instance, whether it is possible for him to 
serve God in the business of the world, as well as in retirement, or in 
the public service of religion ? let him remember that Enoch, who 
walked with God, had sons and daughters, that Abraham had great 
possessions, that Joseph was governor of Egypt, that Moses was king 
in Jeshurun (Deut. xxxiii. 5), that Jeremiah dwelt in royal courts, that 



THEIR UTILITY. 



375 



Daniel was third ruler in the kingdom of Babylon, and that our blessed 
Lord himself, was not less holy as the carpenter than when engaged in 
his public ministry, or when offering the great sacrifice of the cross. 

Do we wish to test our repentance, and ascertain whether it is worldly 
or spiritual ? we may examine its fruits, or we may compare it with 
Scripture examples. AVe have true repentance in David, 2 Sam. xii. 
13, and Psa. li : in Manasseh, 2 Chron. xxxiii. 12, 13 : in Job xlii. 6 : 
in Nineveh, Jonah iii. 5, 8 : in Peter, Matt. xxvi. 75 : and in the Pub- 
lican, Luke xviii. We have worldly repentance in Pharaoh : in Saul, 
1 Sam. xv. 24 : in Ahab, 1 Kings xxi. 27 : in J ohanan, Jer. xiii. 12, 
20 : and in Judas, Matt, xxvii. 3, 5. 

Do we watch with most care against our easily besetting sins, and 
feel secure against others to which we are less prone. We may, with 
advantage, remember that Abraham the father of the faithful distrusted 
the providence of God ; that Moses the meekest of men, spoke unadvisedly 
with his lips; thai Job murmured (Job vi. 8, etc.); for that the boldest 
of the disciples of the Lord swore, through fear, that he never knew 
him. 

The impressiveness of these examples may be increased by 
our selecting such as resemble more closely our „~ . . 

G J Effect of 

own case, or by placing in contrast the conduct of contrast, 
different persons under similar circumstances. 

We may compare the humility of the true teacher, John the Baptist, 
with the self-conceit of Simon Magus, the false teacher, who gave out 
that he himself was some great one, John i. 19-27, and Acts viii. 9 ; the 
anger of Jeroboam and Uzziah when reproved, with the submission and 
diligence of Jehoshaphat, 1 Kings xiii. 4 : 2 Chron. xxvi. 19 : 2 Chron. 
xix. 24, etc. 

484. Nor ought we lightly to esteem the value of such 
examples. " All that philosophy, wise men, and Thejr im 
general reason can teach," says Luther, "that is portance. 
profitable for good life, history presents by examples and. 
cases. And when we look at it deeply, we find that thence 
have flowed, almost all rights, art, good counsel, warning, 
threatening, terror, consolation, strengthening, instruction, 
and produce, as out of a living spring." Examples thus become 
morality taught in facts, " Christ and his Gospel preached 



376 EXAMPLES HOW FAR TO BE COPIED. 



from the annals of his own kingdom,"* and the experience of 
his church. 

485. It may be remarked, generally, that if the matter to 
which the example refers, is of a moral nature, wo 
principle of are to copy the example of inspired men, so far as 
the reason of the practice is the same in their- case 
and in ours. If the cases are not similar, we then obey the 
command by cherishing the spirit which their example em- 
bodied, without copying the example itself. It is a principle, 
for instance, that Christians are " by love to serve one an- 
other," and if the churches of one district have abundance, 
and those of another district are suffering from poverty, tho 
churches in the former case are to obey the command by col- 
lecting for their poorer brethren, as the early churches did, 
Acts xi. 28-30 : 1 Cor. xvi. 1. They apply the rule in the 
same way. But if it be said to follow from this principle 
that we should copy the examples of the early Christians 3 ; and 
wash one another's feet, we then apply the exceptive principle 
just named. That custom was in eastern countries a common 
and necessary refreshment ; but to observe it here would 
defeat the design of the observance. A kiss was the common 
form of eastern salutation, and was designed to express affec- 
tionate regard; the principle of that practice (the exercise 
and expression of affectionate feeling), is still binding, but we 
cease to copy the example, or to express the principle in that 
form, because the custom has ceased. The primitive church, 
it is evident from the New Testament, had its love feasts ; we 
have no record of their being a Divine appointment, but they 
were probably the spontaneous expression of mutual affection. 
Hence, when they were abused, the apostles condemned them. 
"These are spots," said Jude, "in your feasts of charity." 
In the case of the Lord's Supper, the abuse was condemned 
also, but the ordinance was re-inculcated. The observance 
of such feasts, therefore, is allowable, if they tend to deepen 



* Neander. 



EXAMPLES HOW FAR TO BE USED. 



377 



the feelings they are designed to express, but the example is 
plainly not of binding authority. 

486. If the matter to which the example refers is a positive 
institution, the precedent is of no force in regard to its merely 
accidental circumstances. In relation, for example, to the 
Lord's Supper, it was celebrated in an upper room, with un- 
leavened bread, the guests reclining at the table, on the fifth 
day of the week, and in the evening of the day. Three of 
these facts are expressly mentioned, and the others are un- 
doubted ; yet none is deemed essential to the due observance 
of the ordinance. 

Most of the meetings of believers mentioned in the New 
Testament, were held on the first day of the week (Acts xx. 
7 : 1 Cor. xi. 20). Most of the preaching to the Jews and 
others who worshipped with them, was on the seventh day 
(Acts xiii. 42 ; xviii. 4 ; xvi. 13). To frame our example in 
this case after apostolic example, without considering the rea- 
son of their conduct, is plainly to confound the essential and 
accidental characteristics of their obedience. They exhorted 
Christians principally on the first day of the week, because 
on that day Christians only attended their service. They 
preached on the Saturday, because then the people generally 
were accessible. 

487. It is important to observe, that in all those cases 
(both those that refer to moral precepts, and those 

that refer to positive institutions), the duty 01 ODe- our l!aw in 
dience is founded on the command, the application aU cases " 
and extent of the command being fixed by the phraseology 
employed, and by the example of inspired men, subject only 
to the rules just given. 



378 



SCRIPTURE DIFFICULTIES. 



CHAPTER VI. 

PRINCIPLES AND RULES OF THE PRECEDING CHAPTERS ILLUS- 
TRATED IN THE QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT FROM 
THE OLD, AND APPLIED TO THE SOLUTION OF SCRIPTURE VIV 
FICULTIES. 

488. Nearly all introductions to Scripture treat of Scripture 

difficulties as a distinct branch of inquiry. There 
difficulties are obvious objections to this order, but it is on the 
arateinveE" whole convenient to adhere to it. So far as diffi- 
tigation. cu lties illustrate any rule of interpretation, or are 
explained by it, they belong to interpretation ; but as many 
of them admit several solutions, and might, if placed under 
rules, bring the rules themselves into question, it is better to 
discuss them apart. The very existence of difficulties, more- 
over, raises a point which it is important to examine, and this 
can be done with advantage only in a separate chapter. 

Studied in their right place, with as much attention as their 
importance demands and no more, the difficulties of Scripture 
will do no mischief to a humble, prayerful reader. They will 
even stimulate inquiry and strengthen trust. Those that be- 
long to interpretation will supply decisive evidences of the 
genuineness and authenticity of the Bible, and those that be- 
long to doctrine will teach humility and faith. There is true 
harmony, though it lie deep : there is really a central point 
whence all truth appears in order ; God means us to reach 
it ultimately, and in the meantime to make the attempt. That 
attempt, independently even of its ultimate issues, will bring 
with it a present reward. 

Sec. 1. — Quotations Classified and Examined with 
Reference to the State of the Text, the Truths and 
Evidences of Scripture, and Principles of Inter- 
pretation. 

489. The quotations made in the New Testament from the. 



NUMBER OF QUOTATIONS — THEIR NATURE. 379 



Old form a subject of much, interest. They illus- New Testa- 

t J ment quota- 

trate the state of the original text, and the eviden- tions from 

mi • • the Old im- 

3es of Scripture. They explain ancient types, his- portent 
tory and predictions. They exemplify sound prin- 
ciples of interpretation ; and as these explanations and illus- 
trations have received the sanction of inspired men, they are 
clearly of the utmost value. 

The quotations, of Scripture may be studied for a double 
purpose ; either to ascertain the verbal variations M bo ^ 

between the Old Testament and the New, and the d . ied for va- 
rious pur- 
lessons taught by it, or to determine the spiritual poses. 

truths and principles of interpretation which these quotations 
involve. To this twofold division we shall adhere in the fol- 
lowing remarks. 

These quotations are very numero-us, in all 263 ; references 
less direct amount to 376, or together, 639. Of these „ , . 

' o » Number of 

there are in — quotations. 





Quota- 


Refer- 




Quota- 


Refer- 




Quota- 


Refer- 




tions. 


ences. 




tions. 


ences. 




tions. 


ences. 


Matt. . . 


37 


43 


Gal.. . . 


9 


5 


Jas. . . 


5 


10 


Mark . . 


17 


10 


Eph. . . 


4 


3 


IPet. . 


10 


9 


Luke . . 


19 


31 


Phil. . . 




2 


2 Pet. . . 


1 


9 


John . . 


15 


19 


Col. . . . 




2 


1 John . 




4 


Acts . . . 


31 


21 


2 Thess. . 




2 


Jude . . 




4 


Rom. . . 


52 


15 


ITim.. . 


1 


4 


Rev. . . 


1 


115 


1 Cor. . . 


18 


17 


2 Tim. . . 


1 


1 








2 Cor. . . 


9 


6 


Heb. . . 


33 


44 









Quotations from the Pentateuch amount to 90, and referen- 
ces to it to upwards of 100; from the Psalms, 71, references 
30 ; from Isaiah, 56, references 48 ; from the minor prophets 
about 30. 

Quotations are either prophetic, demon strative, explana- 
tory, or illustrative : prophetic, including those that 
refer to Christ and the Gospel immediately, as Matt, 
iv. 15, 16, or typically, i. e., they indicate primarily some 
typical event or person, and then some other event or person 
under the Gospel, as John xix. 36 : demonstrative, proving 



Purpose of. 



380 



THEIR UTILITY FOE. CRITICISM. 



eome statement, as John vi. 45 : explanatory, explaining some 
statement or fact, as Heb. xii. 20 ; and illustrative, when ex- 
piessions are taken from the Old Testament with a new mean- 
ing, as Eom. x. 18. These last are very few. Some, of course, 
are both demonstrative and explanatory, i. e., they explain 
and prove by examples some general truth, as Gal. iii. 11. 
Prophetic quotations, referring to our Lord or his church, 
amount to about 120. 

The references to the Old Testament can be fully appre- 
ciated only by examining the LXX, as the identity of expres- 
sion does not always appear in the English version. 

The quotations are generally made from the LXX ; some- 
times from the Hebrew, in opposition to the LXX; 

How made. ' 

and still more frequently they express the general 
sense of both. Sometimes they are strict and verbal ; some- 
times widely paraphrastic or greatly abbreviated; but even 
in these instances no violence is done to the general meaning 
of the original. 

490. Looking first to the phraseology of these quotations, 
it may be observed : 

1. To a certain extent the quotations from the LXX now 
Uses of found in the New Testament may be applied to cor- 
this study. rec t the text of that version. This rule applies 
because the New Testament text has been more carefully 
guarded than the text of the LXX. On the other hand, it is 
not of extensive application, from the fact that the New Tes- 
tament writers do- not care to copy verbally, and often leave 
the text of the LXX altogether for the Hebrew. 

2. Very occasionally the quotations in the New Testament 
may be applied to correct the Hebrew text of the Old. 

In Hab. i. 5, for example, for "among the heathen," read "ye de- 
spisers," as in Acts xiii. 41,' i. e. not tJ^iilla B^goim, but tD^te B'zim. 6 " So 
isa. xxix. 13, and Matt. xv. 8, 9: Gen. xlvii. 31: Heb. xi. 21 : Psa. 
xl. 6: Heb. x. 5, 7: Amos ix. 11, 12, and Acts xv. 16: Psa. xvi. 10: 
Heb. and Acts ii. 27: Hos. xiii. 14, and 1 Cor. xv. 55 (for "I will be," 
read "where"). ^Qi- b S V % 3 » — - JKli*t{, Kill- HI • 



THEIR VARIATIONS. 



381 



S. As we have seen, several passages in the He Drew may be 
translated in the same way as the quotations in the New 
Testament. As a rule, the LXX takes, in these instances, the 
secondary meaning of the words of the original, the English 
version the primary. 

In Psa. xix. 4, for example, the English version translates "line:" 
the LXX, "sound," and so in Rom. x. 18. The word means a "string 
or chord," and thence a musical or other sound. So in Isa. xxviii. 16, 
and 1 Pet. ii. 6: Isa. xxxi. 31-4, and Heb. viii. 9. 

After all these corrections have been made, however, a large 
number of passages remain which do not agree with Q UOtations 
the exact words either of the LXX or of the He- S ive ™ ther 

Til 6 S6I1S6 

brew. About one-half of the quotations, in fact, ^Jj! 1 ^. 
give rather the sense than the words. In all (it ten, howev- 

m v er, the very 

may be added) the sense is given, even when the words, 
expressions are not exact: see in Eom. xv. 12: (Isa. xi. 10): 

1 Cor. ii. 9 : (Isa, lxiv. 3) : 1 Cor. i. 31 : (Jer. ix. 24). Some- 
times, on the other hand, the whole argument is made to turn 
on the very terms employed, as in Heb. iii. 7-10 : Gal. iii. 16 : 
1 Cor. xv. 45. 

491. The principle on which these quotations are made 
seems to be the same as a competent scholar would adopt in 
quoting the present English version. Wherever the Septua- 
gint represents the meaning of the original with sufficient 
accuracy, the inspired writers use it, but in particular passages 
they translate directly from the Hebrew. 

Matthew, for example, frequently uses the LXX, but in 
passages which refer to the Messiah he pays special attention 
to the original, which he very closely follows. Paul, on the 
other hand, in the Hebrews, quotes nearly always from the 
LXX, and generally verbatim. 

492. While most of the variations between the New Testa- 
ment and the Old are explained on the principle Reason for 
that it is rather the sense than the words that are variations, 
quoted, there is sometimes an obvious purpose in the variation. 



382 



THEIR UTILITY IN DOCTRINE. 



To fit a quotation to the context, the number, or the person, or the 
tense, or the voice is changed, Luke iv. 12 ; (Deut. vi. 16) : Luke viii. 
10 : (Isa. vi. 9) : John xix. 36 : (Exod. xii. 46). 

To suit the argument, or to suggest an additional lesson, the meaning 
of the Heb. is narrowed in the quotation, the larger meaning including 
the less : thus, 

In Acts iii. 25, Peter in quoting Gen. xxii. 18, uses "kindreds" instead 
of " nations," suggesting to his Jewish hearers that the Gentiles were 
their brethren : 

So in Heb. v. 10, Paul translates a word (^3, cohen), which in the 
5th verse he had translated " priest," following the LXX by a word 
equally accurate, but better suited to his argument, il high priest" 

In Heb. i. 6 we have angels instead of "gods," as in Psa. xcvii. 7, 
The original means "mighty ones," and is applied to God, false gods, 
angels, and generally to those high in authority. The apostle takes 
the narrower meaning and omits the rest : 

In Rom. xi. 26, 27, the word "Deliverer" is used instead of "Re- 
deemer." After Christ had appeared the latter term in this passage 
would have been ambiguous : 

So in 1 Cor. iii. 20, quoted from Psa. xciv. 11 ; for " men" the apostle 
reads "wise," and in Matt. iv. 20, our Lord says "worship" instead of 
"fear." So. Rom. xiv. 11. 

493. Sometimes, again, parts of a prediction are omitted 
Reason for because n °t required by the argument, or because 
omissions, likely to raise a question which the inspired writer 
did not at the time intend to discuss. 

In quoting Zech. ix. 9, for example, Matthew omits " bringing salva- 
tion," as that fact was not at the time apparent. 

So in quoting Jer. xxxi. 34, Paul omits a clause which contained a 
promise at that time unfulfilled, Heb. x. 16. So Rom. x. 15, and 2 Cor. 
vi. 17. 

494. Sometimes, again, the New Testament quotation is 
Sometimes more clearly expressed than the LXX, and some- 
the varia- times it brings out the idea more fully even than 

tion brings o J 

out the the original itself. 

sense more ° 

3ompieteiy. Compare, in illustration, the LXX version of Job 
v. 13 with the apostle's quotation, 1 Cor. iii. 19 ; and also the 



TRUTHS TAUGHT IN QUOTATIONS. 



383 



Heb. LXX and English version of Isa. xxix. 14 with 1 Cor. 
i. 19. 

While, therefore, the general principle seems to be that the 
inspired writers preserve rather the thoughts than the words 
of the original, we must not hastily conclude that verbal 
variations are without meaning ; still less that such variations 
are inaccurate. Nowhere is there a difference of sense, and 
the verbal variation is often itself suggestive of instructive 
lessons. 

495. The quotations in the book of Eevelation, which are 
generally indirect, are of great interest. They connect the 
predictions of the two economies, and throw light upon the 
meaning of the symbolical language of the sacred volume. 

496. The chief instruction, however, to be gathered from 
New Testament quotations refers to the truths taught by 
them. They illustrate the doctrines and ethics of the ancient 
Scriptures, and of both dispensations ; they supply evidence 
of the truth of Scripture, and they suggest important rules of 
Biblical interpretation. 

1. Life by faith, salvation through Christ, and the duty of 
holiness are all taught to the Jewish and Gentile _ , - 

9 _ Salvation 

church from the ancient Scriptures. by faith, 

x Christ's 

deity, and 

Salvation by faith, and through Christ proved by quota- man's i ra- 
tions in Rom. i. 17 : Gal. iii. 6-9, 14, 16 : Rom. iv. 10, 11 : taughUn 
1 Pet. ii. 6, 7: John viii. 56. Faith, from its relation to £mStaT 
something which is righteousness, is counted as righteous- shown by 
ness, Rom. iv. 3-8. Men are condemned through unbelief, quotatlons ' 
Heb. iii. 7-10. See also Heb. viii. 9, 10. 

Election of grace, and the promise as wide as the fall, Rom. xi. 5 ; 
x. 10. 

Holiness essential, consists in love, and is enforced by Divine ex- 
ample, 2 Cor. vi. 16 : Matt. xxii. 37-39 : 1 Pet. i. 16 : Matt, xxiii. 23. 

Grace given to the humble, and in largest measure to those who use 
it best, Jas. iv. 6. 

Present temporal blessings connected with obedience even under the 
Gospel, Eph. vi. 2, 3: 1 Pet. iii. 10, 11. 

The passages of the Old Testament to which we have re- 



384 



BULES OF INTERPRETATION. 



ferred as implying the Divinity of the Messiah and the agency 
of the Holy Spirit are quoted in the New Testament with the 
same view. Eead chap. iii. sec. 3, and mark the following : — 

The stone of stumbling on which Israel fell is said in Isaiah to be 
Jehovah himself, Isa. viii. 13, 14 : Horn. x. 9, 11 ; ix. 32, 33. So in 
Isa. xlv. 21-25, the speaker is called Jehovah, and to him every knee 
is to bow. His language is quoted by Paul, Rom. xiv. 11, to prove that 
all must submit to Christ. 

The vision described in Isa. vi. 3-10, is spoken of by John as a sight 
of Christ's glory, John xii. 41; and the "voice of the Lord" which 
spake to the prophet is called by Paul, the Holy Ghost, Acts xxviii. 25. 

In the Epistle to the Hebrews (i. 6, 8, 10), the apostle applies to 
Christ, Psa. xcvii. 7 ; xlv. 6, 7 : cii. 25-27 ; in all of which passages the 
person spoken of is described as the ruler of the world, the unchange- 
able Creator. 

That the ancient church believed in immortality, in the 
resurrection, and in a future judgment may be gathered from 
Matt. xxii. 32 : Heb. xi. 5, 13, 14 : 1 Cor. xv. 55 (see Jude 
xiv. 15) ; and the various passages in which the great day of 
the Lord is named, 1 Thess. v. 2 : Rev. vi. 17 : Joel ii. 31 : 
Mai. iv. 5 : Psa. xvii. 15 : Job xix. 26 ; xxi. 10 : Dan. xii. 2 : 
Hos. xiii. 14. 

497. After all, however, particular quotations give a very 

imperfect idea of the identity of the principles of 

The whole r j , J r r 

Gospel the two covenants. 

?ntEe e old P " The entire religious system of the Jews, is in 
the most appropriate sense of prophecy ; and the 
individual passages of their sacred books are merely the 
strongest expressions of that spirit which enlivens the whole 
mass." Davison. 

498. 2. For the prophetic evidence supplied by the quota- 

tions see § 182. They refer in part to the person 
suppfypro- of our Lord, and in part to the progress of his 
dence of 1 " church. The immediate and undoubted prophecies 
5eripture.° f are upwards of 70 ; and the typical, with such as 

are either typical or immediate, amount to upwards 
of 50 more. 



RULES OF INTERPRETATION. 



385 



499. 3. The rules of Biblical interpretation suggested by 
these quotations are highly important. Rules of 

u interpreta- 
tion Slicr- 

1. The whole Gospel, in its precepts and truths, may be gested by 
illustrated and proved from the Old Testament. quotations. 

2. Human nature, being the same in all ages, is set forth in the his- 
tory and descriptions of the Old Testament. 

See human wickedness described in passages taken from Isaiah and 
the Psalms, Rom. iii. 13-18. 

The unbelief of Noah's time, and of Lot's, repeated under the Gospel, 
Luke xvii. 27-29 : Matt. xxiv. 37. 

3. The principle involved in Old Testament precepts or statements 
may be applied inierentially to support Gospel truths. 

See John x. 34 If magistrates are addressed by a name descriptive 
of Divine authority (gods), how much more is the Son of God entitled 
to that name. 

So, from Deut. xxv. 4, the apostles show that the laborer is worthy 
of his hire, and that they who preach the Gospel may live of the Gos- 
pel, 1 Tim. v. 18 : 1 Cor. ix. 9. 

So from Isa. lv. 3, " I will give you the sure mercies of (i. e., the 
favor pledged to) David," viz., that his seed should sit upon his throne 
for ever, the apostle concludes that Christ, to whom it refers, must have 
risen from the dead. See also, 2 Cor. viii. 15, Acts xiii. 34, and, gene- 
rally, Rom. chaps, ix. to xv. 

4. The principles involved in Old Testament history may be applied 
in the same way to the experience of the church under the Gospel : 
whether that history illustrate human character, or God's dispensa- 
tions, Rom. fx. 7, 9: Gal. iv. 22-31 : 1 Cor. x. 4: Rom. viii. 36: 1 Cor. 
x. 1-11: Heb. iii. 7-10; x. 26-30. 

From these quotations, it cannot justly be affirmed, of course, that 
the persons referred to in the original passages, are types of those to 
whom the quotation is applied : still less can it be said that in these 
quotations, we must understand by the persons nam.ed, the persons 
intended by the New Testament writer. The case quoted, is simply a 
case in point, proving and illustrating by example a particular principle, 
In the 9th of Romans, for example, the apostle is proving that in all 
ages there has been (what his*readers urged as an objection to the Gos- 
pel), an election, even of Jews, according to grace : and he establishes 
this conclusion, by showing that not all the descendants of Abraham 
were chosen, but only his descendant by Sarah: nor all the descendants 
of Issi-ac, but only his descendants through Jacob. 

5. Passages in the prophets which contain general promises, or are 

33 



386 



RULES OF INTERPRETATION. 



descriptive of classes, are, of course, repeatedly fulfilled. They are, its 
fact, general principles. See the quotations of Isa. vi. 9, 10 : see Matt, 
xv. 8, 9: Acts xiii. 41. See also Isa. liv. 13: Hab. ii. 4: Heb. xiii. b 
(from Joshua i. 5). 

6. Predictions, properly so called, may have a double fulfilment; a 
fact, of which various explanations have been given. 

Sometimes, for example, the persons or things are types, one of the 
other ; a sometimes they are in certain aspects, identical, 13 and sometimes 
the events referred to, are so closely blended, as to be scarcely distin- 
guishable. 

500. If it be said that this double fulfilment (whatever the 
Double fui- ex pl ana tion) weakens the evidence of prophecy, it 
fiimentcon- should be remembered in reply, that the facts on 

solatory and m . 

instructive, which it is founded — the typical nature, for example, 
of the two economies, or the complete identity of Christ's 
interests, and those of his church — themselves supply both 

a The promise to Abraham, for example, that he should be the father 
of a numerous seed, is applied literally by Moses, Deut. i. 10 : by Paul 
it is applied to those who are partakers of his faith, Rom. iv. 18. 

b In another epistle, he says expressly, that the seed in whom the 
nations are to be blessed, is Christ, and then, that all who are Christ's, 
are the seed and heirs of the promise, Gal. iii. xvi. 29. To Class 
(a), belong such passages as Exod. xii. 46 (the paschal lamb, John 
xix. 36), and the promise concerning Solomon, 2 Sam. vii. 14 ; and the 
corresponding Psalms, as cxxxii. 11. To (a) or (b), belong Psa. viii. 
2-6, applicable first to man as the chief of God's creatures, and thence 
to our Lord, who is in this respect identified with us, or (it may b6 
said), our antitype: Psa. xci. 11, 12, applicable first to all who "say 
of the Lord 1 He is my refuge' " (ver. 1), and peculiarly, therefore, to 
Christ: and various Psalms, which, originally descriptive of the afHic- 
tions of individual believers, have their fullest accomplishment in our 
Lord, Psa. lxix. 9, 21, 25; cix. 8; xli. 9; cxviii. 19, 20, 25, 26. 

c Such are the predictions in Isa. xl. 3-5, where the coming of our 
Lord in the flesh, and the final extension of his truth, are blended; in 
Mai. iii. 1-3, where we have the same double reference, and in Joel ii. 
28-32. Compare the New Testament quotations. Of the same charac- 
ter are the predictions of the destruction of Jerusalem, as given in 
Matt, xxiv., xxv., where are represented also some of the awful trans- 
actions of the last judgment. 



SCRIPTURE DIFFICULTIES. 



387 



evidence and consolation; while many of the Psalms* and 
most of the predictions of our Lord, taken from the prophets, 
apply exclusively to Him. 

Sec. 2. — Scripture Difficulties. 

* In divinity many things must be left abrupt and concluded with 
this : — Oh the depth ! . . . . For the inditer of Scripture did know four 
things which no man attains to know, — the mysteries of the kingdom 
of glory, the perfection of the laws of nature, the secrets of the heart 
of man, and the future succession of all ages:" — Bacon. 

501. The Bible was written "for our learning," and by 
" inspiration of God," and yet it is confessed that its Scriptures 
general clearness is obscured by " things hard to be inspired 

o y o and mtend- 

understood." Christians are oftei*. harassed by ed for our 

J learning 

objections deduced from them, and unbelievers wadset dif- 
make them an excuse for rejecting the authority of 
revelation. What, it may be asked, is their origin, their 
solution, their use, and how far are they consistent with the 
character and aim of the Bible as an inspired and instructive 
book ? 

502. Their origin, it may be answered, is sufficiently plain. 
The languages in which the Bible was composed . , 

° D , r Origin of 

are disused ; they are distinct from each other, and ScrTpture 

,' J ,, . .' difficulties. 

dinerent from our own ; the expressions, images, 
and thoughts it contains belong to different ages, countries, 
and persons ; the manners and customs it describes have 
passed away ; its topics are the most various and comprehen- 
sive, including the history, in part, of all nations and of all 
times; the system of truth it reveals is to influence both 
worlds ; and it contains precepts and disclosures which refer 
to both, expressed necessarily in terms taken from one only ; 
arid the whole revelation is included in a brief volume. Let 
these and kindred facts be remembered, and it will be seen at 
once that, to give within so narrow a range, and even to give 

a Psalms ii., xxii., xlv., ex. ; and probably, xL, xvi., and lxxii.: Psalms 
xvi.,xxii., xl., embody the experience of the suffering Messiah; ii., xlv., 
lxxii., and ex., describe his victories and glory. 



388 



THEIR ORIGIN. 



at all, to a mortal, finite mind, amidst the changes incident to 
everything human, a revelation that shall be free from diffi- 
culty is impossible. Difficulties there must be, such as need a 
larger amount of inquiry than any one man can give, and 
such as. will leave, after the utmost inquiry, much to be here- 
after explained. Either Scripture must have been written 
without reference to history or common experience ; without 
reference, moreover, to anything not familiar to every man 
of every age, or difficulties must abound : in some respects 
they do abound ; but it is the darkness of the readers, not of 
the writers, which creates and continues them. 

503. Comparing the sections of chap. iv. : chap. i. sec. 5. 
Difficulties and the Introductions of Part ii., it will be seen 
classified. g^p^^g difficulties are such as are entailed 
upon us, (1st) by the uncertainties of the text; (2dly), by 
the meaning of words and phrases, the connection of argu- 
ments, the scope and authorship of particular books ; (3dly), 
by the customs and manners of the age and country in which 
inspired authors wrote ; (4thly), by the chronology, geography, 
and history of the sacred volume ; (5thly), by the apparent 
contradiction of the precepts or truths of revelation, regard- 
ing them as matters of interpretation only ; and, lastly, by the 
objects with which revelation is conversant ; the last descrip- 
tion including the difficulties involved in the whole range of 
spiritual and moral truth as revealed in the sacred volume. 

Let us briefly illustrate each class: 

504. 1. It is sometimes difficult to ascertain the reading of 
Difficulties ihe Aspired text. 

in the read- 

mgs ' Gen. xlix. 6, " digged a wall" (^ej, shur), but there is no 

such circumstance mentioned in the history, and it would have been 
comparatively innocent, see xxxiv. 25. Some read ( ta n , £>, shor), an ox ; 
" the houghed the oxen," but this is not true, xxxiv. 29; more probably 
sar, a prince : in their wrath or self-will, " they slew a prince." 
So the Syriac version. 

505. 2. After the text has been fixed there are difficulties 



DIFFICULTIES IN PHRASES. 



389 



in the explanation of words and phrases,* the eon- 5^^. 
nection of arguments* the scope and authorship of g®£p° n ' and 
particular books, or in two or more combined. 46 

Many of the illustrations in chap. iv. sec. 6, once belonged 
to this class ; they were Scripture difficulties, and the solution 
of them is the result of modern inquiry. 

( a ) John i. 16, " grace foe grace," has created difficulty. " For the 
benefits of the law we have the blessings of the Gospel," Chrys., Beza, 
Erasmus : " additional grace for grace properly used," Le Clerc : "grace 
on account of the grace of Christ," Grot.: "grace upon grace," i. e. t 
abundance, so Dodd, Wesley, Olshausen : probably correct, though 
dvri (for), has not this meaning elsewhere in the New Testament. It 
may be a Hebraism for al, upon, and there are instances of this 
meaning in classic authors. 

Heb. xii. 17, " though he sought it carefully with tears ;" if if refers 
to the nearest antecedent.it means "repentance," either his own or 
his father's, Dodd. ; it may, however, refer to the remoter antecedent, 
his father's blessing euhoyietv, and this agrees with the history, Gen. 
xxvii. 34. 

Heb. ix. 16, "where a testament is (sf/*6»'*») there must also of neces- 
sity be the death of the testator," i. e., either where there is a will the 
testator must die before it can be proved or take effect ; so the English 
version, Guyse, Stuart : or where there is a covenant the victim whose 
death is to ratify it must be slain, Mich., Mack., Dodd., Bloomfield. 

1 Cor. xi. 10, " For this cause ought the woman (1) to have power, 
(2) on her head, (3) because of the angels." '^To have power on," that 
is, say some, to have a veil-covering, but the word never has this mean- 
ing elsewhere. Others understand it literally, and then (2) by "head" 
they understand her husband, and translate, "for this cause should she 
have power in or through the man," 1 Tim. ii. 11-13, (3) "because of 
the angels," i. e. either evil angels who will be gratified by indecency, 
or good angels who observe her conduct, Ecc. v. 6 ; or, the teacher of 
the churches, Kev. iii. ; or spies sent by the pagans. " One of the very- 
few passages of Scripture wholly inexplicable." Barnes. 

When the language is figurative the difficulty is often in- 
creased. 

Psa. civ. 1-3, for example, is figurative, and the expressions may 
be taken from nature, or they may be taken from the tabernacle ; light 
referring to the Shekinah, the curtain referring to the veil, the beams 
33* 



390 



DIFFICULTIES IN CONNECTION. 



of his chamber to the pieces of which the tabernacle was composed, 
the clouds his chariot to the moving of the Shekinah, and cloud when 
the ark moved; the latter verses of the Psalm, however, refer to 
nature. 

In Ezekiel's descriptions, some are clear, some purposely ambiguous. 

( b ) 2. Pet. i. 19. "a more sure word of prophecy," than what? 
"Surer than fables," verse 16, Chandler; others, than the transfigura- 
tion, Sherlock ; but better, " the word of prophecy confirmed,'" either 
by the transfiguration or rather by New Testament fulfilments. Pro- 
phecy was as a lamp in a dark place, the fulfilment in Christ is as the 
dawn. 

( c ) Of the difficulties of scope and authorship the Book of Job 
may be taken as an illustration. Some reckon it very ancient, as early 
as Moses or earlier, Michael., Schult., Lowth; others modern, during 
or after the Kings, Heath. Warburton : written by Job or Elihu, or 
some contemporary, so Dupin, Lowth, Schult., Lightfoot; translated 
by Moses, so Patrick, Grey; or written by him, Michael., Lowth; or 
by Solomon or some contemporary, Dupin, Spanheim ; or by Ezra, 
Warburton : some regard it as real history, Lowth, Schult. ; others as 
an allegory, Michael., Warburton : its scope is to give an example 
of patience, Schult., Grey ; to show that affliction is consistent with 
piety, Lowth ; to illustrate God's sovereignty, or contradict the 
Manicha?an doctrine of the existence of a power of evil equal to 
God, Sherl. ; to comfort the Israelite in Egypt, Michaelis ; or dur- 
ing the captivity, Heath ; or to explain the change in God's provi- 
dential government after the captivity, viz., the substitution of a more 
spiritual system for the system of earthly rewards which had previ- 
ously prevailed, Warburton. It may be added that many of the fore- 
going ends are answered by this Book, and that comparatively recent 
investigation has thrown much light upon its meaning. 

( d ) Sometimes there are difficulties both in the words and in 
the connection. 

One of the most difficult words of Scripture is the particle <v*. 
The question involved in it is whether it means only in order that, or 
also, with the result that. If the former be its only meaning, then it 
always expresses the purpose or view with which a thing is done. If 
the latter be one meaning, then it may express the consequence of an 
act, without implying intention upon the part of the agent. The first 
is called its telic (t&o?) meaning, and the second its ecbatic («t-/&t/v&>). 
Authorities are divided. Tittman, Stuart, Robinson, Burton, all main- 
tain that it is used in both senses ; Winer, De Wctte, Olshausen, that 



DIFFICULTIES IN CONNECTION. 



301 



it is used in the first sense only. The telic sense is no doubt most con- 
sistent with classic usage, and so the word is generally used in Scrip- 
ture ; some think the ecbatic sense preferable in the following passages, 
John ix. 2 : Luke xi. 50 : Eom. xi. 11 ; others maintain a telic sen&a 
even here. 

It is sometimes used also to express not the chief end of an act, but 
a subordinate one, as in Eom. v. 20 : Rom. xi. 32 : John v. 20 ; i. 7 ; 

XV/ 6. * 

This looser usage is probably owing to the employment of the word 
by the LXX in passages where there is nothing, either in the Hebrew 
or in the context, to indicate a telic sense, but the contrary, Gen. xxii. 
14: (LXX). 

( e ) Sometimes there are difficulties both, in the reading and 
the sense. 

Isa. liii. has been altered by transcribers and its meaning observed. 
Mic. v. 1-5, quoted in Matt. ii. 6, and many of the quotations in the 
New Testament. Isa, iii. 6, 7; vi. 10; viii. 12-18* xvi. 1-7; xlviii 
16, on which see Lowth. 

506. (3.) When the meaning of words has been fixed, it ia 
sometimes difficult to understand the custom to 



Ecc. xi. 1 : " Cast thy bread upon the waters : for thou shalt find it 
after many days:" "Give bread to those in affliction," Gill. "Sow 
thy corn without hope of harvest ;" that is, be disinterested '.n your 
liberality, Jebb. " Be liberal while you can," Boothroyd. Rather, 
exercise a large faith in God ; act in your gifts and effects as the hus- 
bandman, who casts his rice upon the waters and waits for che crop ; 
the rice ground being inundated from seed-time till nearly harvest, 
Dr. Clarke. 

Various customs are mentioned in the following passages in Isaiah, 
and create difficulty ; all of them, however, are explained by Lowth, 
in his notes, Isa. iii. 16, etc. ; xlix. 16, 23 ; 1. 1, 6 ; li. 23 ; lii. 2 ; lvii. 
6-9 ; lxv. 3, 4. 

507. (4.) Difficulties in chronology and history T 



In Gen. iv. 17, the early building of a city by Cain has created diffi- 
culty, and it has been asked — who inhabited it ? A little calculation, 



which they refer and the reasons for it. 



In customs. 



are various. 



In chrono- 
logy and 
history. 



392 



DIFFICULTIES IN HISTORY. 



however,. will show that, 500 years after the creation, the descendants 
of our first parents must have amounted to many hundred thousand in 
all. Dr. A. Clarke. 

Difficulties in chronology and in numbers generally have often 
arisen, as we have seen, from false readings, the similarity between 
different numeral letters, and from the use of different modes of reckon- 
ing. 

So among profane authors. Cyrus reigned thirty years, Cicero de 
Div., i.e.,- from his joining Cyaxares ; nine years, Ptol. Canon, i. e., 
from his taking Babylon ; seven years, Xen., i. e., from his becoming 
sole monarch. This last is perhaps Ezra's reckoning, Ez. i. 1. Shuck- 
ford. 

508. Historical difficulties are of two kinds : such as arise 
on comparison of different parts of Scripture, and such as 
arise from the comparison of Scripture with profane records. 

Sometimes difficulties arise from the proper names of Scrip- 
ture, some of which are spelt differently,* or the referring to 
the same person or place are entirely different. 1 * 

a Eliam., Sam., Amiel., Chron., Nebuchad = nezzar, = rezzar. Cor- 
rect such from parallel passages, ancient versions, and Josephus. 

b For comparison of the discrepancies between 2 Sam. v. 23, and 
Chron. xi., see Kennicbtt's First Dissertation. 

509. (1.) Comparing parallel and apparently contradictory 
historical passages of Scripture, the following solutions are 
important : — 

(a.) Facts that seem contradictory are often really different. 

In Matt. i. 1, we have our Lord's genealogy through Joseph ; in 
Luke iii. 23, through Mary. See Introd. to Gospels. 

(b.) In giving the same narrative different historians relate 
different circumstances, some giving more, some fewer than 
the rest ; the fuller account includes the shorter, and the 
shorter does not contradict the fuller. 

Compare Luke ii. 39, with Matt. ii. 22, 23, where they agree : in all 
the preceding verses they differ, though without contradiction. 

Compare, on the call of the apostles, Luke v. 1-11 : Matt. iv. 18-22: 



DIFFICULTIES IN HISTORY. 



3U3 



Mark i. 16-20. Some (as Greswell) place the passage in Luke later ; 
others (as Robinson) deem the whole, as they stand, reconcilable. 

Compare, on the two demoniacs, Mark v. 1-21 : Matt. viii. 28-9, 1 : 
Luke viii. 26-40. 

(<?.) The same remark applies to the narrative of what was 
said on some particular occasion, one historian giving the 
very words and another the sense, or each a different part of 
what was said, or varying the order for a particular reason. 

The words of the Supper; the titles on the cross, Matt. xix. 3-12: 
Mark x. 2-12. 

(d.) Things said to be done by one man are elsewhere said 
to be done by another, who, however, acted on his behalf, a and 
sometimes the plural is used when the remark is applicable to 
one only. b Here there is no contradiction. 

» Matt. viii. 5, 6 : Luke vii. 2, 3. Mark x. 35, and Matt. xx. 20. 
b Matt. xxvi. 8, and John xii. 4. Matt, xxvii. 44, and Luke xxiii. 
39-42. 

(e.) Narrative of what was spoken or done may create diffi- 
culty from the fact that general expressions are to be limited 
by particular ones, obscure expressions to be explained by 
those that are plain. 

Matt. x. 10: Mark vi. 8 : Luke ix. 3. 

(/.) The narratives of Scripture aje compiled on different 
principles and for different purposes. Some are written 
chronologically on the whole or particular passages, or give 
incidents in groups. The principle of arrangement must be 
studied, and the whole harmonized in accordance with it. 

The order of Mark and Luke is generally chronological. Matthew 
gives facts and parables in groups: see Har. of the Gospels, Part ii. 
Sometimes, however, Matthew gives the true order, and indicates the 
fact by the terms employed. In the history of the temptation, for 
example (Chap, iv.), he affirms the order, "then:" again Luke iv. gives 
a different order, but the order is not affirmed, " and" — 

In Gen. i. 27, the creation of man is mentioned briefly, at greater 
length in chap. ii. 7, 21, and so as to create an apparent contradiction. 



394 



DIFFICULTIES IN HISTORY. 



The order of the Lord's Supper, and the betrayal of Judas is given 
by John, Matthew, and Mark ; between Matthew xxvi. 25, and 26 : 
John xiii. 26-35, must be inserted, and Luke's order will be, Luke 

xxii. 21-33 ; xix. 20. 

So the true order of Isa. xxxviii. 21, 22, may be gathered from 
2 Kings xx. 7, 8. 

These difficulties are augmented by the present arrangement of the 
Psalms and prophecies. See chronological arrangement of the whole. 
Part ii. 

(g.) Sometimes there is an apparent discrepancy between 
an original narrative and the reference made to it elsewhere, 
and in that case there is generally a false reading, or some- 
times another explanation. 

Mark ii. 25, 26, "in the days of Abiathar," see 1 Sam. xxi. 1, 2; 
Ahimelech was the priest : not a false reading; not about the time of; 
rather in the days of Abiathar, afterwards so well known as high 
priest, and who was present at the time, 1 Sam. xxii. 22. 

Matt, xxiii. 35, Zachariah, the son of Baracbiah, see 2 Chron. xxiv. 
21, where his father is called Jehoiada; the names have in Hebrew 
substantially the same meaning (whom Jehovah cares for or blesses) : 
as Uzziah (the strength of Jehovah), is called also Azariah (whom 
Jehovah helps), 2 Chron. xxvi. 1 : 2 Kings xiv. 21. 

Acts vii. 16, " which Abraham bought," — but Jacob bought it, Gen. 

xxiii. 19: Josh. xxiv. 32; and Jacob, moreover, was buried in Hebron, 
not in Sychem, Gen. 1. 13. Read, probably, our father, i. e. t Jacob, 
and omit Abraham. 

(h.) Sometimes the reference contains more than the origi- 
nal narrative, and the difficulty is removed by remembering 
that the earlier inspired historians do not relate all that hap- 
pened. 

Joseph fettered, Psa. cv. 18: the saying of our Lord, Acts xx. 35: 
an appearance of Christ to James, 1 Cor. xv. 7 : the marriage of Salmon 
and Rahab, Matt. i. 5, is not recorded in the Old Testament. So Jude 
.x. 14: Rev. ii. 14. 

510. (2.) Comparing the narratives of Scripture with pro- 
fane records, there are several difficulties, most of which, 
however, have long since yielded additional evidence of its 
truth. 



DIFFICULTIES IN HISTORY. 



395 



In Luke ii. 2, it is said, that a taxing was first made when Cyrenius 
was governor of Syria. Gresweli and Thoiuck translate, this enrolment 
took place before Cyrenius was governor ; Burton and others, the en- 
rolment (which was ordered twelve years before), first took effect, i. e. 
money due in consequence of it was first paid, when Cyrenius was 
governor. The fact is, that the census or enrolment was ordered by 
Augustus, three years before the birth of Christ, but the tax was not 
paid till twelve years afterwards, when Cyrenius was president of 
Syria. 

See others in Paley's Evidences, Part ii. Chap, vi., Eeligious Tract 
Society, p. 260. The works of Lardner give the completest view of the 
accordance of sacred and profane records. 

Many similar difficulties have arisen and been explained by 
further inquiry. 

Daniel mentions four kings of Babylon and Persia — Nebuchadnezzar, 
Belshazzar, Darius the Mede, and Cyrus. The first is well known, the 
second is mentioned, though by other names; Labynetus, by Herod; 
Nabonadius, by Berosus ; the third was no more than nominal king, 
and is not mentioned by any, but he is Cyaxares II. of Xen., Prid. 
Con., Book 2. Cyrus was succeeded by Cambyses ; he by Smerdis, and he 
by Darius Hystaspes, Ezra vi. 1. His successor was Artaxerxes Longi- 
manus, the Artaxerxes of Nehemiah ; another Artaxerxes, and two 
other kings by the name of Darius filled the throne before the empire 
was subdued by Alexander, B. C. 331. The identity of the names and 
the confusion of all Persian and Assyrian chronology, combine to 
create several difficulties : but careful study reconciles most. 

See additional examples in Home ii. 618, in Newton on the Pro- 
phecies, and in the connections of Prideaux, Shuckford and Pvussell 

511. (5.) There are apparent contradictions in the truths 
and precepts of Scripture, regarding them as mat- In tmth „ 
ter of interpretation only. Between a literal ex- andpre- 

eepts as 

pression and a figurative one there is sometimes an matters of 

x °. . . mterpreta- 

apparent contradiction which is removed by ex- tion. 
plaining the two harmoniously. 

(a.) Sometimes the words of one passage must be Vjlri 

explained figuratively. kinds eias- 

" Ye will not come," John v., lx. ; "no man can come except the 
Father draw him," John vi. 44. The first implies, when compared with 



896 



APPARENT CONTRADICTIONS. 



other passages, that to have eternal life, we must believe that every- 
one who hears the Gospel is bound to believe it ; that men are so depraved 
that they will not believe, and that therefore they are condemned. 
The second affirms that men cannot come. What, then, does this 
mean ? Is it want of power, which is the proper sense if they cannot, 
or is it want of will, which is the figurative sense? Both senses are 
found in Scripture. "Ahijah could not see, by reason of age." So, 
Jonah i. 13. " Joseph's brethren could not speak peaceably to him." 
" How can ye, being evil, speak good things ?" where the dominion of 
a strong propensity is implied. It is to this latter our Lord refers : 
nothing less than special Divine agency will subdue this propensity ; 
and, being in the will, it is our sin. 

So in all the passages which speak of God in expressions accommo- 
dated to the weakness of human conceptions. 

Compare also Matt. xi. 14, with John i. 21. 

Or the words of both passages need to be explained figura- 
tively. See § 262. 

(5.) Sometimes general assertions in one text are to be 
restricted by others. 

In Luke xvi. 18: Mark x. 11, 12, divorce is forbidden absolutely; 
but in Matt. v. 32: xix. 9, it is allowed, though for adultery only; 
while in 1 Cor. vii. 15, the believing party is said to be free to leave 
the unbelieving husband or wife who is determined to separate. 

Restrict and explain in the same way Gen. xiii. 17; xxiii. 17, 18: 
Acts vii. 5. 

(c.) Sometimes the same terms are used in different senses 
in different texts, and it is difficult to know how to restrict 
them in each. 

In Matt, xviii. 21, 22, forgiveness is .enjoined absolutely: in Luke 
xvii. 3, 4, on repentance ; in the latter, the word is used in a different 
sense (Gerard), or the condition of repentance is presupposed in Matt., 
or the phrase in Luke means, as often as one seeks forgiveness give it. 

A man is justified by faith without the deeds of the law, Rom. iii. 
28 : " by works a man is justified, and not by faith only," James ii. 24. 
Paul speaks of the justification of the ungodly in relation to their 
acceptance by God; James of the justification of the godly in relation 
to their approval by God : Fuller. Or Paul of justification in the 
sight of God; James in the sight of man: Hoadley and Taylor. Or 
Paul speaks of faith with its effects, James of mere assent : Grot. Mac- 



DIFFICULTIES IN TRUTHS REVEALED. 



397 



knight. Various writers restrict various words of each verse, but all 
agree that some restriction is necessary. 
So in 1 Cor. x. 33: Gal. i. 10: Prov. xxvi. 4, 5. 

Ex. xx. 5: Ezek. xviii. 20, "visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon 
the children ;" " the son shall not bear the iniquity of the father." 
Either God's plan towards the close of the Jewish dispensation was 
changed : at first the fathers were spared, but at last fathers and sons, 
and not sons only, were to suffer : Fuller. Or the first description 
applies only to those "who hate him." If Judah, therefore, in the 
days of Ezekiel had been righteous, they would not have gone into 
captivity for the sins of Manasseh. In both passages men are spoken 
of, not as individuals, but as members of society, and both refer only 
to this life. 

(d.) Sometimes the same action is ascribed to different 
agents, and sometimes different and apparently inconsistent 
descriptions are given of the same object, in which case either 
the action is described in terms which are used in different 
senses, or there is a sense in which the terms are true ; but it 
is sometimes difficult to ascertain which is the correct solution. 
See pp. 316, 317. 

Christ intercedes, Rom. viii. 34: Heb. vii. 25, as does the Spirit, 
Rom. viii. 26, 27, the one in heaven and the other in our hearts. Christ 
is called the Comforter (or Advocate) 1 John ii. 1, as is the Spirit, John 
xvi. 7. The one is within, and the other above. 

The teaching of Scripture on the coming of our Lord in- 
volves nearly all the difficulties of interpretation to which we 
have referred. 

512. (6.) After all these difficulties of interpretation have 
been solved, there are others which apply to the , 

. . In the 

things revealed or commanded in Scripture, and it things re- 

. vealed. 

is in objections founded upon those difficulties that 
men most indulge. 

(a.) Many passages have been placed under this head which 
properly involve questions of interpretation only. 

The creation of the rainbow after the deluge, and of the sun and 
stars on the fourth day, are probably difficulties of interpretation only. 
Most Hebrew scholars affirm that the original means simply that the 
34 



398 DIFFICULTIES ENUMEEATED. 

sun and stars were made or constituted on the fourth day, to rule the 
day and the night, and that the rainbow was made or became after 
the deluge the sign of the covenant; both were created by God. 
but had existed before, and were only then employed for these pur- 
poses. 

Lev. xxvii. 28, 29, has been quoted as authorizing human sacrifices; 
as has Jephthah's treatment of his daughter, Judges xi. 34; but human 
sacrifices were expressly forbidden, Deut. xii. 30, 31 : Ps. lxvi. 3 : Ps. 
cvi. 37, 38. All who even touched a dead body were unclean ; and, 
moreover, no devoted thing could be sacrificed. Jepththah probably 
devoted his daughter to perpetual virginity ; and, at all events, the 
act is not commended. 

Predictions are sometimes stated, through a similar error, to be false, 
2 Kings viii. 10. Elisha's answer to Hazael not lo). The pro- 
mise to Josiah, 2 Chron. xxxiv. 28 ; xxxv. 23. The history of Jonah. 
Some assertions that the last day was near, 1 Cor. x. 11, etc. 

Expressions in the Old Testament seem to imply vindictive feeling : 
but some of the expressions are figurative, Ps. x. 15 ; some are pre- 
dictions, only the tenses being indicative future rather than impera- 
tive; and others are the denunciations of Divine justice against trans- 
gressors, Deut. xxviii. 

Some actions alleged to be done by prophets are said to be ridiculous 
or immoral; but they were either symbolical, or were represented in 
vision only, or were merely related by the prophet. Isa. xx. 3, naked, 
i. e. without his upper garment, Lowth ; or in vision, Rosenm. Jer. 
xiii. 4, 6, a vision (Lowth) ; Ezek. iv. : Hos. f. 2. 

Precepts and statements are interpreted without the necessary restric- 
tion or explanation : John vi. 51-58, eating Christ's flesh : Matt. xii. 36, 
•* idle words," pernicious, calumnious : Matt. xix. 23, " rich man," " one 
who trusts in riches :" Mark x. 24. Matt. v. 30, cut off a right hand : 
v. 39, "Whosoever shall smite thee on the right cheek, turn to him 
the other also ;" both spoken comparatively, rather do this than commit 
evil. 

All these passages involve impoi fcant truths and some difficulty, but 
the difficulty refers to interpretation only. 

(b.) Of difficulties in the sense of Scripture the following 
mi . may be taken as a sample. 

These diffi- J r 

cuitiesenu- 1. There are alleged contrarieties between the 

merated. 

Old Testament and the New, and between the 
teaching of our Lord and the teaching of his apostles. 



CLEARNESS OF SCRIPTURE STATEMENTS. 399 



2. There is said to be much that is impossible in the his- 
tory of creation, and in the attempt to trace all mankind to a 
common origin. 

3. Some of the miracles — the history of the fall, of Balaam, 
the demoniacal possessions in the New Testament, for exam- 
ple — are said to be incredible. 

4. Much was wrong in the applauded characters of Old 
Testament saints. 

5. Extraordinary commands were given to them, as to' 
Abraham, and to the Israelites. 

6. The punishment of idolatry with death seems to sanction 
'persecution, and many of the institutions of the law are unac- 
countable. 

7. Passages from the Old Testament are quoted in the New 
in altogether unnatural senses. 

8. Some of the moral and spiritual doctrines of the Gospel 
as a remedial system are mysterious. 

9. Above all, the existence of difficulties in the Bible is in- 
consistent with its object as a universal revelation. 

513. The last of these objections we proceed to examine 
first. There are, confessedly, difficulties in the Bible : Are th 
are they inconsistent with its inspiration and authen- ^Jh^Jj^ 
ticity, and do they hinder its usefulness for doctrine ration, 
or teaching, and for instruction in righteousness? 

514. Noticing the latter part of this question first, it is 
quite clear that the Bible reveals in passages innu- 
merable and unmistakable, the essential- principles new of 

of truth and duty. We have but to open the New Scnpture- 
Testament in almost any of its pages, to draw forth a scheme 
of holiness. The spirituality of the Divine nature, and of all 
acceptable worship (John iv. 24) ; repentance and remission 
of sins in Christ's name (Luke xxiv. 47) ; salvation through 
no - other (Acts iv. 12) ; the duty of all men everywhere to 
repent and believe (Acts xvii. 30 : Mark i. 15) ; eternal life 
through the Son ; eternal death as the consequence of unbe- 
lief (John iii.); the necessity of holiness (Matt. vii. 21); the 



400 



DIFFICULTIES — THEIR OBJECT. 



assurance of the help of the Spirit to control our corruption 
and to aid our infirmities. All these truths are written as with 
a sunbeam ; that " he may run that readeth." In every age, 
moreover, the great end of the Bible as a religiously instruc- 
tive book, the repository of saving truth, has been answered. 
Contrast the creed of the meanest Jew, in relation to God and 
law, with the errors and uncertainty of the wisest of the 
heathen ; the first Tusculan disputation of Cicero with the 
commonest Christian treatise on immortality and the resur- 
rection, and the difference will at once appear. The heathen 
philosopher falters at every step, and dreads the very conclu- 
sions to which his reasonings lead him ; while the opinion of* 
the Christian is already formed; his only difficulty being to 
impress his own heart and the hearts of others with the truth. 
By the leading and undoubted precepts of Scripture, the 
guiltiest may be "thoroughly furnished for every good work," 
and by its doctrines all men may be made " wise unto sal- 
vation." 

515. But do not these difficulties affect the authority of 
the Bible, and weaken the evidence of its inspiration ? Can 
a revelation be of universal authority which all do not un- 
derstand ; and is it really a revelation where so much is con- 
cealed ? 

In answering this question it might be said, that whatever 
we know of the works of God in nature is liable to the same 
objection. Bishop Butler has shown most conclusively that 
natural religion, revealed religion, and the providence of God, 
together with every known law of human duty, are all exposed 
to the same difficulties. There is in all an obscurity of mean- 
ing and deficiency of evidence, a mysteriousnees of 
cuitiesinaii arrangement and treatment that bespeak our state 
' to be one of incessant discipline. In truth these ob- 
jections apply much less forcibly to Scripture than to .our 
daily practice ; and the reasoning which seeks to set aside the 
Bible would, if true, rob God of all his authority, and man of 
all motives to virtue. ... It might be said further, that ?o 



DIFFICULTIES — THEIR OBJECT. 



401 



long as customs and language change, revelation un- And una ^ 
less given to each nation and to each age, cannot be voidable, 
free from difficulty. Customs and terms are now obsolete 
which were once familiar ; facts once known are now forgot- 
ten ; the connection, therefore, between them and other facts 
is lost. The result is a degree of ignorance which admits of 
no conceivable remedy, except what all would feel to be incon- 
sistent with our present condition. 

516. But we go further. The very difficulties of Scripture, 
philological and historical, afford cogent internal g j 
proof of the genuineness and authenticity of the proof of the 
♦ Bible. No one can now T doubt that it was revealed | in .°f 
to successive generations, and in ancient tongues. cnpture ' 
The solution of its difficulties, too, has been gradual, and that 
for the best reasons. Each age has its own temptations to 
infidelity, and each has its peculiar evidence. Let any one 
read the Credibility of Lardner, a work which could not have 
been written in the age of the apostles, for the facts on which 
it is founded were later than their times; or the Horse Paulina 
of Paley, or the Horse Apostolicas and Horse Evangelic® of 
Birks, on the apparent discrepancies and real agreement be- 
tween the statements of profane and sacred history, between 
the Epistles and the Acts of the Apostles, or between the dif- 
ferent Gospels, and he will at once perceive that the difficulties 
of Scripture create an internal evidence even more decisive 
than the external : it is throughout — the apparent discrepancy 
between the writers themselves, and profane records, and 
their obvious independence of one another and of everything 
but truth that forms the argument. We can dispense with 
nothing, not even difficulties. Every element (the apparent 
discrepancy among the rest) is essential to the force of the 
whole. 

And if it be said that these difficulties are too numerous, or 
that the solution of them has been too slow, it may be an- 
swered that this gradual solution is necessary in order to sup- 
ply to each age fresh evidence, and to excite continued interest 
34* 



402 



DOCTRINAL DIFFICULTIES. 



in Scripture, while the fact proves that the evidence of the 
Bible, like its doctrine, is for all time. 

517. From the study of philological and historical difficulties 
we proceed to investigate the doctrinal — the great 

Their natu- r . ° . & 

rainess and mysteries of godliness and iniquity, " the hard 

utility in . 

other re- things" connected with salvation, and the veiled or 
dimly disclosed future. . How obvious are such re- 
marks as these ; men are fallen; our nature is depraved; our 
intellect is darkened. A revelation just such as our moral 
taste approved could not fail to have marks of an origin much 
lower than heaven. We are finite : what more natural than 
that an omniscient being, when he speaks on matters which 
refer to eternal interests, should speak occasionally what we 
but partially comprehend : certainly, the absence of difficulty 
(the thing pleaded for) in a communication from what pro- 
fessed to be infinite wisdom, would have had thrown upon it, 
by that circumstance, a strong if not unanswerable suspicion. 
See objection 8. 

Let it be added that these difficulties have dignified every 
kind of human learning, by rendering all eligible to the service 
of religion. Historically, the study of classical literature in 
modern times began with the study of the Bible ; and ever 
since, sound religion and true learning have been linked in 
inseparable bonds. All knowledge is thus sanctified ; and 
however individual Christians may have exposed themselves 
■to the charge of being enemies of mental improvement, it 
becomes impossible to include the Christian religion itself in 
this rebuke. 

No doubt it may be affirmed in reply to these reasonings, 
that the existence of Scripture difficulties is attended with 
one inconvenience : they are liable to excite distrust in the 
minds even of Christians ; that is, they try our faith. But is 
not this again an evidence in their favor ? What are all the 
dispensations of God but our discipline ? What is life but a 
walking by faith ; that is, by habitual reliance on Him whose 
ways we cannot understand, and in circumstances that require 



HOW SOLVED OR ANSWERED. 



403 



such a trust. Perhaps inspiration might have removed all 
difficulties from Scripture, though we cannot tell how ; but 
certainly we should have lost much and gained littie by the 
change. 

Instead of answering these objections in detail RuIeg for 
let the following rules be marked and applied. them 6 

518. (1.) We must interpret Scripture, its an- 
nouncements, and disclosures, in accordance with , , ... 

Interpret it 

what it professes to be; — an inspired volume de- aswnttepin 

x x human lan- 

s-.vpned to set forth the scheme of salvation by Christ, guage,but 

° ... by a Divine 

and to bring men unto God. So far as it is like author, 
other books written in the language of man, it must be inter- 
preted by the same laws as other books ; we must ever look 
at the words, the context, the speaker and the customs and 
history of his age ; but so far as it differs from other books — ■ 
being inspired and intended for all time, every part of it fore- 
shadowing or plainly exhibiting the cross, we must give to its 
phrases and intimations a plenary and spiritual significance. 
The sacrificial enactments of the law, for example, considered 
in themselves alone, were sanguinary. They certainly con- 
tain no intimation that they prefigured the death of our 
Lord. Their ultimate purpose, however, is unquestioned; 
and in the meantime they taught the great doctrine of sub- 
stitution, to some probably most plainly ; and they impressed 
the hearts of men with some of the same sentiments as are 
now awakened by the cross. The promise to Abraham, 
again, has no such terms as point exclusively and clearly to 
the coming of the Messiah ; and such a promise found in 
Virgil or in Homer could not fairly be interpreted as having 
such a reference. But the Christian cannot doubt its mean- 
ing. If the writers of the Scriptures did not foresee all the 
truths which might be drawn from their words, God the Holy 
Spirit foresaw them ; and the business of interpretation is, to 
Learn his purpose and end in what was revealed. To explain, 
therefore, the inspired Scriptures in all respects as if they were 
human compositions, with no wider range, and no spiritual 



404 



HOW SOLVED OR ANSWERED. 



rule, is, as Lord Bacon has expressed it, to " dishonor the 
Scriptures and injure the church." See Objection 7. 

519. (2.) As doctrines are to be interpreted in accordance 
No solution w ^ n the comprehensiveness of Scripture, so no 
inconsistr solution of a difficulty must be admitted which is 

ent with in- / 

spiration to no t in accordance with the great fact of inspira- 

be admit- u x 

ted. tion. Many compare the miracles of Moses with 

the prodigies of Livy, or the writings of Ezekiel with those 
of ^Eschylus, or the doctrines of our Lord with the philoso- 
phizings of Plato, and the difficulties in each case may be 
removed in the same way. If it be said that the miracles 
are incredible, and the imagery is extravagant, and the moral 
reasoning is fallacious or forced ; in that case the difficulties 
are removed on principles which set aside the authority of 
Scripture. If we deny inspiration it becomes us to examine 
the evidence, and to attend to the moral and spiritual truths 
of the Bible ; but if we admit its inspiration, our solution of 
its difficulties must leave that glorious characteristic of it un- 
touched. Most, therefore, of the expressions employed in the 
preceding objections (2, 3, 9) must be rejected, because incon- 
sistent with the spirit of a devout humble inquirer. 

520. (3.) Scripture must be regarded as a system from 

beginning to end; and the different books and sen- 
whole: tences must be interpreted as the component and 
connected parts of a great whole. All the light which the 
first page throws upon the last, or the last upon the first, may 
be freely used for purposes of illustration and defence ; not 
of course to prove that every passage has the same meaning, 
but to prove that all have the same end. 

This rule, it will be observed, does for facts and truths 
what the kindred rule on the analogy of faith or on parallel 
passages does for the interpretation of the words. " From 
him that hath not, shall be taken away even that which he 
hath," for example, is the sentence of our Lord. Separate 
these words from the context, from the parallel passage in 
another Gospel, from the principle of the Divine government 



HOW SOLVED OR ANSWERED. 



405 



which they illustrate, and we miss their sense ; explain them 
connectedly and the whole is clear. So of Bible truths. The 
sacrifice and the death of Abel, viewed in themselves, seem 
not more significant than the good deed and untimely end of 
any good man ; but view his death, as the first fruit of sin, 
and his sacrifice as an evidence of the true nature of every 
acceptable offering ; as a proof, moreover, how conscious 
demerit expressed itself in the first age, and how deeply it felt 
the need of vicarious suffering, and the whole narrative 
assumes an aspect of importance and dignity. Explain in 
the same way the ordinances of the law, the personal history 
of many ancient saints, and incidents in themselves trivial 
become fresh marks of internal credibility, and even lessons 
for the instruction of the church throughout every age. 

521. (4.) As it is important to study Scripture connectedly, 
it is even more important to study it in its true con- And eon _ 
nection, and in that alone. A false system may Be nected. 
more mischievous than no system at all. 

The plagues of Egypt, for example, may be regarded as 
inflicted only for the deliverance of a nation from slavery ; in 
that light they may seem excessive, and some of them even 
absurd. Eegarded as manifestations of Divine power, as fore- 
shadowings of the destiny of the finally impenitent, or of the 
spoiling of principalities and powers by him who so signally 
triumphed over them in his cross, as public rebukes of idolatry, 
every plague being inflicted upon an idol god, as confirma- 
tions of the faith of the Israelites, long remembered, their 
significance is plain. 

If idolatry again be regarded as mental error merely, or if 
the Jews be regarded as an ordinary community, the punish- 
ment of that sin with death may seem severe. Really it was 
a penalty inflicted only on the apostate Israelite, who had 
repeatedly accepted Jehovah as his chosen king. In a theo- 
cracy it was civil treason ; and the great purpose, moreover, 
of the whole institution was to redeem our race from the 
depraved and wretched condition which that sin involved. 



406 



HOW SOLVED OR ANSWERED. 



In the same way the truths of Scripture on the person of 
our Lord derive much of their significance, and all their con- 
sistency, from the union in him of our human nature with the 
Divine. Explain them on the supposition that he was man 
only or God only, and they appear contradictory ; combine 
both views, and the whole is harmonious and highly consola- 
tory. 

To find fault with the acts of ancient saints, and to con- 
clude that the record of their faults is as inconsistent with 
the Divine origin of the Bible as the acts themselves were 
derogatory to true religion, implies a false theory. Suppose, 
for example, that the object of the Bible be— the revelation 
of God and the improvement of man, and the objections 
cease. 

Take, as an instance, the deception of Jacob, Gen. xxvii. 
33-35, and, mark its lessons in relation to God and to our- 
selves. His superiority over his brother and his inheritance 
of the promise had been foretold at his birth. Isaac, Rebecca, 
and Jacob himself all probably knew of this prediction. In 
spite of this knowledge, however, Isaac made a favorite of 
the elder brother, who had connected himself with a heathen 
family : Jacob had so little faith, moreover, in the Divine 
promise, that he needlessly removed the difficulty of his 
brother's priority by purchase : Rebecca, with no more faith, 
induced her son to practise the deception which obtained him 
the blessing. The guilt and folly of this whole transaction 
soon bore their appropriate fruits. The weakness of Isaac 
was punished by the alienation and dispersion of his children. 
The recklessness and profanity of Esau cost him the blessing ; 
Rebecca-'s unbelief ended in her becoming dependent upon 
the son she had wronged : her favorite son she never again 
saw. Jacob was driven from his home — was himself robbed 
and defrauded by Laban ; the wife he despised became the 
mother of the chosen tribe, and in the deception of his own 
children he learned the grievousness of his sin. Above all, 
though the promise was ultimately fulfilled, Jacob himself 



HOW SOLVED OR ANSWERED. 



407 



received no blessing from it. Instead of Ms mother's son 
bowing down before him, he, in his own person, bowed down 
before his mother's son, and at the close of his life he was 
dependent upon his children. The punishment, in fact, was 
complete : nor less so is the lesson. It may be said that, 
nevertheless, he inherited the blessing ; and this is true : for 
the gifts of God are without repentance, and his choice of his 
servants is founded upon no personal merit, but on reasons, 
which, in most cases, as in this, he has seen it right to conceal. 
It may be said also, that the blessing was secured by means 
which no ingenuous mind can commend ; and this is true ; 
but the objection applies to providential dealings generally as 
much as to Scripture. Man's sin is constantly overruled for 
God's glory ; and neither the responsibility of man nor the 
holiness of God is affected by the arrangement : a revelation, 
in fact, without such incidents, would be neither just to God 
nor true to man. 

522. (5.) It becomes us to distrust the conclusions of human 
wisdom and of logical reasoning, whenever applied 

° ° . Conclusions 

to subjects beyond the reach of our experience, and of human 

,, . ,. . , „ . wisdom to 

especiallv m matters of religious truth. Jjjven m be dis- 

• i n t i i ii i trusted. 

science we know really little beyond what we have 
observed. " What is light ?" and " What is power ?' ' are ques- 
tions which philosophy has not yet answered. We speak of 
the laws of gravitation, and affirm that they keep the planets 
in their orbits ; but gravitation (it is allowed) is itself nothing 
hut the expression of a uniform fact. The origin of disease, 
independently of second causes and symptoms, is entirely un- 
known ; nor can any one tell how contagion or infection acts 
upon the frame. The most probable conclusion to which even 
philosophy is pointing is, that the great forces in this universe 
are put forth immediately by God. Miracles and mysteries 
everywhere abound, and it is only their regularity and fre- 
quency that destroy our surprise. Combine with this fact the 
fallen condition and inherent littleness of man, and the pro- 
priety of the principle of Lord Bacon, when he bids us rev- 



408 



HOW SOLVED OR ANSWERED. 



erently question nature, and not dogmatize on her processes, 
will appear doubly just when applied to the Bible. 

523. (6.) Let no man attempt or expect the explanation of 
Expect not evei T difficulty. " Of the dark parts of Scripture," 
of aii°diffi- n sa y s Warburton, " there are two sorts, one which 
cuities. ma y be cleared up by the studious application of 
well employed talents, the other which will always recede 
within the shadow of God's throne, where it would be impiety 
to intrude." "The last step of reason," says Pascal, "is tc 
know that there is an infinitude of things which surpass it." 
After all difficulties have been solved and every word of the 
Bible explained, the weightiest difficulties of all will remain. 
The origin of evil, the mystery of Divine foreknowledge and 
free-agency, and much of the scheme of redemption will still 
exercise our faith. We shall say even then, as it is our wis- 
dom to say now, "Oh, the depth of the riches, both of the 
wisdom and knowledge of God! how unsearchable are hia 
judgments, and his ways past finding out !" 

On the whole of this Section, see Home, " On the Apparent Contra 
dictions of Scripture," Davidson's " Hermeneutics," Gerard's " Biblical 
Criticism/' and, on the latter part especially, Benson's "Hulsean Lec- 
tures." 



CHAPTEE VII. 



ON THE INFERENTIAL AND PRACTICAL READING- OF THE 
BIBLE. 

"All Scripture is practical, and intended to minister to our improve- 
ment rather than to our curiosity." — Arnold : Sermons (p. 239). 

" I know not a better rule of reading the Scripture than to read it 
through from beginning to end ; and when we have finished it once, to 
begin it again, we shall meet with many passages which we can make 
little improvement of; but not so many in the second reading as in the 
first; and fewer in the third than in the second." — John Newton — 
(vi. 418). 



LESSONS FROM WORDS, ETC. 409 

524. As the great use of philosophy is the " endowment of 
man's life with commodities," so the great use of The chief 
Scripture is the increase of our wisdom and holi- JJJ^jiJ^" 
ness. To gather the meaning of Scripture, and apply it. 
sum up its doctrines, is to accomplish but part of the purpose 
for which Scripture was given. Every precept and promise 
must be applied. Even from every verse we may gain some 
accession to our knowledge, some quickened impulse to our 
feelings, or some encouragement or guide in duty. Medita- 
tion on truth will reveal its fulness ; and the practical appli- 
cability of it on all sides will at once surprise and reward our 
inquiries. 

525. By the practical and inferential reading of the Bible 
is meant that study of the sacred page which de- Whatmeant 
duces and applies to ourselves, or to the great bytheprac- 

x 1 ° Tical and m- 

questions of religious character and experience, the ferentiai 

, . T . .... . reading of 

truths it contains. It is not distinct from interpre- Scripture, 
tation, it is rather the continuance and end of it. Interpre- 
tation answers the question, What is the meaning of the words 
of a particular passage ? Systematic theology decides the 
connection between that meanirg and the whole system of 
truth. The inferential and practical study of Scripture an- 
swers the question, What do these words imply, and what 
truth or duty do they illustrate or suggest in relation to the 
Divine life, and my personal history ? The foundation of such 
study is the perpetual harmony of Divine truth, and the prac- 
ticalness of the whole. Its pre-requisite is a general know- 
ledge of the teaching of Scripture, and a spirit imbued with 
"the form of sound words in faith and love which is in Christ 
Jesus" (2 Tim. i. 13). With these pre-requisites it will be 
easy (so closely is one truth connected with another) for a 
Christian to " diffuse himself," as Francke expressed it, " from 
one word over the whole Scripture." 

526. In drawing such inferences from Scripture we need 
35 



410 



LESSONS FEOM WORDS, ETC. 



inferences the same rules which we have already laid down for 

may be . .. 

drawn from Scripture interpretation. 

sources. The words — the words in their place in the sen- 
tence — the words in connection with the scope of the writer — ■ 
the words in connection with other parts of Scripture — is the 
division which includes all the inferences that can be legiti- 
mately drawn from the teachings of Divine truth. 

527. (1.) Lessons may be drawn from the words of Scrip- 
ture. 

In Rom. xiv. 17, we have a description of the "kingdom of God:" 
such is the Gospel : it is God's reign ; it originates in his grace ; it is 
founded upon his power ; it will illustrate his government. 

In Heb. hi. 1, Christ is called the " High Priest and the Apostle of 
our profession." Each word is significant ; he was first selected and 
ordained of God ; he was commissioned and sent by him. The guilt of 
rejecting him is proportioned to his dignity. The efficacy of his salva- 
tion is secured by Divine appointment. He is High Priest under the 
Gospel; therefore, though it is a dispensation of mercy, we need sacri- 
fice and acceptance, and are dependent for both upon him. 

528. (2.) Lessons may be drawn from the words in their 
place in the sentence. 

In 1 Pet. v. 5, we are commanded to be clothed with humility, for 
God resisteth the proud. Clearly (1) humility, though despised by the 
heathen, is a Christian grace. (2.) Our truest ornament (for this the 
Greek word for "be clothed" involves) is a just, that is, an humble esti- 
mate of ourselves, and that ornament must be so closely connected with 
us that none shall be able to tear it away (so the Greek implies). 
(3.) Every duty may be enforced by a reference to God's character. 
(4.) Pride is a public conspicuous sin (so the Greek implies). (5.) It 
braves God, and he sets himself in array against it. 

So in Rom. xiv. 17, the kingdom of God is described as righteousness, 
peace, and joy in the Holy Ghost. Hence it may be inferred (1) that 
peace is through righteousness only, (2) and joy is the fruit of right- 
eousness and peace ; (3) that a righteousness which brings with it 
neither peace nor joy is not the righteousness of the kingdom of God. 

529. (3.) Lessons may be drawn from ivords in connection 
with the context. 



LESSONS FROM SCOPE, ETC. 



411 



Thus in Matt, xxvii. 52, we read that many bodies of the saints which 
slept arose, but (ver. 53) it was after the resurrection of our Lord ; he 
therefore was the first-fruits of them that slept, and whatever his saints 
received they owed to him. 

Contrast *1 Tim. i. 15 with ver. 4, and we shall gather that the legends 
of the Jews and the stories of the Gentiles are compared to fables ; the 
Gospel to undoubted truth. 

530. (4.) Lessons may be drawn from the scope either of 
the book or of the particular passage. 

Compare, for example, John viii. 51, " If a man keep my sayings he 
shall never see death," with John xx. 31, "These are written that ye 
might believe . . . and that believing ye might have life through his 
name," and it follows that faith in Christ is shown by obedience to his 
words; that faith receives not only his sacrifice but his teaching; that 
whoever has life through his name shall never see death. Comparing 
this passage with the immediate object of our Lord (which was to prove 
that he was not possessed of an evil spirit), it follows that a doctrine 
which secures eternal life is not likely to be false ; that saving truth is 
to be set forth, even before those who calumniate it; and that though 
Christ's teaching is foolishness with men, it must be received and obeyed. 

531. (5.) Lessons may be drawn from parallel passages. 
Instead, however, of multiplying examples, let us Parallel 
take a passage and apply the rules now given to passagea 
illustrate and expound it. 

532. In 2 Tim. i. 8, we read, " Be not thou, therefore, 
ashamed of the testimony of our Lord, nor of me, 

his prisoner : but be thou partaker of the afflictions 
of the Gospel." The meaning of the verse having been ascer- 
tained, take first the words : 

1. The Gospel is called a testimony. It is therefore not an unsup- 
ported assertion. 

2. Of this Gospel the Christian is not to be ashamed. Boldness 
in giving witness for Christ is often required, especially in times of 
persecution. 

3. This boldness is not unfounded presumption, but a rational assu- 
rance : " Be not^hou therefore ashamed." 

4. The Gospel is the testimony of our Lord; its end is " to bear wit- 



412 



INFERENTIAL READING OF THE BIBLE. 



ness of Christ, who is our Lord." Paul and Timothy were fellow- ser- 
vants (Phil. i. 1), and therefore stood in the same relation to Christ 
their Lord, whom therefore they were bonnd to obey. 

5. Paul was His prisoner ; men had confined him, but he was not in 
their power, nor did he suffer as an evil doer. 

Secondly. Take each, word in connection with the other 
words of the sentence, and we gather such inferences as these. 

1. Not to partake of the afflictions of the Gospel when called up©n 
to share them, is to be ashamed of the testimony of our Lord. 

2. He who is ashamed of suffering Christians, who suffer as Chris- 
tians, is ashamed of Christ himself. 

3. Our testimony to Christ must be borne, not only in seasons of 
prosperity, but in seasons of affliction. 

4. Even in his bonds Paul preached the Gospel. 

5. Paul bore a consistent tes^'mony to the truth, and yet he required 
the testimony of Timothy. It i>s therefore necessary that the testimony 
of God's servants should be multiplied. 

6. A timid and distrustful heart is not fit to bear testimony for Christ, 
nor to endure affliction for his cause. 

Thirdly. Take the words in connection with the context. 
The general object of the apostle, in this part of the chapter 
is, to exhort Timothy to undergo affliction for the cause of 
Christ, and he enforces this exhortation by cogent arguments. 

Comparing the passage with the fourth verse, we conclude that tha 
godly, though surrounded by calamity, can rejoice, and have delight- 
ful communion with one another. 

With the third verse, that those who are about to suffer for the testi- 
mony of Jesus need our prayers "night.and day." 

With the fifth verse, that the remembrance of a pious ancestry may 
happily increase our boldness and fidelity in seasons of persecution. 

With the sixth verse, that the gift which the minister has received 
from God is to be stirred up, in order not only to teach, but to suffer. 

With the seventh verse, that the gifts of power and of love (to Christ 
and the souls of men), and of a sound mind, in the discharge of arduous 
duties, all bind the Christian to fidelity in suffering. 

With the ninth verse, that the remembrance of our salvation, and of 
the grace and purpose of God towards us, will dispel the fear of tem- 
poral affliction. 



INFERENTIAL READING OF THE BIBLE. 



41S 



With the tenth verse, that the superiority of the Gospel dispensation, 
and the confirmation of our faith by the appearance and resurrection 
of Christ, should make us the more willing to suffer ; our sufferings are 
not for a cunningly-devised fable, but for the truth of God. 

Comparing the words of the verse with the words of the preceding 
verses, we gather other lessons. The fear of persecution is one frequent 
cause of apostasy. Men are ashamed of the testimony of Christ, 
because not willing to be partakers of the afflictions of the Gospel. A 
sound mind, or real wisdom, is seen in willingness to endure affliction 
rather than deny Christ. Mere worldly prudence is tested and dis- 
covered by affliction. The spirit of fear is injurious to our steadfast- 
ness, and is not God's gift. True power is seen in endurance and 
fidelity. Love has such influence over the soul that, were we exposed 
to the severest calamities, or even to death, it will keep us unmoved. 
Apostasy implies feebleness, coldness, folly; for steadfastness is the 
fruit of power, prudence, and love. 

Fourthly. If we look to the scope of the Epistle, and the 
circumstances of the writer, we learn other lessons equally 
important. The general scope of the Epistle is, that Paul, 
now the prisoner of the Lord, asks Timothy to come to him, 
and endeavors, previously, to prepare and fortify his mind 
against the afflictions which at that period threatened the 
churches at Ephesus and in Rome. 

Look at Paul's circumstances, we learn that one who is imprisoned 
for Christ may still, by letter, incite others to serve him ; and that, so 
far from a Christian losing his consolation through imprisonment, he 
may even exhort others to suffer, and to gather encouragement from 
himself: that in affliction we should take special care lest others be 
discouraged by our sufferings : that we may ask others to share our 
sufferings if it be for the furtherance of the Gospel, but that we must 
first fortify their minds for what they may have to bear : that Christians 
may be tempted to apostasy by calamity, and that therefore they 
should be kindly warned and prayed for by those that see its ap- 
proach. ' 

In looking at Timothy, we may learn that a Christian should neither 
accelerate bus removal from one sphere of duty nor defer going to 
another through fear of affliction : that he ought to strengthen his own 
mind for what may befall him : that the danger of others ought not to 
intimidate him, but to render him at once prudent, and willing to 
35* 



414 



INFERENTIAL READING OF THE BIBLE. 



undergo similar sufferings: that even in the case of eminent Christiana, 
when calling them to the service of God, it may be important to 
remove the scruples and difficulties they may feel in relation to the 
call. 

In looking generally at the scope of the Epistle, and connecting it 
with the words of the text, we may learn such lessons as these. In 
seasons of persecution, the spiritual boldness of love and of a sound 
mind is peculiarly required. In such seasons the servants of God may 
justly stir up each other to promote the common cause; to preserve 
each other's fidelity in obedience and in suffering. Before we bid an- 
other to engage in a difficult service, we must, by prayer and. exhorta- 
tion, seek to prepare him for it. The qualifications for service in the 
kingdom of Christ are gifts of the Holy Spirit. 

The fifth source of inferential reading is the comparison of 
a passage with other passages throughout the sacred writings. 
In this case it is not a merely verbal parallelism which suggests 
the lesson but the parallelism of thought and truth. 

Let us take phrase by phrase. " Be not thou therefore ashamed." 

In Rom i. 16 and Phil. i. 20, Paul affirms that he is "not ashamed 
of the Gospel of Christ," and it is the same boldness he requires ip. 
Timothy. Hence it may be said that faithful teachers require of others 
what they themselves know is not impossible ; and again, he who best 
inculcates patience manifests it by example before he enjoins it by 
precept. 

" Be thou partaker of the afflictions of the Gospel." 

From 1 Thess. iii. 2-4, we learn that Timothy had been sent to 
Thessalonica to establish and comfort the church, that no man might 
be moved by their afflictions; and from Rom. viii. 17 and 18, we gather 
that participation in sufferings is essential to participation in glory. 
Hence we may infer that Timothy was specially bound to observe what 
he himself taught ; and that the prospect of everlasting blessedness 
proportioned to our holy and devoted suffering may well repress our 
r.hame of present affliction. 

By comparing the second clause of the verse with other passages 
lessons equally important and interesting may be obtained. See 1 Cor. 
iv. 9 : 2 Cor. xi. 13-33, where affliction is said by the apostle to be the 
seal of his apostleship ; and 1 Pet. iv. 13 and Col. i. 24, where Chris- 
tians are exhorted not only to bear afflictions, but to rejoice in them ; 
and Rev. xii. 11, where the end of affliction is set forth in the blessed- 
ness of those who are now before the throne. By reference to 1 Pet. 



INFERENTIAL HEADING OF THE BIBLE. 



415 



iii. 13 and iv. 17, it will be seen that even the ungodly are not free 
from suffering, and "that the surest way of avoiding afflictions, or, if 
it cannot be avoided, of having comfort in it, is to cherish fidelity as 
Christians. 

533. These rules are of extensive use. They may be ap- 
plied to nearly the whole of the Bible ; and as this 
kind of study is highly instructive it may be well to 
give another instance or two of the application of them. 

We take a passage from the history of our Lord. In John xi. 15, 
we read, "I am glad for your sakes that I was not there to the intent 
ye may believe ; nevertheless let us go unto him." The meaning of 
the words we suppose to have been gathered from the general usage 
of language and from comparison with other parts of the Scripture. 
The obvious facts of passage are the following. Christ was glad. He 
was glad for the sake of his disciples : he was glad that he was not 
there. To the intent that they might believe. He nevertheless loved 
Lazarus, and determined to restore him, and therefore (said he) " let 
us go unto him." 

1. Christ was glad. 

Joy may be at times becoming ; on connecting this fact with verses 
14, 35, 36, we infer that an event, in itself painful, may be a source 
of joy to the Christian; or, connecting it with similar facts in Scrip- 
ture, it may be gathered that our Saviour's joy was always found in 
what contributed to the good of his disciples or to the glory of His 
Father. 

2. He was glad for the sake of his disciples. 

That a benevolent mind finds happiness in the improvement of others 
is one obvious inference ; that some of the dealings of Christ were 
prompted by a regard to the welfare of his disciples is another. Both 
these truths are in the sentence. Looking to the context, we find that 
one Christian may sometimes suffer for the good of others. Comparing 
this expression with other parts of Scripture, we gather a conclusion 
more general still. All that Christ did or suffered was done for the 
?ake of his church. Did he empty himself of glory, and come into our 
world in circumstances of the deepest humiliation? " For our sakes 
he became poor." Did he here endure sufferings more diversified and 
intense than human nature had ever known ? " He bore our griefs and 
he carried our sorrows." Did he devote himself to our interests and 
sanctify himself for the work of mediation? It was for our sakes and 
that he might be sanctified by the truth (John xvii. 19). Did a voice 



416 



INFERENTIAL READING OF THE BIBLE. 



from heav en comfort Him ? " This voice came," says he, " not because 
of me, but for your sakes" (John xii. 30). Did he, after he had suffered, 
leave the world ? It was because it was expedient for us. Is he now 
at the right hand of the Majesty on high? It is that if any man sin 
he may have " an Advocate with the Father." Even the conduct of 
his providence is regulated by a regard for the interests of his church. 

He rebuked kings for their sakes." He spared ancient Israel, though 
guilty, and he tells them that they were spared for the sake of his true 
servants who were found among them, Isa. lxv. 8. More comprehen- 
sively still, he assures us that all things are for our sakes, that life is ours . 
and death, and things present and things to come, Bom. viii. 28: 2 
Cor. iv. 15. 

3. He was glad that he was not there, i. e. to heal the sick. 

To withhold deliverance may be a blessing. On comparing this verse 
with verses 21 and 32, where Martha and Mary expressed their sur- 
prise that Christ was not there ; and again, with verses 44, 45, where it 
is said that the Jews believed, we infer that Christ's purpose is some- 
times accomplished by means which are not consistent with the expec- 
tations of his disciples. This truth is taught in a limited form by the 
context. Comparing the truth thus ascertained with other similar his 
tories, we gather the general conclusion that God's ways are not as our 
ways, nor his thoughts as our thoughts. Joseph, for instance, was sold 
into Egypt in the anguish of his soul, and amidst the lamentations of 
his father. In Egypt he endured bitter temptation and imprisonment, 
yet the whole of his affliction seems now to have been part of the Di- 
vine plan, and was certainly the means of preserving his family alive. 
It proved advantageous, moreover, to his own Jionor ; and the history 
of his trial suggests many a lesson for the improvement of young men 
in every age. 

The sufferings of Job must at first have seemed mysterious. At the , 
close of his history, however, all is explained ; for God blessed his latter 
end more than his beginning, gave him honor in proportion to his pre- 
vious afflictions, and has handed down his history as a permanent lesson 
of patience and faith. 

The three Hebrew youths in Babylon were found faithful among the 
faithless, and for their conscientious obedience to the Divine law were 
thrown into the fiery furnace. Was God there, and did he interpose in 
their behalf? Not in the way we might have hoped, but in his own. 
He made their sufferings the means of giving to his church a new pre- 
mise of the Messiah (for a fourth was seen walking with them); and 
they themselves were uninjured, so that even the smell of fire was not 
upon them. In the end, too, not at the beginning, a heathen king was 



INFERENTIAL READING OF THE BIBLE. 



417 



compelled to acknowledge that no god was able to deliver like the God 
of the Hebrews. In each of these cases the Divine purpose was accom- 
plished by a process very different from the expectation of the sufferers. 
The folly of judging the dispensations of God during their operation, 
and the wisdom of waiting till the day when all shall be made plain, is 
equally a lesson of this part of the verse, and might be illustrated in 
the same way. 

4. All this was done to the intent that the disciples might believe. 
Christ, therefore, is anxious in his dealings to increase our faith. His 

disciples were not credulous, as has been supposed, but the contrary. 
Their faith was not inclination, but conviction, and the result of evi- 
dence. That they believed the things they describe, ought therefore +.0 
add to the weight of their testimony. Comparing this clause with ver. 
45, where it is said that, as the result of the miracle, many of the Jew>» 
believed, it may be inferred that the same exhibition of Divine power 
which is adapted to increase a believer's_ faith, is adapted to produce 
conviction in the undecided. Comparing it with John xx. 31, we gather 
that the miracles of the Gospel should have the same influence upon us 
as they had upon those that witnessed them ; the record of them by 
credible witnesses making them standing miracles. Comparing it with 
passages in which it is implied that the disciples had believed, we gather 
that faith admits of increase ; and comparing it with Romans v. 1, where 
Christians are said to be "justified by faith;" and with Acts xxvi. 18, 
where they are said to be "sanctified by faith;" and with Gal. ii. 20: 
2 Cor. i. 24, where faith is said to be the secret of their life and stead- 
fastness, we gather that this increase of faith is thus precious in the 
esteem of our Lord because it brings with it to the Christian an increase 
both of usefulness and of peace. 

5. Christ had nevertheless resolved to go unto him. 

His case might seem desperate, but it was not beyond the reach of 
Divine power. Christ often does above what we think. The extremity 
of the sufferer was the opportunity of the Redeemer. 

Comparing this verse with the following, it is plain that the words 
of our Lord are often misunderstood, arid misunderstood through un- 
belief. 

Comparing this clause with ver. 8, we learn that Christ is ready 
to expose himself to personal peril in order to comfort or relieve his 
disciples.- 

Comparing it with ver. 42-44, we gather that when the purpose of 
affliction is answered, the affliction itself is removed. From the whole 
verse we gather that God speaks to us in the afflictions of others, and 



418 



INFERENTIAL READING OF THE BIBLE. 



that if we disregard his voice we are the more likely to be chastised 
ourselves. 

534. Sometimes the student of Scripture is anxious to as- 
certain what it teaches on some one question. In which case 
he uses each passage with a special reference not to all it con- 
tains, but to the truth which he is investigating : an exercise 
which combines the systematic with the inferential study of 
the Bible. 

If, for example, he wishes to obtain a full view of what is taught in 
Scripture on affliction, he examines a few passages, and soon finds that 
they begin to arrange themselves in his mind. Some treat of affliction 
generally, some of the afflictions of Christians, and some of the afflic- 
tions of the impenitent ; while throughout he finds truths and duties 
most instructively blended.- In the end he ascertains such results as 
these : 

Affliction : — Men born to it, Job v. 6, 7. Is the consequence and 
a punishment of sin, Gen. iii. 16-19 : Prov. i. 31 : 2 Sam. xii. 14: Psa. 
lxxxix. 30-32: Isa. lvii. 17: Jer. ii. 14-17. For which, however, it 
cannot atone, Isa. v. 25: Lev. xxvi. 14-39: Lam. iii. 1-22: Dan. ix. 
16-19. Is appointed by God, who regulates the measure and continu- 
ance of it, Psa. lxvi. 11 : Job i. 21 : Lam. iii. 33 : 2 Kings xiv. 26, 27: 
Isa. ix. 1: Jer. xlvi. 28: Gen. xv. 13, 14: Jer. xxix. 10. Is often deep 
and severe, Psa. xviii. 4, 5 : 1 Pet. iv. 12. But tempered with mercy 
and less than we deserve, Psa. lxxviii. 38, 39 ; Isa. xxx. 20 : Ezra ix. 13. 

Affliction is often blessed to the Christian — showing him his errors, 
Numb. xxi. 6, 7: Luke xv. 16, 17. Bringing him back to God and 
keeping him there, Psa. lxxviii. 34 : Hos. ii. 6, 7 : Isa. x. 20 : Ezek. xiv. 
10, 11. Humbling him, trying and perfecting his patience, faith, and 
obedience, Rom. v. 3 : 1 Pet. i. 7 : Jud. iii. 4 : Heb. xi. 17. Testing and 
exhibiting his sincerity, Job. xxiii. 10 : Prov. xvii. 3. Fitting him for 
greater usefulness : explaining the Bible : purifying the heart, Mai. 

iii. 23. Tending to the furtherance of the Gospel, Acts viii. 3,4:2 Tim. 

iv. 17. Illustrating the power and love of God, 2 Cor. iv. 7-11 : John 
ix. 1-3 ; xi. 4. Ending, when rightly endured, in the greater blessed- 
ness', 1 Pet. iv. 13, 14, etc. 

Its influence is exemplified in Joseph's brethren, Gen. xlii. 21 : in 
Israel, Deut. viii. 3, 5: David, 2 Sam. xvi. 12: Josiah, 2 Kings xxii. 
19: Hezekiah, 2 Chron. xxxii. 25, 26: Manasseh, 2 Chron. xxxiii. 12. 

In the case of the impenitent affliction is multiplied, and often 



INFERENCES — PARABLES. ' J 419 



sudden, Psa. xxxii. 10 ; xvi. -4: Prov. vi. 15 : Isa. xxx. 13. Is a conse- 
quence of impenitence, Zech. vii. 11, 12: Prov. i. 24-33. Is of itself 
ineffectual for conversion ; often hardens the heart, or produces slavish 
fear, Isa. i. 5 : Jer. ii. 30 : Neh. ix. 27-29 : Jer. xlix. 5. Is no cause of 
fear to the righteous, Psa. xc. 1, 5. Is a warning to others, 1 Cor. x. 
5-11 : 2 Pet. ii. 6. God will be glorified in it, Ezek. xxviii. 22, 23. 

Its influence exemplified in Pharaoh, Ex. viii. 8-15: Ahaziah, 2 Kings 
i. 1-4 : Gehazi, 2 Kings v. 27 : Jehoram, 2 Chron. xxi. 12-19 : Athaliah, 
2 Chron. xxii. 10 : Uzziah, 2 Chron. xxvi. 19, 21 : Ahaz, 2 Chron. xxviii. 
5-8, 22. 

The afflicted Christian should exercise resignation and patience, 
Psa. xxxix. 9: James i. 4: 1 Pet. ii. 20. Acknowledge the justness of 
his chastisements, Mic. vii. 9. Avoid sin, John v. 14. Trust in God, 
Psa. lxxi. 20 ; Psa. lvi. 11. Praise him, Psa. xxxv. 18 ; Psa. lvi. 8-12. 
Take encouragement from past mercies, Psa. xlii. 4, 5 : 2 Cor. i. 10. 
Remember that God has promised that in time of trouble he will be 
with him; will support, comfort, and finally deliver him, Isa. xliii. 2; 
Psa. xxvii. 5, 6: 2 Cor. vii. 6: Psa. cvii. 13. 

The afflicted Cheistian should be visited, pitied, protected, com- 
forted and relieved, James i. 27: Job vi. 14: Psa. lxxxii. 3: 1 Thess. 
iv. 18 : 1 Tim. v. 10. 

The character of the afflicted Christian is illustrated in Joseph, Gen. 
xxxix. 20-23: Moses, Deut. ix. 18, 19: Job i. 22: Eli, 1 Sam. iii. 18: 
Ezra, Ezr. ix. 5: Nehemiah, Neh. i. 1 : Daniel, Dar ix. 3-19: Paul, 
Acts xx. 22-24 : 2 Cor. xii. 7-9 : Apostles, 1 Cor. iv. »-13 : 2 Cor. vi. 
4-10. 

535. Sometimes, again, the student of Scripture is desirous 
of investigating the history of Scripture practically with ref- 
erence to some particular fact ; or parables with reference to 
their scope ; and then the question is what is taught on the 
subject of inquiry by each phrase or verse. 

The parable, for example, of the Prodigal Son may be variously re- 
garded; either with Neander, as an exhibition of Pharisaism and its 
opposite, or with Lisco, as an exhibition of true penitence, and of the 
treatment it receives from God and man. Taking the second view, we 
nave the following connection of thoughts : 

i. We have the necessity of repentance, grounded (Luke xv. 11-32) — • 
1. In the state of preceding sinfulness: 



420 * INFERENCES — PARABLES. 



(a.) Its origin, ver. 12. Self-sufficient waywardness : give me, 

father. 

(b.) Its nature, ver. 13. And not long after. 

(c.) Its manifestation, ver. 13. And there wasted. 

2. In the misery consequent upon sin : 

(a.) The man has still a desire after blessedness, ver. 14. 
(b.) And feels his misery, ver. 14. Began to be in want. 
; (c.) And seeks in vain for relief, ver. 15. Went and joined him- 

self. 

(d.) And sinks the longer, the deeper, ver. 15. Sent to feed swine, 
(e.) Without finding the longed-for satisfaction, ver 16. 

ii. The nature of repentance is described : 

1. The sinner comes to a right understanding, ver 17. 

2. Perceives the greatness of his misery, ver. 17. How many, etc. 

3. Forms a good resolution, ver. 18. I will arise. 

4. Recognises his guilt, ver. 18. Father, I have sinned. 

5. Humbles himself, ver. 19. 

6. By faith actually returns, ver. 20. He arose and came to his 

father. 

iii. The results of repentance, ver. 20-30. 

1. In reference to a compassionate God, ver. 20-24. 

(a.) God descries the repentant feeling, ver. 20. When yet a 
great way. 

(b.) Graciously receives the sinner, ver. 20. Had compassion, 
(c.) Facilitates the execution of his purpose, ver. 21. 
(d.) Heaps upon him marks of love, and goodness, ver. 22, 23. 
(e.) And calls for a general expression of joy, ver. 24. 

2. In reference to the self-righteous, ver. 25-32. 

(a.) Their cold-hearted envy is excited, ver. 28. He was angry. 
(b.) They accuse God of unrighteousness, ver. 29, 30. 
(c.) They overlook God's gracious goodness to themselves, ver. 31. 
(d.) And violate the obligations of mutual love, ver. 32. 
So, in the parable of the rich man and Lazarus we have worldly un- 
nelief, Luke xvi. 19-31 — 

i. In its manifestations — 

1. Insatiable thirst for enjoyment, ver. 19. Clothes in purple, 

lives sumptuously, 
(a.) It seeks all sorts of enjoyment. 



INFERENCES — PARABLES. 



421 



(6.) It seeks in these all its satisfaction — every day. 
(c.) It regards the temporal as its only good. 
2. Cold-hearted uncharitableness, ver. 20, 21. 
(a.) It despises the poor as worthless, ver. 20. 
(b.) It hardens itself against the rights of misery, ver. 20. 
(c.) It gives no relief, ver. 21. 

ii In its final condition : — 

1. It is fearfully undeceived, ver. 22, 23. 

(a.) In regard to the value of its enjoyments, ver. 23. 
(6.) In regard to the value of salvation now imperfectly appre- 
hended. 

(c.) In regard to the relation between Lazarus and God, in 

Abraham's bosom, 

2. Its sinful misapprehensions remain, ver. 24. 

(a.) As to trust in descent from Abraham. Father Abraham. 
(6.) As to imaginary hopes of salvation. Have mercy, 
(c.) As to its unholy preference for personal comfort. Dip the 
tip, and cool my tongue. 

3. It is self-condemned by an evil conscience, ver. 25-31. 
(a.) As dealt with justly, ver. 25. 

(&.) As incapable, from its state of mind, of deliverance, ver. 26. 
(c.) As being without excuse. 

Because no want of means of grace, ver. 27-29. 

Because these means sufficient for salvation, ver. 30, 31.* 

536. The results in these examples (which might be greatly 
extended) are reached in an order different from the one in 
which they are now given. Here we have first the result and 
then the proof passage ; but in investigating a subject we 
turn first from passage to passage, and then state their import 
in the form of a general lesson. The text and the lesson is 
the order of inquiry; the lesson and the proof is the order 
of instruction. 

The exercise of following out truth in this way is one of the 
most instructive in which a Christian can engage. 

For the further study of this part of the subject see 



36 



* See Lisco on the Parables. 



422 



INFERENCES — PAEABLES. 



any common-place book of the Bible — especially " Talbot's 
Bible," and the common-place books of Strutt and Locke. 
" Scripture Text arranged/' is a very useful manual of sub- 
jects classified under their respective heads and illustrated 
by Scripture examples. 

On the subject of this chapter, the inferential reading of Scripture, 
see Rambach's " Institutions Hermeneuticas," lib. iv., c. 3; Francke's 
" Guide to the Study of the Scripture ;" Claude's " Essay on the Com- 
position of a Sermon;" and especially, for the illustrations, the "Com- 
mentary" of Matth. Henry, one of the richest storehouses of evan- 
gelical truth. Felicitous examples abound, also, in the writings of 
Rev. R. Cecil and Rev. W. Jay. 



v 



THE BOOKS OF THE BIBLE. 



423 



PART II. 



THE BOOKS OF THE BIBLE. 

INTRODUCTORY. 

Though many other books are comparable to cloth, in which, by a 
small pattern, we may safely judge of the whole piece, yet the Bible 
is like a fair suit of arras, of which,, though a shred may assure you 
of the fineness of the colors and richness of the stuff, yet the hangings 
never appear to their true advantage but when they are displayed to 
their full dimensions and are seen together." — Boyle : On the Style of 
Scripture. 

1. We now come to the study 6f the books of the Bible. 
Already we have considered — 

.. . r a • m Subjects al- 

The general divisions of Scripture : the two Testa- ready con- 

Tiii •• sidered. 

ments : the law, the prophets, and the holy writings 

of the Old : the Gospels, Epistles, and Acts, and the Kevela- 

tions, of the New : chapters, verses, and other sections : 

The claims of Scripture as genuine, as authentic, and as" 
inspired, with the evidences of its claims (Chaps, i. ii.) : 

The peculiarities of Scripture as a revelation of God, of 
man, and of the plan of salvation reconciling both, securing 
at once peace and holiness : revelation gradually communi- 
cated, everywhere consistent; taught, how T ever, without a 
formally- announced system, though all centring in the cross 
(Chap. iii. 1-5) : 

The principles of the interpretation, and the use of exter- 
nal helps ; the spirit, above all, in which inquiries into the 
meaning of Scripture should be conducted (iv. especially § 2) : 

The systematic study of Scripture ; the best methods of 
applying it to practical life, and the difficulties of various 
kinds connected with all those questions (v. vi. vii). 



424 



USE OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 



Having thus viewed sacred Scripture as a whole, we pro- 
ceed to examine particular portions and to apply more 
minutely the rules and principles already discussed. 

THE TWO PARTS OP THE BIBLE. 

2. The Bible is composed of two parts : the Old Testament 

and the New. The second containing a full revela- 

The two . ... 5 

girts of the tion of the Divine will, and a plan of salvation 
addressed to all. The first containing not all pro- 
bably that God revealed in early times to our race, but aa 
much as he deemed it necessary to preserve. Every part of 
what is thus revealed being " profitable for instruction, for 
reproof, for rectification, anc\ for establishment in righteous- 
ness." 

3. The use of the first Testament is highly important : and 
Use of the a s i m pl e statement of the use will show the connec- 
first - tion of the two. 

1. Though most of it was addressed to one nation, yet it enjoins 
much on man as man, and contains principles of morality which are 
universal and eternal. The precepts which were given to Adam, the 
decalogue, and the appeals of the whole book illustrate and enforce 
moral truth. 

2. Much of the history of the Old Testament is the history of God'a 
government. In that government he illustrates his own character and 
ours ; and whatever advantage an inspired record of this kind caa 
give, we derive from this part of the sacred volumes. 

3. Further, the hopelessness of salvation by law is clearly taught in 
this early dispensation. The patriarchal faith, with its. immediate or 
traditional communications ended in a corruption, which not even the 
Deluge could check. Solemn legal institutes, with rites and sanctions- 
most instructive and awful, failed to preserve the people from idolatry, 
though the Great Legislator himself repeatedly interposed ; and when, 
after the captivity, idolatry ceased, formalism and infidelity extended 
on every side, and at length prevailed (Part ii., Chap. iv). In the 
meantime, the power of natural religion was tried among the heathen : 
and the result of the whole, the result of an experiment carried on 
under every form of government, amidst different degrees of civiliza- 
tion, with traditional knowledge and immediate light, is a demonstra- 
tion, that in our fallen state, reformation by law is hopeless, and that 



CONNECTION OF DIFFERENT BOOKS. 



425 



unless some other plan be introduced, our race must perish. The Old 
Testament was given, therefore, in part, to show us our sins, and to shut 
us up into faith (Gal. iii. 23). 

4. To this new faith it is also an introduction, teaching to the 
spiritual and humble under the first dispensation, more or less of the 
plan of salvation to be revealed under the second. Hence its types, 
prophecies, sacrifices; hence assurances of pardon to the penitent, and 
the revelation of a Crod ready to forgive, though the procuring cause 
of pardon, the provision that was to reconcile justice and mercy is not 
fully stated, nor was it fully understood till the remedial work of Christ 
was accomplished. 

Other purposes also were no doubt answered by the first dispensa- 
tion. A knowledge of the true God, which might otherwise have died 
away, was preserved ; and the effect of true religion, even in its less 
perfect forms was illustrated ; but the foregoing are probably the chief. 

The relation of the New Testament to these purposes of the 
Old is plain. The second, or new covenant, is a „, 

" ' ' The New 

double completion of the first. As the first was a Testament 

x , . . a fulfilment 

covenant of types and predictions, the second fulfils of the Old. 
it ; putting the fact in the place of the prophecy, and in the 
place of the siiadow the substance. As under the first, more- 
over, the revelation of God and of duty was imperfect, and 
holiness was made, or became ceremonial, national, and con- 
tracted, the second filled up the system of truth and of pre- 
cept which was thus but partially disclosed, developing and 
explaining it with more of spiritual application, and securing 
for it in a richer degree the influence of the Spirit. In a 
double sense, then, the Gospel is the completion (wAjj^*?) of 
tne law. 

4. Regarding the whole Bible in its connections, we are 
prepared to trace the continual development of Di- _ 

. ^ Summary of 

vine truth m its different parts. the whole. 

In the first eleven chapters of Genesis, and in Job, we have the out- 
lines of the patriarchal religion; in the later chapters of Genesis the 
history of the transition from it to the temporary and typical dispensa- 
tion of the law. In the other books of the Pentateuch we have the 
moral law, illustrative at once of God's character and of human duty ; 
the ceremonial, with its foreshadowings of the great atonement ; and 
36* 



426 



CONNECTION OF DIFFERENT BOOKS. 



the civil, the means of the preservation of the other two. In the set 
tlement of the Jews under Joshua, whether considered in itself, or as 
an emblem of the future ; in the apostasy of the Jews, their punish 
ment and deliverance under the Judges ; in the establishment of the 
prophetic and kingly offices of lateb books, in addition to the priestly; 
and in the unchanging and yet diversified tenor of God's providence to 
his separated people, we have our knowledge of the Divine character 
and purpose varied and augmented. In the Psalms we have the utter- 
ances of devout hearts, and much that is predictive of Him in whom 
all devout hearts trust. In the woeds of Solomon we learn both the 
wisdom and the vanity of the world, and are led forward to that world 
where there is neither vanity nor vexation, and are at the same time 
conducted beyond the maxims of worldly prudence, to Him who is the 
eternal wisdom. In his nuptial song we see God in a new relation to 
his church, no longer her Lord (Baali), but her husband (Ishi). In 
Isaiah we have Messiah as prophet, sacrifice and King, gathering from 
scenes of the captivity descriptions of a double deliverance. In Jere- 
miah the same scenes are revealed, though dimly, and as in a cloudy 
and dark day. In Ezekiel the shadowy priesthood of the Jews is en- 
larged into a more glorious and spiritual worship : and in Daniel we 
see the termination of all kingly power in the never-ending empire of 
the Messiah. The minor prophets present the same views of the Di- 
vine government, either in providence or in grace, and Malachi closes 
the old revelation with predictions of the coming appearance of the 
Sun of righteousness. 

In the New Testament, Matthew, after a silence of the prophetic 
Bpirit for 400 years, connects the ancient Scriptures with the more re- 
cent, and completes prophecy by pointing out its fulfilment in Christ. 
Luke reveals Him as a light to lighten the Gentiles ; Mark, as the 
mighty God ; John as the everlasting Father, and as the Prince of peace. 
The Acts continue the illustration of the fulfilment of ancient predic- 
tions, and connect the facts of the Gospel history with the Epistles. 
Each Epistle, while giving most of the doctrines of the Gospel, em- 
bodies distinctly some particular truth. The Epistles to the Thessalo- 
nians exhibit the self-evidencing power of the Gospel in the hearts of 
believers, and set forth the antecedents and result of the second coming. 
The Epistles to the Corinthians explain Christian unity, and the doc- 
trine of the resurrection. The Epistle to the PvOMANS gives to those 
whom Paul had not then visited, a full view of the Gospel, without 
reference to any previous communication, enlarging most on the great 
truth of "justification by faith." The simplicity of that faith, and its 



BOOKS — HOW CLASSIFIED. 



427 



independence of the law, in opposition to the legality of Judaizing 
teachers, is maintained in the Epistle to the Galatians. The Epistle 
to the Hebrews shows the connection between the Christian faith and 
the law ; James and John (1 Ep.), the connection between the Christian 
faith and practical holiness ; while the Epistle to the Ephesians shows 
that language is unequal to express the fulness which is communicated 
in all abounding grace, from the Head to the body. Other Epistles 
treat of specific duties or truths, and the system of revelation is com- 
pleted by the Apocalypse, which unites and closes the prophecies that 
go before, and introduces the church, after all her trials and changes, 
first into millenial rest on earth, and then into never-ending blessedness 
in Heaven.* 

The volume that speaks of these topics may be described 
as consisting of two parts ; but they form really one Real]y one 
booh : and the truths it reveals are ever the same, book - 
dimly seen or fully disclosed, according to their position in 
relation to the cross. 

5. It becomes us, then, duly to appreciate both Testaments. 
Study the Old to see what God has done, and what, 
therefore, he is. See in it a solemn protest against mTcffnferi- 6 
idolatry ; a proof that none can be justified by the oVdVita? 
deeds of the law ; a gradual disclosure of the Di- mem ' 
vine will and of the plan of redemption. Prize it for these 
reasons, but remember, also, that as contrasted with the JVew, 
inspired writers speak of it in depreciating terms. They call 
it "darkness," "flesh," "letter," " bondage," " the elements 
of the world" (Gal. iv." 3), while the Gospel is "light," 
"spirit," liberty," "a heavenly kingdom." Important prin- 
ciples of interpretation are thus suggested, nor less the pecu- 
liar obligations of our position. It is now doubly binding 
upon us to be complete in all His will. Our dispensation is 
light, let us be wise : it is spirit, let us be holy : it is power, 
let us be strong. 

6. The thirty-nine books of the Old Testament may be ar- 

•See Douglas on the " Truths of Religion/' 



428 



THE PENTATEUCH. 



mem??" raTj g e( ^ on different principles. Sometimes they are 
divided. classed according to their contents : the Pentateuch, 
the historical books, the poetical books, and the prophets. 
This division is sufficiently accurate, though several of 
the books belong to two or more classes, and the division 
has not been uniformly observed. Sometimes they are classed 
in the order of time ; and as much of the meaning of Scrip- 
ture is elicited by the chronological study of the different 
books, we shall arrange them in this order, not overlooking, 
however, the difference of object and of contents on which the 
other division rests. 

The importance of specific introductions to each of tht 
importance books °f the Bible must not be disregarded. Such 
intaroduc 80 introductions w ^ often prove, as Bishop Percy has 
tions. observed, " the best of commentaries, and frequently 
supersede the want of any. Like an intelligent guide, they 
direct the reader right at his first setting out, and thereby 
save him the trouble of much after inquiry; or, like a map 
of the country through which he is to travel, they give him a 
general view of his journey, and prevent his being afterwards 
bewildered and lost." 

We begin with the Pentateuch and the book of Job. 



CHAPTER I. 

the pentateuch and the book of job. 

Sec. 1. — The Genuineness and Authenticity of the 
Pentateuch. 

7. All complete copies of Holy Scripture begin with the 
Pentateuch. It was called by the Jews " the law," 
or, more fully, " the five-fifths of the law ; ' or simply 



GENUINENESS OF THE PENTATEUCH. 



429 



the fifths ; a single book being called "a fifth."* The several 
books take their names in Hebrew from the first word or 
words. The English names are taken from the Greek version, 
and indicate in part the subjects of which they treat. Pen- 
tateuch means, in Alexandrian Greek, "the five volumes;" a 
name first used, as was probably the division into five books, 
by Alexandrian critics.* 

~8. That Moses was the author of the Pentateuch is the tes- 
timony of all tradition, both Jewish and heathen ; Genuine _ 
and this testimony is sustained by the record itself. f^m^'crip? 
The book is quoted, moreover, by nearly all the tare and 
sacred writers as his work, d and is appealed to as genuine and 
authentic by our Lord and his apostles. e The Old Testament 
quotations begin with Joshua, B. 0. 1451, and extend over 
more than a thousand years, B. C. 430. Indeed the coinci- 
dences between the Pentateuch and the later books are so 
numerous and exact that the sense of the law might have 
been gathered, if the law itself had perished, from other parts 
of the Bible ; every allusion in the later books having also its 
corresponding passage in the Pentateuch/ 

The testimony of profane history is, of course, much later 
than Scripture. Mohammed (A. D. 569) maintained From pro _ 
that Moses was inspired, and the Jewish law divine. fane history. 
Julian, the apostate (331), acknowledged that persons in- 

* rr&fl **»'>a*in rrafcn »&*in> and Tw^n* 

b Havernick. vtuxpe ordinarily means an implement. 

cDeut. xxxi. 9, 24, 26: Exod. xvii. 14; xxiv. 4-7; xxxiv. 27, 28: 
Numb, xxxiii. 2: Deut. xxviii. 58-61. 

d Josh. i. 7, 8; xxiii. 6: Comp. xxiv. 26; viii. 32, 34: 1 Kings ii. 3: 
2 Kings xxii. 8 : 2 Chron. xxxiv. 14. 

• Matt, xv. 4; v. 17, 18, etc. 

f 2 Kings xiv. 6, and Dent. xxiv. 16. 2 Kings xxiii. 2-25, and Lev. 
xxvi. 3-45 : Deut. xxvii. 11 to xxviii. 68. Ezra iii. 2-6, and Lev. chaps, 
vi., vii. Neh. i. 7, 8, and Lev. xxvi. : Deut. iv. 26, 27. Isa. i. 9, and 
Gen. xix. 2-4. Isa. xii., and Exod. xv. 2. Micah vi. 5, and Numb, 
xxii. 5, etc. Amos ii. 9, and Numb. xxi. 21-24. Amos iv. 11, and Gen 
xix. 24, 25. 



430 GENUINENESS OF THE PENTATEUCH. 

sfructed of God once lived amongst the Israelites, and main- 
tained both the genuineness and the authenticity of these 
books. Porphyry (233) admits their genuineness, and con- 
tends for the truth of Sanconiathon's accounts, from their 
accordance with the Mosaic history. Nicolaus of Damascus, 
an eminent orator, and Strabo, both contemporaries of Au- 
gustus, ascribe the Pentateuch to Moses; as do Tacitus, 
Juvenal and Longinus (A. D. 273). 

Internal evidence corroborates this view. (1.) The books 
internal ev- were evidently written by a Hebrew, speaking the 
idenee of language and cherishing the sentiments of his nation. 

genuine- o o o 

ness. (2.) They were written by a Hebrew acquainted 
with Egypt and Arabia, their customs and learning." But 
Egyptian learning was carefully concealed from foreigners 
(Her. ii. c. iii. 100, 101, 164, 168). The priests alone, and the 
royal family, who were reckoned as priests, had access to it. 
To this class, therefore, the writer must have belonged. 
(3.) There is, moreover, an exact correspondence between the 
narrative and the institutions, showing that both had one 
author. The laws are not given in the form of statutes, but 
are mixed with narrative, and are inserted as the exigencies 
requiring them arose. They are often briefly sketched, and 
afterwards repeated at greater length, with such modifications 
as were demanded by altered circumstances. b (4.) No less 
remarkable is the agreement between the style of the different 
books and the circumstances of Moses. In the earlier nar- 
rative of Exodus and Numbers the style is broken and abrupt. 
In Deuteronomy it is continuous and parental. The history 
of the antediluvians is, brief and simple ; of the Jews, full 
and explicit; and the whole exhibits the unity of design 
which bespeaks a single author. 

*See Gen. xiii. 10; xl. 11, 16 (see pp. 380-1); xiii. 9; xlvii. 20-6: 
Deut. xi. 10: Numb. xiii. 22. 

b Compare Exod. xxi. 27, and Deut. xv. 12, 17. Numb. iv. 24-33, 
and vii. 1-9. Lev. x-vii. 3, 4, and Deut. xii. 5, 6, 21. Exod. xxii. 26, 
and Deut. xxiv. 6, 10-15. 



AUTHENTICITY OF THE PENTATEUCH ; 



431 



The first doubt expressed on this question in England was by Thomas 
Hobbes, A. D. 1650, at least three thousand years after the first publi- 
cation of the Pentateuch. Nor were doubts expressed by any known 
writer earlier than the 13th century. 

9. The evidence of the authenticity of the Pentateuch is 
no less decisive ; though, as many of the events are Authen- 
recorded only here, it is necessarily less comprehen- tieit y- 
sive than similar evidence in the case of ordinary history. 

Several of the historical statements of the Pen- Itsstate . 
tateuch are confirmed by the traditions of ancient ments J e , on ~ 

J firmed by 

nations tradition. 



In proof of its general accuracy Josephus appeals to various public 
records, and to books extant in his time (A. D. 70), confirming in this 
way the history of the flood, of the delivery from Egypt, and of the 
expulsion of the Canaanites. Creation completed in six distinct days, 
or in six distinct periods ; the division of time into weeks, the seventh 
day being holy ; the state of mnocency, or the golden age ; the promise 
of a Mighty Deliverer; the flood; the ark; are traditions preserved 
among nearly all nations, and have been shown to exist in the East, 
though strangely disguised, in the very age in which Moses lived. 
Faber's Horse Mosaicse i. 1-136 ; Graves on the Pentateuch i. ; Sir Wil- 
liam Jones's Works, and Maurice's Hindostan. See other traditions in 
S. Turner's Sacred History i., and Kitto's Daily Bible 111. Antedil. and 
Patriarchs. 

A new kind of proof has sprung up in our own days. It has been 
said, for example, that the following customs, or allusions, are Asiatic, 
and not Egyptian, or are later than the exode : building with bricks, 
Exod. i. 14 ; keeping asses— animals odious to the Egyptians ; the 
presence of eunuchs, implied in the name given to the captain of the 
guard, Gen. xxxvii. 36 ; the freedom of domestic life implied in Gen. 
xxxix. ; the use of wine, which Plerodotus says was not made in Egypt ; 
of rings, seals, and other ornaments, xli. 42; the appointment of stew- 
ards, xliii. 16, 19; xliv. 1: the custom of sitting at table, xliii. 32. 
All, however, have been confirmed by the discovery of ancient Egyp- 
tian monuments. Bricks are still found with the names of the oldest 
Egyptian dynasties stamped upon them. To the art of wine-making 
Eosellini devotes a section of his work ; and upon the very monuments 
whence his illustrations are taken appear eunuchs, stewards, ornaments 



432 



AUTHENTICITY — EXTERNAL EVIDENCE. 



and entertainments, exhibiting habits of social intercourse, and modes 
of sitting, such as the Pentateuch implies. 




ANCIENT SEALS, ETC. 

That the Egyptians shaved, Gen. xli. 14, and carried burdens, not on 
the shoulder, but on the head, xl. 16 ; that shepherds were treated with 
great contempt — the butts of Egyptian wit; that caste existed; that 
foreigners were naturalized by clothing them in the celebrated Egyptian 
linen, Gen. xli. 42; are facts confirmed by ancient sculptures, or ex- 
pressly mentioned by Herodotus as peculiar to Egypt. 

See Hengstenberg's " Egypt and the Books of Moses." 

The statements of the Pentateuch are confirmed, moreover, 
By various ^ v the f ac ts of history (a), ethnography (b), and 
facts. geology (c), so far as these have been clearly ascer- 
tained. 

(a.) No nation has credible, or even intelligible, records extending 
earlier than the flood. The dynasties of Egypt run up, on the largest 
interpretation, no higher than B. C. 2200 (Champollion). The reign of 
Yoa, the first Chinese emperor mentioned by Confucius (B. C. 450), 
cannot be earlier than B. C. 2500; nor is there any historical certainty 
till the year B. C. 782 (Klaproth). The. celebrated chronology of India 
reaches no higher than B. C. 2256, and then we have Buddha himself, 
the representative, perhaps, of Noah (Col. Tod). Such is the testimony 
of witnesses who have examined the most ancient chronological systems, 
avowedly without any leaning to the Pentateuch. 



AUTHENTICITY — INTERNAL EVIDENCE. 433 



{&.) Ethnography, in its threefold division, philological, physiological 
and ethical, is equally in favor of the Mosaic account. The mytho- 
logical systems of India, China, Greece and Scandinavia, are really 
identical (Sir, W. Jones); while Shemitic nations are all monotheistic, 
indicating in each case identity of origin. All known languages, it ia 
admitted, are reducible to a few families : the Indo-European, the She- 
mitic, the Ugro-Tartarian, the Malayan, the Transfengetic, which are 
chiefly monosyllabic; the American and the African. Chev. Bunsen 
and Mr. Schon have already traced the Egyptian, and several of the 
African dialects, to a Shemitic origin. The American languages are 
proved to be chiefly Asiatic, and the ablest scholars find among all such 
affinities as bespeak original unity (so Humboldt, Klaproth, F. Schlegel, 
Balbi, Herder). Philologically and physiologically "the human race," 
says the last-named, " is a progressive whole, dependent upon a common 
origin." " With the increase of knowledge in every direction," is the 
last testimony of Dr. Pritchard, "we find continually less and less 
reason for believing that the diversified races of men are separated 
from each other by insuperable barriers." 

(c.) Nor is geology an unimportant witness. One of its clearest les- 
sons is the recentness of the "last great geological change." The 
present state of the globe "cannot date much further than five or six 
thousand years" (Saussure, Cuvier, De Luc). 

Independently, even, of external evidence, the internal is 
itself decisive. The artlessness of the style, the fre- Internal 
quent genealogies, the impartiality of the author in evidence, 
recording the faults of the Jews and his own, a are all obvious. 
Add to this that Judaism is founded upon the supposed 
truthfulness of these records. They give the history of Jew- 
ish institutions, and the reasons for the observance of them. 
If there be a forgery, when could it have been executed? 
Not when the version of the LXX was made (B. C. 275). 
Not on the return from Babylon (B. 0. 536), Ezra ii. 62. 
Not on the division of the kingdom (975). Not in the days 
of Samuel (1095). Not in the four hundred years preceding. 
For at each successive era there were thousands interested in 
detecting the forgery, and in setting aside the burdensome 

a See history of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob ; also Deut. xxvi. 5 : Exod. 
ii. 14 : Numb. xx. 10-13. 

37 



434 



PENTATEUCH EPITOMISED. 



and peculiar institutions founded upon it. To suppose that 
any man could secure the observance of Circumcision, of the 
Passover, of the feast of Pentecost, or of tabernacles, on the 
plea that these rules had been observed from the first, and for 
the reasons assigned, when it must have been known that this 
statement was untrue, is to suppose a greater miracle than the 
record contains. And these institutions had their origin, it 
will be noticed, not in the ordinary events of the history, but 
in the miracles : so that by them, not only the history, but 
each miracle is confirmed.* 

10. It may be added that it is supposed by some writers 
that the author of the Pentateuch used various an- 
documents cient documents in preparing this volume. Hence 
employed. q UO {- a ft ons from other books, and hence, perhaps, 
the different names applied, in different parts, with marked 
uniformity to God. 

In Numb. xxi. 14, 15, for exanrple, " the book of the wars of Jehovah" 
is quoted, and in ver. 27-30 is an extract from a war-song of the Amo- 
rites. So in Gen. i.-ii. 3, the name applied to God is uniformly God 
(tD^nb^ Elohirn). In Gen. ii. 4-3, it is Jehovah-God. In chap. v. it is 
God only, except in ver. 29, where a quotation is made. In Gen. vi.-ix. 
God and Jehovah are used indiscriminately everywhere, except in ix. 
29, where a quotation is made; and in chaps, xii., xiii., Jehovah only. 
In chap. xiv. a new name is introduced, " God most High," and is used 
throughout the chapter. 

This opinion was first advanced by Vitringa, Obs. Sac. i. 
chap. iv. § 23, and has been advocated by Calmet, Horne, Pye 
Smith, Stuart, and others. The errors and refinements of 
some modern writers have brought it into, perhaps, unde- 
served discredit. 

And addi- ^ nere are a ^ so passages which must have 

tions made b een added after the death of Moses. 

to the origi- 
nal narra- 

tive - Deut. xxxiv. records his death and burial. Gen. xxxvi. 



» Graves has expanded this argument with great force : " Lectures on 
the Pentateuch," i. ii. 



PENTATEUCH AND THE BOOK OF JOB. 



435 



31-39 gives a supplementary list of Edomitish chiefs, and in several 
passages the latter designation of a place has been substituted for, or 
is given with the original name, as in Gen. xiv. 14, where Dan is put 
for Laish (see Josh. xix. 47): so Gen. xiii. 18 (Josh. xiv. 15): Gen. xiii. 
3 (Gen. xxviii. 19) ; xiv. 2, 7, 8 : Deut. iii. 9 ; iv. 48. 

12. In the Jewish canon, the Pentateuch is kept distinct 
from the rest of Scripture, as it is the basis of the 

i i -. ., True nature 

theocracy. The title "law describes the principal ofthePen- 

tateuch. 

subject of the books, though their true central 
point is the covenant relation between Jehovah and Israel. 
The whole of the Old Testament is, indeed, the history of 
that covenant, of the preparation for it, and of its progressive 
development, till it gave place to the Gospel. 

13. The events recorded in these books may be Briefl 
arranged as follows : — epitomized. 

Genesis. — The Creation, 1, 2 : the fall and antediluvian world, 3-6 : 
the deluge, 7, 8, a consequence of wickedness : the blessing of Noah 
and the re-peopling of the earth, 9, 10 : the dispersion, 11 : call and 
history of Abraham, 12-25: of Isaac, 26, 27: of Jacob, etc., to the 
death of Joseph, 28-50. — A period of 2369 years (or of 3619, Hales). 

Exodus. — The Israelites after Joseph's death, 1 : birth and training of 
Moses, 2-6 : the Exode, vii.-xv. 21 : first year's journey, their cove- 
nant, moral and other laws, the tabernacle, xv. 22-40. — A period of 
145 years. 

Leviticus. — Laws on sacrifices, 1-7: on the Levitical priesthood, 
8-10: on purifications, 11-22: on festivals, etc., 23-27. — One month. 

Numbers. — Events from the numbering of the people, 1-4: in the 
second year to the thirty-ninth year, several laws, v.-x. 10 : and the 
journeys of the Israelites, x. 11-36. — Nearly 39 years. 

Deuteronomy, or the law repeated, has seven parts giving-— 

1. A summary of privileges and history of the Israelites, f.-iv. 40. 

2. A summary of their laws, moral, civil, and ceremonial, iv. 
40-26. 

3. Directions as to what is to be done after crossing Jordan, in- 
cluding the blessings and curses, 27, 28. 

4. Exhortations to obedience, 29, 30. 

5. A narative of events subsequent, with the song of Moses, 31, 32. 

6. The benediction of Moses, 33 ; and 

7. An account of his death, 34. — A period of five or eight weeks. 



436 



JOB — DATE AND AUTHORSHIP. 



Sec. 2. — The Book of Job. 

14. This book takes its name from the venerable patriarch 
whose history it records. Its antiquity, and the brevity of 
its style, make it confessedly difficult of interpretation. But 
these difficulties seldom refer to topics of religious import- 
ance. 

As Job is mentioned in Scripture in connection with other 
job known saints (Ezek. xiv. 14 : Jas. v. 11), it may be 

safely concluded that he was a real person, and that 
the narrative is no fiction. This conclusion is sustained by 
the details given of persons and places, and by- the internal 
evidence. Uz, the country which he inhabited, was probably 
in the north-east of Arabia Deserta. 

The age in which Job lived is a question that has created 
when he m uch discussion. The most probable opinion fixes 
lived - it as earlier than Abraham. The book may be 
read, therefore, between the 11th and 12th chapters of 
Genesis, as a supplement to the concise record of the early 
condition of our race, given by Moses. 

The arguments adduced in support of the latter opinion 
are as follows. (1.) The long life of Job, extending to 200 
years. (2.) The absence of any allusion to the Mosaic law, 
or the wonderful works of God towards Israel in their de- 
parture from the land of bondage, and their journey to 
Canaan ; which are constantly referred to by other sacred 
writers, as illustrating the character and government of 
Jehovah. (3.) The absence of any reference to the destruc^ 
tion of Sodom and Gomorrha; which memorable event 
occurred in the vicinity of the country where Job resided ; 
and which, as a signal and direct judgment of the Almighty 
upon the wicked, would hardly have been omitted in an 
argument of this nature. (4.) The worship of the sun and 
moon being the only form of idolatry mentioned ; which was, 
without question, the most ancient, chap. xxxi. 26-28. (5.) 



JOB — CONTENTS AND OBJECT. 



437 



The manners and customs described, which are those of the 
earliest patriarchs. (6.) The religion of Job is of the same 
kind as that which prevailed among the patriarchs before the 
Mosaic enconomy. It is the religion of sacrifices ; but with- 
out any officiating priest or sacred place. (7.) To these argu- 
ments Dr. Hales has added one derived from astronomy, 
founded on chaps, ix. 9, and xxxviii. 31, 32. He states, that 
the principal stars there referred to, appear, by a retrograde 
calculation, to have been the cardinal constellations of spring 
and autumn about B. C. 2130, or about 184 years before the 
birth of Abraham. 

It is worthy of notice, that if J ob lived between the deluge 
and the call of Abraham, we have an additional proof that 
God has never left the world without witnesses to his truth. 

On the other hand, some think they detect allusions to the 
destruction of Sodom, etc., in chap. xv. 34 ; xviii. 15; xx. 26 ; 
and adduce the coincidence of many names occurring in this 
book, with those of some of Abraham's descendants, through 
Ishmael and Esau, as indications of a somewhat later age. 
By some of these writers it is assigned to the earlier period of 
the sojourn in Egypt. 

Respecting the author of the book, a difference of opinion 
prevails. Some ascribe it to Job, others to Elihu : 

in . iv it vm m n • Tlie author. 

and others to Moses. Whoever was the author, its 
canonical authority is proved by its place in the Jewish Scrip- 
tures, and the recognition of the whole collection by our Lord 
and his apostles. 

15. The book may be divided into three parts : — 

i. The historical introduction in prose, i. ii., giving a nar- 
rative of the sudden and severe affliction, borne with ex- & on !: ent 1 s of 

' the book. 

emplary patience. 

ii. The argument or controversy, in poetry, in five divisions : — 

1. The first series of discussions, comprising Job's complaint, iii. ; 
the speech of Eliphaz, iv. 5. ; and Job's answer, vi. vii. ; of 
Bildad, viii. ; and Job's answer, ix. x. ; of Zophar, xi. ; and 
Joh's answer, xii.-xiv. 
37* 



438 



JOB — CONTENTS AND OBJECT. 



2. The second series, comprising the speech of Eliphaz, xv. ; and 

Job's answer, xvi. xvii. ; of Bildad, xviii. ; and Job's answer, 
xix. ; of Zophar, xx. ; and Job's answer, xxi. 

3. The third series, comprising the speech of Eliphaz, xxii. ; and 

Job's answer, xxiii. xxiv. ; of Bildad, xxv. ; and Job's answer, 
xxvi.-xxxi. 

The question discussed thus far is, whether great suffering be not an 
evidence of great guilt. Job's friends affirm it, and exhort him to repent 
and reform. Job denies it, appeals to facts, and complains bitterly of 
his friends for aggravating his distress by false charges. 

4. The speech of Elihu, xxxii.-xxxvii. 

Elihu maintains, that afflictions are meant for the good of the suf- 
ferer ; even when not properly the consequences of sin ; he reproves Job 
for justifying himself, rather than God, and vindicates the Divine 
character and government. 

5. The close of the discussion, by the address of the Almighty 

(not condescending to explain his conduct, but), illustrating 
his power and wisdom, xxxviii.-xli. ; and Job's response and 
penitential confession, xlii. 1-6. 
iii. The conclusion in prose, xlii. 7-17, giving an account of Job's 
acceptance and prosperity. 



16. The precise object of the book has given rise to much 

discussion. Mercenary selfishness was the charge 
its object. . r & 

brought against Job l. In the end the charge is 

disproved. Job assures us that the Judge of all the earth 
will do right, and resolves still to trust, though God should 
slay him, xix. 23-26. The nature and power of faith are 
thus illustrated, as in the identity of true piety in every age. 
Such perhaps was one chief object of the inspired writer in 
this composition. The book, moreover, displays the Provi- 
dence of God in its inscrutableness and mercy, and sets forth 
in unrivalled magnificence the glory of the Divine attributes. 
It illustrates human depravity, a exhibits faith in a coming 
Redeemer and a future life, b speaks of sacrifices as the ap- 
pointed means of acceptance, and shows the benefit of inter- 
cessory prayer. 4 

» xxxiii. 8, 9 : xxxiv. 5, 9, 35. »> xix. 25-29 • xxxiii. 23-28. 

e i. 5 ; xlii. 8. a xlii. 8, 9. 



JOB — LESSONS— HEBREW POETRY. 



489 



Not all, of course, that even Job said in these discussions, 
is to be commended. The principles advanced are sometimes 
erroneous, and sometimes, also, the conclusions. Inspiration 
describes accurately what was said or done, without necessa- 
rily sanctioning either. 

17. The practical lessons suggested by the book are obvious 
and important. Copy Elihu's humility. Though 
able to speak best, he spoke last. Uncharitableness 
is of the devil (i. 9, 10). Its origin, no less than its unlove- 
liness, should put us on our guard against it. . . . Perfect and 
upright men are among the first to confess their vileness (i. 1; 
xl. 4 ; xlii. 6). Our progress in holiness may be measured by 
our humility. . . What wisdom is needed to conduct contro- 
versy wisely, when even Job failed. '. . . How needful is a 
specific revelation, when even good men, with an accurate 
knowledge of God, and of many principles of his government, 
misread the lessons written upon his works. To correct hu- 
man misapprehension on such questions, God had himself to 
interpose. 



Sec. 3. — On Hebrew Poetry and the Poetical Books. 

18. As Job is the earliest of the poetical books of the Bible, 
it may be convenient to make here a few remarks 

J Hebrew 

on the nature of Hebrew poetry. poetry. 

The division of the Holy Scriptures usually called the poetical books 
comprises Job, Psalms and Proverbs ; some adding Ecclesiastes and the 
Song of Solomon. In point of date, some portions of them are earlier, 
and others are later than many parts of the historical books ; but they 
are classed by themselves, as being almost wholly composed in Hebrew 
verse. In the Jewish Canon of Scripture they are included in the Ha- 
giographa, or Holy Writings. The writings of the prophets, are for the 
most part, also in a poetical form. 

The peculiar excellence of the Hebrew poetry is to be ascribed to the 
employment of it in the noblest service, that of religion. It presents 
the loftiest and most precious truths, expressed in the most appropriate 
language. 



440 



PARALLELISM 



There is so much uncertainty respecting the ancient pronunciation 
of the language, that it is not easy to determine the nature of the He- 
brew versification. But much light has been thrown upon the subject 
in later times by Lowth, Jebb, and other scholars. The leading char- 
acteristics of Hebrew poetry may be described generally as consisting 
in the ornate and elevated character of the style, in the use of certain 
words and forms of words, in the sententious manner of expression, and 
in certain peculiaiities in the structure and combination of the sentences. 
These peculiarities appear in the following artificial forms : 

There is sometimes an alphabetical arrangement of the whole poem ; 
each line commencing with one of the letters of the alphabet, or every 
alternate verse beginning with a succeeding letter, or a series of verses 
with the same initial letter : see Psa. cxix. and Lam. iii. In Psa. cxix., 
in the original, eight verses in succession begin with the same letter, 
followed by eight more beginning with the succeeding letter ; and so on 
through the alphabet, dividing the whole psalm into alphabetical 
strophes. There are twelve of these alphabetical poems in the Old Tes- 
tament. 

Another artificial form of poetry appears to have consisted in the 
repetition of the same verse or sentiment at somewhat distant intervals, 
or after a certain number of verses, as in Psa. xlii. 5, 11; xliii. 5; 
cvii. 8, 15, 21, 31: Isa. ix. 12, 17, 21; x. 4: Amos i. 3, 6, 9, 11, 13; ii. 
1, 4, 6. 

But the most striking peculiarity of Hebrew poetry is what Lowth 
entitles parallelism ; that is, there is a certain correspondence either as 
to thought or language, or both, between the members of each period. 
Sometimes the secondary expression is little more than an echo of the 
first : sometimes it adds to it a new idea, and often greatly excels it in 
force and beauty : sometimes, to heighten the impression, the main idea 
is expressed in contra -i- with some other. It is in a great measure owing 
to this structure of the sentences that our translation of these books has 
so much of a poetical cast; for being for the most part literal, it retains 
much both of the form and simple beauty of the Hebrew. 

This poetical parallelism admits many varieties, more or less defined. 
The following classification will illustrate the subject. 

Parallelism. 

1. Some parallelisms are gradational or synonymous. 

2. Others are antithetic: see chap, iv., sec. 3, par. 286. 

Occasionally we meet with a double synonyme and a double anti- 
thesis ; as in Isa. i. 3, 19, 20. 

A double antithetical form of the parallelism is not uncommon in the 
Prophets. A very beautiful parallelism of this kind occurs in Hab. iii. 
17, 18. See also Isa. ix. 10. 



PARALLELISM. 



441 



3 A third form of parallelism is the synthetic, or constructive. In 
this form word does not answer to word, nor sentence to sentence, either 
as of an equivalent or as of an opposite meaning ; but there is a cor- 
respondence and similarity between the different propositions in respect 
of the shape and turn of the whole sentence. This species of parallels 
includes such as do not come within the two former classes ; and its 
variety is very great. 

In this kind of parallelism the writer, instead of merely echoing the 
former sentiment, or placing it in contrast, enforces his thought by ac- 
cessory ideas and modifications, generally preserving throughout a cor- 
respondence of form between the different parts. As examples, see Job 
iii. 3-9 : Psa. cxlviii. 7-13 : Isa. i. 5-9 ; lviii. 5-8. Instances of this 
kind of parallelism are found in abundance in the Scriptures, and espe- 
cially in the Prophets. 

Respecting these different species of parallelism Bp. Jebb remarks, 
that separately "each kind admits many subordinate varieties; and 
that in combinations of verses the several kinds are perpetually inter- 
mingled ; circumstances which at once enliven and beautify the compo- 
sition, and frequently give peculiar distinctness and precision to the 
train of thought." 

It may be added that, according to the theme and divisions, Hebrew 
poetry is lyric, as in the Psalms; epic, as in Job; didactic, as in the 
Proverbs ; pastoral, or idyllic, as in Canticles ; and prophetical, as in 
the earlier prophets. Occasionally we have rhyme, though probably 
not designed by the poet, Gen. iv. 23 : Job vi. 4, 7, 9, 13, 22, 29. 

In reading the Bible it is very desirable to understand the laws of 
poetic parallelism, for these often furnish important facilities for inter- 
pretation. As one member of a sentence frequently expresses the same 
sense as its parallel, difficult words and phrases are thus rendered sus- 
ceptible of easy explanation. 

In the Paragraph Bible (Religious Tract Society), the poetical parts 
of Scripture are printed according to the order of the original, in par- 
allelisms. These parallelisms, indeed, are not always indicated in the 
mode of printing the Hebrew text (except in Exod. xv. : Deut. xxxii. : 
Judges v., and 2 Sam. xxii.); but the lines may always be marked by 
attention to the accents. 

Sec. 4. — The Books of the Pentateuch Arranged and 
Epitomized with Occasional Helps. 

19. In studying the Bible as it ought to be studied, for 
practical purposes, we may advantageously regard it as a 



442 



BIBLE — VARIOUSLY REGARDED. 



Bible, how revelation of God, of man, and of salvation, each 

regarded. 

chapter throwing light on one or on all of these 
themes. Or it may be regarded in other aspects. According 
to the form into which the different portions of the Bible are 
thrown, we may describe it as a book of biography, contain- 
ing the lives of believers and unbelievers, with the history of 
their influence and example : of history, under its twofold di- 
vision of the church and the world : of doctrine, gradually dis- 
closing Divine truth: of ethics, teaching the whole range of 
human duty: of positive institutions, founded on the will of 
God, and therefore mutable, as morality is immutable, being 
founded in his character : and of practical wisdom, suggesting 
and illustrating rules of both human and divine prudence. In 
accordance with this division we may read the whole, asking 
everywhere what light is thrown here on personal or national 
character, on ethics, on spiritual truth, on positive institu- 
tions, or on practical wisdom. Simpler and more practical, 
however, is the division first suggested. Study the Bible to 
know God, his nature, perfections and government ; to know 
man, his condition and destiny, his duties and privilege ; to 
know Christ in his office and work; and it will be found that 
under one of these three heads we may arrange all that Scrip- 
ture teaches and reveals. 

20. It is an instructive suggestion* that, after reading 
through a book of Scripture, we should read it again 

Read with & r ' . & 

reference to with reference to some one subject. Many illus- 

one subject. J . 

trations of truth prevent mistakes, teach us to apply 
it, and deepen its impression upon the mind. If we apply 
this suggestion, under the guidance of the hints and clearer 
instruction of the Gospel, to the Pentateuch, we shall find it 
peculiarly useful. No portion of Scripture, indeed, is richer 
In these threefold revelations. 

In reading history (it may be added) our business is so to 

a Bishop of London, Lent Sermons on St. John's Gospel, quoted by 
Nichols. 



BIBLE — VAEIOUSLY REGARDED, 



443 



group and compare particular facts as to connect History: 

i i • i • • • Doctrine. 

them with the motive and principle from which they 
spring, and hence to apply the lessons taught in the inspired 
narrative with wisdom and clearness. In reading precept or 
doctrine, on the other hand, seek rather to illustrate it, so as 
to make it more impressive and touching. Let facts lead up 
to principles ; and let principles be set forth and explained in 
appropriate facts. For the first, see notes on Genesis ; and 
for the second, see notes on Proverbs. 

21. In the following summary the whole Bible will be found 
chronologically arranged; and it is highly important Useoffol 
that it should be studied in this order. It will also lowing ar- 

. . rangement. 

be found divided, for the most part, into sections, 
according to the sense. The notes at the foot of the page are 
all adapted, as far as they go, to explain the sacred text. 
They are not intended, however, as a commentary upon it, 
but simply as helps to put readers in the way of making com- 
ments for themselves, and so of applying principles already 
discussed. 

It will be remarked that Old Testament pre-intimations of 
the Messiah — his person, office, and work — are all Pre|nra _ 
printed in Italics, and in such a form as to catch tionf ! r ° r . 

± ' coming of 

the eye at a glance. Though, therefore, these are Messiah, 
of the deepest importance, the notes but seldom refer to them. 
Let them not, however, be overlooked by the reader. 

For the devotional study of the Bible, the reader may often, 
with advantage, lay aside all helps, and select a few verses 
only, marking and applying the truths suggested by each word 
and sentence (see chap. vii.). Many have found this plan 
more impressive than the more student-like process above 
described. The two plans of study are in themselves con- 
sistent, though human weakness has led us to regard them as 
opposed. If we could but study devotionally — tracing God, 
and Christ, and ourselves everywhere, and applying the whole 
as we proceed — the mind and the heart would alike gain by 
the arrangement. 



444 



GENESIS, I -IX. — LESSONS. 



22. (i.) From the Creation, 4004; to the Death of Noah, 
2006 years. 



Date and Place. 



Events illustrating the coming and work of the Messiah 
and ordinary Occurrences. 



B. 0. 
4004. 

For these dates 
see \ 355. 

4004. 
Eden. a 

Eden. 

4003-2, 
Near Eden. 

3875. 

3875. 
3875-3504, 

Nod. 

3874, 
Near Eden. 

3769. 

2468. 



2468. 

2348. 
2347. 
Armenia, 
or Ararat, 
Gen. viii. 4. 
Togarmah, 
Ezek. xxvii. 14. 
2247, 

A. M. 1757, 

B. C. 2233. 
Shinaar, (Baby- 
lonia, or Irak 
Arabi.) 

1998. 



The Creation, Gen. i. ii. 4-7 

Institution of the Sabbath, Gen. ii. 1-3 

Creation of Adam and Eve. briefly described in chap 
i. recapitulated, Gen. ii h 8-25 

The fall of Man, Gen. iii. 1-13 

{Connection of the first sin with man's subsequent state 
Rom. v. 14: 1 Cor. xv) 
First promise of a Saviour; expulsion from Eden 

Gen. iii. 14-24. 

Birth of Cain and Abel, Gen. iv. 1-2. 



Sacrifice first mentioned, Abel's accepted, Gen. iv. 3-7. 

Cain's crime and curse, Gen. iv. 8-15. 

Cain builds Enoch; his descendants; Lamech's 
speech, etc., Gen. iv. 16-24. 

Birth of Seth, and of Enos ; world and church dis- 
tinguished, Gen. iv. 25, 26. 

Genealogy from Adam to Noah; the line of the Mes- 
siah, Gen. v. 

Wickedness of the world; God determines to destroy 
it after a respite of 120 years ; Noah preaches (2 
Pet. ii. 5), Gen. vi. 

Covenant renewed with him ; he builds an ark as God 
commanded, Gen. vi. 18. 

Noah enters the ark ; the Deluge, Gen. vii. 

The waters abate; Noah leaves the ark, Gen. viii. 

God's covenant renewed with Noah, Gen. ix. 1-17. 

Noah and his sons; his prediction concerning them, 

[Gen. ix. 18-27]. b 



Babel; confusion of tongues; dispersion, Gen. xi. 1-9 
Genealogies of Noah's sons; Nimrod founds Baby- 
lonian or Assyrian empire, [Gen. x.] 
Genealogy from Shem to Terah; the line of the Mes- 
siah, [Gen. xi. 10-26]. 



Death of Noah, 



Gen. ix. 28, 29. 



- 1 Eden is supposed to have been either near the head of the Persian 
Gulf, or in Armenia, near the sources of the Tigris and Euphrates. 

b Passages marked thus [ ], are either repetitions, genealogical tables, 
or otherwise less suitable for general^ or family reading. 



GENESIS — LESSONS. 



445 



Gen. i. On this narrative of the creation, see \ 224 ; and the 
brevity and moral completeness of the whole history, see \ 220. The 
history of the world before the flood occupies seven chapters. The 
general history of mankind for more than 400 years after, four more. 
The history of Abraham and his descendants, for only 286 years, 
occupies thirty-nine chapters, and contains details rich in moral wis- 
dom. 

Gen. i. 26. Let us : On the gradual revelation of the Divine nature 
in the Old Testament, see \ 230. 

Gen. i. 2. Creation is here ascribed to God. All heathen philosophers 
maintained the eternity of matter ; even those who taught that God 
moulded it into its various forms. This chapter teaches more truth on 
creation than all heathen cosmogonies combined, and it so teaches it as 
to prove the folly of idolatry. What God is here said to have made, 
the Egyptians and others worshipped. See Faber's Orig. of Pag. Idol. 

Gen. ii. 4. Gives a 'particular account of what has been briefly re- 
corded in i. 27. 

Gen. ii. 2, 24. The law of marriage and the law of the Sabbath were 
instituted before man fell. The Sabbath was at first consecrated by the 
fact that it closed the work of creation. That it continued to be observed 
is clear from the division of time into weeks, viii. 8-13: xxix. 27, 28; 
the recognition of the day before the giving of the law, Ex. xvi. 22-30 ; 
and the form of the precept, Remember ! From the exode the Sabbath 
was further consecrated by the deliverance on that day of the Isra- 
elites (Ex. xx. and Deut. v. 15). Under the Gospel we observe the 
day that commemorates a greater deliverance, and introduces a new 
creation. The day in the seven is changed ; but a day in seven has 
been observed from the first, Acts xx. 7: Eev. i. 10. The day is to be 
kept as one of rest, moral improvement, and of joyous holy devotion, 
Ex. xxxi. 13: Is. Iviii. 13, 14. 

Gen. iii. 6, 7. Mark the history of the first sin (§ 220), and the con- 
nection of that sin with our fallen condition. Compare ch. ii., iii. with 
Rom. v. : 1 Cor. xv. Neither add to the inspired explanation, nor take 
from it. Sound views on this question lie at the fonndation of all 
accurate systems of truth. (John iii.) 

Gen. iii. Study the character and personality of the tempter in the 
light thrown upon both by inspiration, 2 Cor. ii. 11 ; xi. 3-14: Eph. vi. 
11: Luke xxii. 3: Acts v. 3: Matt. xiii. 25. His wiles and influence 
are described here in terms which prove this history to be no fiction. 
See I 463, 4. 

Gen. iii. 15. On the delay of the fulfilment of the first promise, see 
§ 382. 

38 



446 



JOB — GENESIS — LESSONS. 



Note on this whole narrative the justice of God in punishing sin, 
and compare the history of Cain, iv. ; of the flood, vi. ; of Sodom, xix; 
and even of the patriarchs. Note also his mercy. The promise before 
the sentence ; the curse of labor made a blessing : and compare Noah's 
preaching, the delay of the flood, and the promise to save Sodom if ten 
righteous had been found in it. God " warns that he may not strike." 
He is long-suffering, but also just. 

Gen. iv. 4. The first and second sacrifices mentioned in Scripture were 
specially accepted, Gen. iv. 4 : viii. 20 ; and in later instances the 
* acceptance of them is implied, xii. 7, 8: xiii. 18. The institution of 
sacrifice by G od himself is expressly recorded in Gen. xv. 9. What it 
meant may be gathered from the New Testament. The feelings it 
excited and expressed were such as are now excited, though in an 
infinitely higher degree, by the "sacrifice of the cross, § 231, 245. On 
"Sacrifice of Divine Origin," see Mageeon the Atonement, and Faber's 
Origin of Pagan Idol., b. 2, ch. viii. 

Gen. iv. 25. The promise of a great deliverer is suspended now, as 
afterwards, upon a single life — Isaac, Joash, 2 Kings xi. 

Gen. v. All the history of the Scripture is useful. This chapter 
describes, with sad monotony, the character and death of the antedi- 
luvians; but it fixes the age of the antediluvian world, and it com- 
pletes the evidence of the descent of our Lord from the first man, at 
once confirming a prediction, and illustrating a truth. 

Gen. v. 24. Mark the three ascensions to heaven, in three successive 
stages of the plan of redemption — of Enoch, Elijah, and our Lord; 
each an evidence of immortality, and the last the foundation of man's 
title to it. 

Abel is slain. Enoch translated. Jacob chosen. Elijah taken to 
heaven without dying. John, his New Testament representative, 
foully murdered. " Even so, Father !" is the only solution man can 
give — a solution sanctioned by the Bible. Psa. cxxxv. 6 : Rom. ix. 
20: Dan. iv. 35. 

Gen. viii. 22. Even nature proves God's faithfulness. 

Gen. xi. On chronology, as fixed by "this chapter, see $ 356. 

(rf.w xi. 9. Place ch. x. after xi. 9, because in xi. 1-9 men have one 
speech ; in x. we find them scattered. 



GEN. XII.-XXII. — LESSONS. 



447 



23. (ii.) From the Death of Noah to the Birth of Moses, 
417 years. 



Date and Place. 



Event or Narrative. 



B. C. 
Uz, in Idumsea. 



1996, 
TJr, Edessa, now 
Orfa. 
1922, 
Haran, Char- 
rce, Harran. 
1921, 
Canaan. 
1921. 

1920. 

1918. 

1917, 
Hebron. 

1913, 
Siddim (El 

Ghor). 

1912, 
Hebron. 

1910. 

1897. 



1896, 
Gerar. 



Moriah (site of 
the temple). 



1. Job. 

The exact date of Job is not known. There is good 
reason, however, for placifig his history before that 
of Abraham, see introduction to Job, or Town-, 
send's Arrangement, i., p. 28 ; for analysis, see p. 
384, etc. Job. i.-xlii. 

[Chaps, iii.-xxxi.] ; chaps, xix. 25-27; xxxiii. 23-28, 
are direct references to the work of the Messiah. 

2. Abraham 

Birth of Abram ; marries Sarai ; leaves Ur and his idol- 
atrous kindred (Josh. xxiv. 2): Gen. xi. 27-32. 



Terah, Lot, and Sarai 



death of Terah : 

(see Acts vii. 2-4). 



Leaves Haran at God's command with Sarai and Lot, 

Gen. xii. 1-9. 

Great blessings promised him, 

Gen. xii. 1-9: see Acts iii. 25: Rom.iv.: Gal. iii. 16. 
Visits Egypt ; dissimulates, Gen. xii. 10-20. 

Returns to Canaan; Lot in Sodom, Gen. xiii. 1-13. 
Promises renewed; goes to Mamre, Gen. xiii. 14-18. 

Chedorlaomer ; Lot taken and rescued, Gen. xiv. 

Melchizedek blesses Abram, Gen. xiv. 

Covenant of God with Abram, Gen. xv. 



Hagar; Ishmael born, 

Covenant renewed; names changed 



Gen. xvi. 
circumcision, 

Gen. xvii. 

Abraham entertains angels, one of whom is the angel 
of the covenant; Sodom: Lot's wife ; Lot's incest, 
Gen. xviii. ; xix.'l-36; [xix. 4-11, 30-36]. 
Abraham leaves Hebron ; dissembles with Abimelech, 

Gen. xx. 

Moab and Ben-ammi born, [Gen. xix. 37, 38], 

Isaac born; Ishmael sent away; covenant with Abi- 
melech, Gen. xxi. 1-34. 
Trial of Abraham's faith, Gen. xxii. 1-19. 



448 



GENESIS — LESSONS. 



Date and Place. 


Event or Narrative. 


B. C. 

Machpelah, 
near Hebron. 
1856, 
Beersheba ; 
Bir-es-Seba. 

10OU. 

1836, 
Lahai-roi. 

1821, 
Beersheba. 


Death and burial of Sarah, Gen. xxiii. 
Account of Nahor's family, Gen. xxii. [20-24]. 
Abraham sends his servant to Haran; Laban receives 
him; marriage of Isaac, Gen. xxiv. 

Abraham marries Keturah ; children by her, 

Gen. xxv. 1-6. 
Birth of Esau and Jacob ; their character, 

Gen. xxv. 19-28. 
Abraham dies ; Isaac and Ishmael bury him, 

Gen. xxv. 7-11. 



Gen. xii. The wanderings of Abraham carried some knowledge of the 
true religion through a large part of the East. We find the results in 
the lingering convictions of many families referred to in Scripture ; and 
to Abraham many ancient nations profess to trace their religion. See 
Hales, ii. 124 ; Witsius, iEgypt., lib. iii. 

Gen. xiii. 7. Servants. Study on their duties the history of Eliezer 
(xxiv. 1-60); of Jacob (xxxi. 38-41); of Joseph (xxxix. 1-6); of David 
(1 Sam. xviii. 5) ; of Obadiah (1 Kings xviii 3) : of Naaman's servants 
(2 Kings v. 2, 3, 13) ; and compare with these examples the precepts of 
the New Testament (Eph. v. 6). 

Gen. xiv. 14. On allegorical interpretation, see ch iv., sec. 7. 

Gen. xiv. 16. Brother, i. e. collateral relative; here nephew. 277 (/). 

Gen. xii. The successive covenants of Scripture are subjects of deep 
interest. The first was made with Adam, the second with Noah, and 
the third with Abraham. The one with Adam required obedience, and 
denounced death, legal, spiritual, natural, and (without penitence) eter- 
nal, as the consequence of sin. The second was without conditions, 
and is fulfilled to this day, ix. 8-17. The third also was- without con- 
ditions, Gen. xii. 1-3, 7 ; xiii. 14-17 ; xv. 17 ; xxviii 10-15 : Acts iii. 
13-26 : Gal. iii. 4: Rom. iv., though confirmed in consequence of Abra- 
ham's faith, xxii. 16-18 ; xxvi. 1-5. This last covenant is called by 
the apostle the covenant of promise, in distinction from the law, which 
is called the covenant of works. The Gospel is called in distinction 
from both — truth and grace, that is, salvation realized and founded, not 
on works, but on unmerited favor. That Abraham saw in the covenant 
made with him the promise of a coming Messiah, is clear from the rea- 
sonings of both Peter and Paul (Acts iii. 25, 26 . Gal. iii. 8) This pro- 



GENESIS XXV.-XXXVI. 



449 



mise was frequently repeated, and formed, with the significant truths 
to which it pointed, the foundation of justifying faith for many ages 
The expectation of a coining Saviour founded upon it, explains the 
value of the birthright (xxv. 34), the preservation of family records, 
and many of the institutes of patriarchal religion. 

Gen. xii. 7. The religious knowledge of the patriarchs was evidently 
very limited, hut their piety was exemplary. Wherever the patriarchs 
go they build their altar, xii. 7 ; xiii. 4. Whatever their emergency, 
prayer is their resource. Their children they command after them; 
and the traditional promise they carefully preserve and transmit ; faith 
sustaining them in all (see $ 242). 

Trace the character of Abraham as the "friend of God," and, again, 
as the father of those who believe. 

Gen. xix. The godly are saved, yet so as through fire, 1 Cor. iii. 13. 

Gen. xxi. The seed of the flesh separated from the seed of the pro- 
mise: the first persecute and despise the second, Gal. iv. 29. 

Gen. xxiv. A marriage in the Lord. Note its peculiarities and re- 
sults. Yet for twenty years to come there was no heir of the promise. 



Date and Place. 



Event or Narrative. 



B. 0. 

18 °£ 

Lahai-roi. 

1804. 

1804, 
Beersheba. 

1796. 

1773. 

1760, 
Beersheba. 

1760, 
Padan-aram. 

1760, 
Arabia. 

1753. 
752-1745. 
Padan-aram. 
Mesopotamia, 
Al Jezireh. 



3. Isaac and Jacob 

Esau sells J acob his birthright ; Isaac leaves Canaan, 

Gen. xxv. 29-35. 

Covenant confirmed to Isaac at Oerar, Gen. xxvi. 1-5. 
Isaac dissembles ; covenant with Abimelech, 

Gen. xxvi. 6-33. 

Esau marries two Hittite women, Gen. xxvi. 34—5. 
Death of Ishmael; descendants, Gen. xxv. 12-18. 
Jacob obtains his father's blessing, and flees from 

Esau, Gen. xx-vii. ; xxviii. 1-5. 

Jacob's vision atLuz; the promises continued to him; 

stays with Laban, his uncle, 

Gen. xxviii. 10-22; xxix. 1-14. 
Esau marries a daughter of Ishmael, Gen. xxviii. 6-9. 

Jacob marries Leah and Rachel, Gen. xxix. 15-30. 

Jacob's children — Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and Judah, 
by Leah ; Dan and Naphtali, by Billah, Rachel's 
maid; Gad and Asher, by Zilpah, Leah's maid; 
Issachar, Zebulun and Dinah, by Leah ; Joseph, by 
Rachel, Gen. xxix. 31-35 ■ xxx. 1-24. 



38* 



450 



GEN. XXX. -XXXVI. — LESSONS. 



Date and Place. 


Event or Narrative. 


B. C. 
1745. 

1739, 
Galeed. 
1739, 
Succoth. (See 
Josh. xiii. 27). 
1736, 
Shechem. 
1732. 

Bethel, Luz, 

vilCv V C 11 j 

(Hos. x. 5), 
Beit-in. 

1729, 
Hebron. 

1729. 


Jacob's bargain with Laban ; he becomes rich, 

Gen. xxx. 25-43. 

Jacob, returning to Canaan, is pursued by Laban ; 

their covenant, Gen. xxxi. 
Jacob's vision at Mahanaim; wrestles with an angel 

at Penuel ; reconciled to Esau ; settles at Succoth, 
Gen. xxxii.; xxxiii. 1-17. 
Jacob removes to Shalem, Gen. xxxiii. 18-20; birth 

of sons of Judah, [Gen. xxxviii. 1-5]. 
Dinah defiled by Shechem ; slaughter of Shechemites 

by Simeon and Levi, [Gen. xxxiv]. 
Jacob removes ; purges his household of idols , the 

promises renewed to him; his name changed to 

Israel, Gen. xxxv. 1-15. 
Rachel dies on the birth of Benjamin, Gen. xxxv. .16-20. 
Sin of Reuben ; Jacob abides with Isaac, 

Gen. xxxv. 21-27. 
Esau's descendants, [Gen. xxxvi]. 



Gen. xxvi. Note the evils of parental favoritism — in Isaac. 

Gen. xxvii 6. Mark how each virtue has its counterfeit. Seek wis- 
dom, but not as Eve sought it. Husbands should love their wives, but 
not as Adam did, iii. 6. Worship God, but not with Cain, iv. 3, 5. 
Wives should obey their husbands, but not in sin, xii 11. Children 
should obey their parents, but not with Jacob, xxvii. 13, 14. Seek the 
accomplishment of God's will, but not with Rebekah, xxvii. 6. Com- 
passion may be disobedience, as in Ahab, 1 Kings xx. 34; delight in 
God's service, selfishness, Isa. lviii. 2 ; and zeal not good, because with- 
out knowledge, Rom. x. 2. There may be even a high sense of duty 
without love to Christ, reverence for God, or true obedience : see Acts 
xxvi. 9-11. 

Gen. xxvii. 13, 17. Temptation is sometimes hope, sometimes fear, 
Gen iii. 6; xii. 12. Eve was tempted by the devil; Adam by his wife; 
Sarah by her husband ; Jacob by his mother. 

Gen. xxvii. Such is life. Isaac's favorite son proves his plague. 
Isaac was himself the child of the promise (Gen. xxi. 22), and yet was 
a stranger in the land of promise (xxxvii 1). Forty years nearly of 
his life he was bedridden, had but two children , one of whom by his 
marriage, and the other by his deceit, embittered the last years of their 
father's life. So Eve hoped to find m Cain a special gift (Gen. iv. 1), 
but he proved a murderer, \ 248 (6). 



GEN. XXXVII. — EXODUS I. — LESSONS. 



451 



Gen. xxx. Compare xxx. 1 and xxxv. 18, and check inordinate desires. 

Gen. xxxiv. Sin ever deepens and extends. Eve sinned and tempted 
her husband. Cain envied, complained against God, and then murdered 
his brother. Esau sold his birthright, and intermarried with the hea- 
then. He was angry with Jacob, and then sought his life. Jacob meant 
to tell but one lie, but in the end he told several, and blasphemously made 
God a party to his deception, Gen. xxvii. 20. In this chap, we have dis- 
sipation leading to seduction, seduction to wrath, revenge, treacherv, 
and murder. Fuller. 

Gen. xxxi. Potiphar favored for Joseph's sake ; Laban for Jacob's, 
Gen. xxx. 27; Zoar for Lot's, xix. 21; as Sodom would have been 
spared if ten righteous men had been found in it. How God puts honor 
upon his people, $ 248. 



Date and Place. 



B. C. 

1728, 
Dothan. 

1726, 
Timnath. 

1719, 
Egypt. 
1718. 

1716. 
1715. 

1712, 1711. 

1708. 

1707. 

1706. 

1706. 

1704—1701. 

1689, 
Egypt. 
1689. 



Event or Narrative. 



4. Joseph, etc. 

Joseph's two dreams ; envy of his brethren ; sold to the 
Ishmaelites and to Potiphar in Egypt, Gen. xxxvii. 

Er and Onan slain by God ; incest of Judah and Ta- 
mar ; Pharez, a progenitor of Messiah, born, 

[Gen. xxxviii. 6-30]. 

Joseph advanced, tempted, falsely accused, and im- 
prisoned, Gen. xxxix. 

Pharaoh's butler and baker imprisoned ; Joseph in- 
terprets their dreams, Gen. xl. 

Death of Isaac at Mamre, Gen. xxxv. 28, 29. 

Joseph interprets Pharaoh's dreams; his elevation. 

Gen. xli. 1-49. 

Birth of Joseph's two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim, 

Gen. xli. 50-52. 

Commencement of the seven years' famine, 

Gen. xli. 53-57. 

Joseph's ten brethren come to buy corn ; Simeon a 

pledge, Gen. xlii. 

They come again to buy corn; Joseph makes himself 

known to them ; sends for his father, Gen. xliii.-xlv. 
Jacob and his family arrive ; settle in Goshen ; Jacob 

meets Pharaoh, Gen. xlvi. ; [viii.-xxv.] ; xlvii. 1-12. 
Joseph, by giving corn to tne Egyptians, increases 

the wealth of the king, Gen. xlvii. 13-26. 

Jacob blesses Ephraim and Manasseh, 

Gen. xlvii. 27-31 ; xlviii. 
Jacob's predictions concerning his sons and Judah; 

his death, Gen. xlix. 



452 GEN. L. — EXODUS I. — JOSEPH. 



Date and Place. 


Event or Narrative. 


B. C. 
Machpelah. 

1689. 

1635, 
Egypt. 

1577, 
Egypt. 

1573. 


Joseph and his brethren bury their father, 

Gen. 1. 1-13. 

Joseph shows kindness to his brethren, Gen. 1. 14-21. 
Joseph predicts the return to Canaan ; charges them 
to carry up his bones there ; his death, Gen. 1. 22-26. 
The Israelites multiply; a new king oppresses them, 
Exod. i. 1-21 ; [15-21]. 
Pharaoh orders the male children to be cast into the 
river, Exod. i. 22. 


Gen. xlii. 21. Affliction is sanctified when it reminds ns of our sins. 



Contrast the tender anxiety of these brothers for their father's feelings 
now, Gen. xliv. 16-34, with their indifference years ago (xxxvii. 31, 32), 
and mark another fruit of affliction, when blessed. This book is won- 
derfully rich in such instances. 

Gen. xlix. 10. Mark the gradual narrowing of the promise of the 
Messiah. The seed of the woman, through Shem, Abraham, Isaac, Ja- 
cob, Judah, and afterwards David. 

Gen. 1. 20. Even evil passions are overruled for the accomplishment 
of God's purposes. So were the treachery of Judas, the injustice of 
Pilate, the persecution of Paul. Acts iv. 28: Phil. i. 12. 

Gen. 1. 25. "Joseph, it has justly been remarked, is a bright example 
in every relation. At the age of seventeen years he appears uncor- 
rupted by the wickedness of his brethren or the partiality of his father; 
discountenancing the sin 'of the former, and prompt in his obedience to 
the latter (xxxvii. 2, 13 ; see iv. 8, 11). Unjustly sold as a slave, he is 
faithful to his master (xxxix. 4-6). He flees youthful lust, though ex- 
posed to temptation (xxxix. 9). Persecuted, he, like Paul, finds in prison 
opportunities of usefulness (xxxix. 22; xl. 7). Flattered by Pharaoh, 
he disclaims all ability of himself to interpret the dream, and avows 
before a heathen court the power of God (xli. 16). At the age of thirty 
he is suddenly raised to the highest dignity, and yet becomes a pattern 
of industry and justice (xli. 38 ; xlvi. 48). Though a courtier, he is 
truthful, and with noble simplicity avows the disreputable employment 
of his connections (xlvi. 31-34). As a brother, he exhibits unabated af- 
fection, not only for Benjamin, but to those who had hated him (xliii. 29, 
30; xlv. 14; xliv. 18-34; xlv. 4-13; 1. 21). As a son, though lord of 
Egypt, he manifests the most affectionate respect for his aged parent, 
who was now dependent upon him (xlvi. 29 ; xlvii. 7). As a father, his 



EXODUS II.-XII. 



453 



piety appears in the names he gave his children (xii. 51, 52); and his 
earnest desire for God's blessing for them in bringing them to Jacob's dying 
bed (xlviii. 1, etc.) For eighty years he lived m the midst of the greatest 
worldly grandeur, surrounded with every temptation to worldliness and 
idolatry ; but his dying breath testified how entirely his heart and 
treasure were in God's promises" (1. 25). See also Heb. xi. 22 • 1 John v. 4. 

This summary (from Nichols) illustrates several rules of interpretation 
(see I 248). 



24. 



(iii.) From the Birth of Moses, B. Q. 1571, to his Death, 
120 



Date and Place. 



Event or Narrative. 



B. C. 
1571—1532. 

1531, 
Midian. 

1531, 
Egypt. 
1491, 
Horeb. 
(Acts vii. 30.) 
1491, 
Egypt. 
(Acts vii. 31.) 

1491. 

1491. 

1491. 



1491. 

1491. 
1491. 
1491. 



1491. 



1491, 



1. To the Exode. 

Birth, exposure, rescue, and early life of Moses, 

Exod. ii. 1-10. 

Moses, having killed an Egyptian, flees ; marries 
Zipporah, daughter of Jethro: Gershom born, 

Exod. ii. 11-22. 
The Israelites groan for their bondage, 

Exod. ii. 23-25 : Psa. Ixxxviii. 
God appears to Moses in a burning bush; appoints him 
and Aaron to bring the Israelites out of Egypt, 

Exod. iii. ; iv. 1-17. 
Moses leaves Midian ; meets Aaron ; they deliver 
their message, Exod. iv. 18-31. 

Moses and Aaron demand the release of the Israelites ; 

Pharaoh refuses, Exod. v. 

God renews his promise by his name Jehovah, 

Exod. vi. 1-13. 

Descendants of Reuben, Simeon, and of Levi, from 
whom came Moses and Aaron, [Exod. vi. 14-27]. 
Moses and Aaron again sent ; confirm their message 
by a miracle ; magicians imitate them, 

Exod. vi. 28-30; vii. 1-13. 
Pharaoh refuses to let Israel go ; eight plagues, 

Exod. vii. 14-25 ; viii. 9 ; x. 1-20. 
The Passover instituted, Exod. xii. 1-20. 

The 9th plague, three days' darkness, Exod. x. 21-27. 
Israelites bidden to ask gold of the Egyptians ; Pha- 
raoh threatened with the death of the first-born, 

Exod. xi. 1-8; x. 28, 29: xi. 9, 10. 
The Passover eaten, the same day of the same month 
on which Christ our Passover was sacrificed for us 
(see Hales ii. 197) ; the first-born slain, 

Exod. xii. 21-30. 

The exodus, (A. M. 2513), Exod. xii. 31-36, and 40-42. 



454 



LESSONS — PLAGUES OF EGYPT. 



By God's command, Nisan or Abib, on the 14th night of which the 
exode took place, was made the 1st month of the ecclesiastical year, 
Exod. xii. 2. As the rest of the history of Moses is dated chiefly from 
this epoch, we shall give the dates from that time. 

Exod. ii. 25. Lightfoot and Townsend place the 88th Psalm hero 
(see 1 Chron. ii. 6). Witsius and others refer it to the captivity 
(1 Chron. vi. 33). 

Exod. iii. 11. Mark the diffidence of Moses, till his scruples and fear 
are removed by several miraculous proofs of his Divine legation. 

Israel in Egypt had evidently become contaminated by the idolatry 
of their neighbors : hence their unbelief and inconstancy. See Josh, 
.xxiv. 14: Ez. xx. 8: Josh. v. 9: Lev. xxiv. 10. 

Exod. iii. 14. " The Angel of Jehovah" speaks of himself as " I am 
that I am." He is the same who delivered Jacob from all evil (Gen. 
xlviii. 15); who gave the law (Acts vii. 38- Exod. xix. 20; xx. 1) ; 
who conducted Israel through the wilderness (Exod. xxiii. 20, 21); and 
claimed the homage of Joshua (Josh, v 15 ; vi. 2.) 

Exod. vii. 1. " My prophet" or spokesman (iii. 16). To prophesy is 
in Scripture language to foretell, and also to instruct or speak publicly. 
See Tit. i. 12 : Acts xiii. 1 : 1 Cor. xi. 4, 5 ; xiv 1 : Eph. ii. 20. 

Exod. vii. 13. Pharaoh hardened. The Divine forbearance seems 
to have produced this result (viii. 31, 32). 

Exod. viii. These plagues are all significant proving the power of 
God and rebuking idolatry. 1. The Nile — blood; an object of worship 
turned into an object of abhorrence. 2. The sacred frog itself their 
plague. 3. Lice, which the Egyptians deemed so polluting, that to 
enter a temple with them was a profanation, cover the country like 
dust. 4. The gad-fly (Zebub), an object of Egyptian reverence, be- 
comes their torture. 6. The cattle, which were objects of Egyptian 
worship, fall dead before their worshippers. 7 The ashes which the 
priests scattered as signs of blessings, become boils. 7. Isis and Osiris, 
the deities of water and fire, are unable to protect Egypt even at a 
season when storms and rain were unknown, from the fire and hail of 
God. 8. Isis and Serapis were supposed to protect the country from 
locusts. West winds might bring these enemies ; but an east wind the 
Egyptian never feared, for the Red Sea defended him. But now Isis 
fails : and the very east wind he reverenced becomes his destruction. 
9. The heavenly hosts, the objects of worship, are themselves shown 
to be under Divine control. 10. The last plague explains the whole. 
God's first-born Egypt had oppressed ; and now the first-born of Egypt 
are all destroyed, the first two plagues, it will be noticed, were foretold 



JOURNEYS OF ISRAEL — EXODUS XII.-XIX. 455 



by Moses, and imitated by the Egyptians. The rest they failed to 

copy, and confessed they were wrought by the finger of Go 
See Bryant and Bishop Gleig's Diss. : Stackhouse, i. p. 47 
Exod. xii. 1-20. Contains a command given five days before the 

Passover, i. e., on or before the 10th Nisan. Hence the position of this 

section. 

Exod. xii. 21. The Passover victim was selected on the 10th, the day 
Christ entered Jerusalem, John xii. 12-19. Early on the 14th, the 
victim was prepared for the sacrifice, and between the 9th and 11th 
hour — the hour when Christ expired — the victim was slain ; its blood 
sprinkled upon their dwellings ; its body a family feast, strengthening 
them fo>* their journey. At midnight the first-born was slain, and 
amidst this distress, but with all the calmness of a religious procession, 
the Israelites leave the land of their bondage. How instructive is this 
type. 



Date and Place. 



B. C. 

1491. 

Succoth, 
Eccl. y. 1. 

1 m. 15 d. 

Etham. 
1491, 
Pihahiroth ; 
e., mouth of 
pass. 
Marah. 



Elim, 
(Wadi Gha- 
rendal.) 
Red Sea. 
2 m. 15 d. 
Sin. 
Exod. xvi. 1. 
Dophkah. 

Alush. 
Rephidim. 



3 m. 15 d. 
Sinai. 



Event or Narrative. 



2. The forty -two Journeys of the Israelites. 



First-born com- 
mes removed, 
-19: Numb. 



1st journey. Passover reinforced, 
manded to be set apart. Joseph's bon 
Exod. xii. 37-39, and 43-51; xiii. 1- 
xxxiii 1-5. 

2d journey. Israel guided by a pillar of cloud and 
fire, Exod. xiii. 20-22: Numb, xxxiii. 6. 

3d journey. Pharaoh pursues, 

Exod. xiv. 1-9 : Numb, xxxiii. 7. 

4th journey. Passage of the Red Sea (see 1 Cor. x. 

1, 2). Destruction ol Pharaoh's army. Song of 

Moses. The bitter waters sweetened, 

Exod. xiv. 10; xv. 20: Numb, xxxiii. 8. 
5th journey, Exod. xv. 27: Numb, xxxiii. 9. 

6th journey, Numb, xxxiii. 10. 

7th journey. People murmur for bread. Quails and 
manna. Directions of manna (see John vi. 31, 49: 
Rev. ii. 17), Exod. xvi. 1-36: Numb, xxxiii. 11. 

8th journey, Numb, xxxiii. 12. 

9th journey, Numb, xxxiii. 13. 

10th journey. Water given from the rock in Horeb 
(1 Cor. x. 4). Joshua defeats Amalek, while Moses 
prays, Exod. xvii. 1-16 : Numb, xxxiii. 14. 

11th journey. Preparation for giving the law, 

Exod. xix. 1-25: Numb, xxxiii. 15. 



456 JOURNEYS OF ISRAEL — EXODUS XX.-XL. — LAWS. 



Date and Place. 



Event and Narrative, 



B.C. 
1491. 
3 m. 15 d. 
Sinai. 



Eccl. y. 1. 
6 m. 
Sinai. • 



1490. 
Eccl. y. 2. 
1 m. 1 d. 

1490. 
Eccl. y. 2. 
1 m. 1 day. 

1 m. 8 d. 



1 m. 14 d. 



2 m. 1 d. 



Moral law given. Divers laws (chiefly judicial) en- 
joined. The angel promised as a guide to the 
Israelites, Exod. xx. 23. 

The people promise obedience ; the blood of the cove- 
wowiisprinkled on them. Moses and others have a 



Ceremonial law given. The tabernacle and its furni- 
ture, the priests and their garments, etc. The Sab- 
bath again enjoined. Daily sacrifice and incense, 
Rom viii. 3. Rev. viii. 3, 4. Tables of the law 
given to Moses, Exod. xxv.-xxxi. 

Idolatry of the calf; the tables broken; the people 
punished; the tabernacle removed out of the camp. 
Moses intercedes for the people, and asks to see 
God's glory, Exod. xxxii. 33. 

The tables renewed; the name of the Lord pro- 
claimed; God makes a covenant with Israel. Moses 
stays on the mount forty days and forty nights; 
his face shines, • Exod. xxxiv. 

Offerings of the people for the tabernacle. Bezaleei 
and others prepared the tabernacle and its furni- 
ture, [Exod. xxxv.-xxxix.] 
Moses commanded to rear the tabernacle and to anoint 
it, and to sanctify Aaron and his sons, 
[Exod. xl. 1-16.] (John i. 14 ; ii. 19-21 : Col. ii. 9.) 
The tabernacle set up. The glory of the Lord fills it. 

The Israelites directed by the cloud, Exod. xl. 17-38. 
Laws on various sacrifices and offerings, Lev. i.-vii. 
Consecration of Aaron and his sons as priests, [Lev. 8.1 
The offerings of Aaron. Fire consumes the sacrifice, 

[Lev. ix.j 

The offerings of the princes accepted, Numb. vii. 
Destruction of Nadab and Abihu, Lev. x. 

Of the great day of atonement, and of the scapegoat, 

Lev. xvi. : see Heb. ix. : and v. 1. 
The second Passover celebrated. Some allowed to 

observe it in the second month, Numb. ix. 1-14. 
Laws on meats and purifications, [Lev. xi.-xv.j 

Miscellaneous laws, moral, ceremonial, and judicial 

Shelomith's son stoned for blasphemy, 

[Lev. xvii.-xxii. and xxiv.] 
Laws concerning festivals, etc., Lev. xxiii. and xxiv. 
Prophetic promises and threatenings, Lev. xxvi. 
Laws of vows, devotions and tithes, Lev. xxvii. 
The tribes numbered ; their order, [Numb, i., ii.] 




JOURNEYS OF ISRAEL — LAWS. 



457 



Date and Place. 



Event or Narrative. 



B. C. 
1490. 



l4»t. 

2 m. *0 d. 

Wilderness of 
Par an 
(Ml Tyh.) 



Hazaroth. 

5 m.-7 m. 
l£adesh Barnea, 
or En Mishpah. 
1490. 

Eccl. y. 2. 

7 m. 6 d. 



1490-1452. 
Eccl. y. 2-40. 

1452. 
Eccl. y. 40. 
1 m. 



The Levites appointed to the service of the tabernacle 
instead of the first-born; their duties, [Numb, iii., iv. 

Institution of various ceremonies. The law of the 
Nazarites. The form of blessing, [Numb, v., vi.] 

Consecration of the Levites ;' their age and period of 
service [Numb. viii.]. Use of the silver trumpets 
[x. 1-10]. Manner in which the cloud guided the 
people, ix. 15-23. 

Arrival of Jethro with Moses' wife and sons. He 
advises Moses to appoint judges to assist, 

Exod. xviii. 1-26. 

12th journey. Order of the march, 

[Numb. x. 11, 12 (Numb, xxxiii. 16), 28]. 

Moses entreats Hobab to accompany Israel ; Jethro 
returns to Midian, 

Numb. x. 29-32, and Exod. xviii. 27. 

The form of blessing on the removal and resting of 
the ark, Numb. x. 33-36. 

The burning at Taberah. The people murmur for 
flesh; Moses complains of his charge; seventy elders 
appointed as a council to assist him ; quails given 
in wrath, Numb. xi. 1-34. 

13th journey. Miriam smitten with leprosy for sedi- 
tion, Numb. xi. 35 (Numb, xxxiii. 17), xii. 15. 

14th journey. Spies sent to search the land; ten of 
them bring an evil report ; Caleb and Joshua faith- 
ful, Numb. xii. 16 (Numb, xxxiii. 18), 13. 

Israel murmurs at the report of the spies ; God 
threatens ; Moses intercedes ; condemned to wan- 
der forty years. Numb. xiv. 1-39: Psa. xc. 

The people going up against the will of God, are dis- 
comfited, Numb. xiv. 40-45. 

Laws of offerings ; Sabbath-breaker stoned, 

[Numb, xv.l 

The rebellion of Korah, etc., earthquake, fire, and 
plague inflicted ; Aaron approved as high-priest by 
the budding of his rod, Numb, xvi., xvii. 

The charge and portion of the priests and Levites, 

[Numb, xviii.] 
Water of purification ; how to be made and used, 

[Numb, xix.] 

The next seventeen journeys (15th to 31st) of the 
Israelites, being their wandering in the wilderness 
nearly thirty-eight years, Numb, xxxiii. 19-35. 

32d journey ; death of Mi riam, Numb.xx. 1 ; xxxiii. 36. 

The people murmur for water; Moses and Aaron 
transgressing, not to enter Canaan, Numb. xx. 2-13. 



39 



458 



JOURNEYS OP ISRAEL. 



Date and Place 

B. C. 
1490. 
Kadesh. 
Mount Hor. 

Zalmonah. 



Punon, 
Oboth, lim. 
Dibon-gad. 



Almon- 

diolathaim. 

Abarim. 
Plains of 
Moab by 

Jordan. 



1451, 
Eccl. y. 40. 



Event or Narrative. 



Edom refuses a passage to the Israelites, 

Numb. xx. 14-21. 

33d journey; Aaron dies; Arad attacks Israel, and, 
is defeated, Numb, xx., xxi.-xxii. 3 ; xxxiii. 37-40. 
34th journey ; the people murmur ; fiery serpents are 
sent ; the brazen serpent set up, 

(see John iii. 14) : Numb. xxi. 4 (xxxiii. 41)-9. 
35th, 36th, and 37th journeys, 

Numb. xxi. 10, 11 ; xxxiii. 42-44. 
38th journey, Numb, xxxiii. 45. 

The Israelites stop at Zared, Arnon, and Beer, 

Numb. xxi. 12-18. 
Sihon, the Amorite, opposes their passage ; defeated, 

Numb. xxi. 21-32. 
Og, of Bashan, attacks them ; defeated, 

Numb. xxi. 33-35. 
39th journey, Numb, xxxiii. 46. 

40th journey, Numb. xxi. 18-20; xxxiii. 47. 

41st journey ; account of Balaam and Balak, 

(Luke i. 78: Rev. xxii. 16: 1 Cor. xv. 25:) 
Numb. xxii. 1 (xxxiii. 48)-41 ; xxiii., xxiv. 
42d journey ; idolatry of Baal-Peor ; zeal of Phine- 
has, Numb. xxv. 1 (xxxiii. 49)-18. 

Third numbering of the people, [Numb. xxvi}. 

The daughters of Zelophehad; laws of inheritance, 

Numb, xxvii. 1-11; xxxvi. 
Laws of offerings, vows, etc., Numb, xxviii.-xxx. 
The slaughter of Midian ; Balaam slain, Numb. xxxi. 
Territories given to R>euben, Gad, and part of Manas- 
seh, on the east of Jordan, Numb. xxii. 

Directions for the Israelites on their entering Canaan; 
borders of land described ; forty-eight cities for 
the Levites, of which six are to be cities of refuge; 
the laws on murder, 

Numb, xxxiii. 50-56 ; xxxiv. ; xxxv. 



Exod. xii. 37. This order of the journeys is taken from Numb. xxxv. 
"We see here how God weans his people from idolatry, how he inures 
them to trial and trains them to obedienoe. For an inspired, prac- 
tical comment on the history of the Israelites in the wilderness, see 
Psa. lxxviii. ; cv. ; cvi. ; cxxxvi. : and 1 Cor. x. 

Lev. What an instructive month's history. Aaron consecrated, in 
proof of the holiness required in worship ; his sons Nadab and Abihu 
punished for unhallowed contempt of Divine authority (see Exod. xxx. 
9), shortly after their consecration, which a miracle had confirmed. 



LEVITICUS — NUMBERS- — LESSONS— DEUT. I.-XXX. 459 



Exod. xxiv. 9: Lev. ix. 24; Aaron's resignation a touching exhibition 
of grace, x. 3 ; the blasphemer stoned. 

Lev. xi. As the sacrifices of the law point to Christ and his atone- 
ment, so do the repeated purifications to man's need of inward purity 
and of the cleansing influence of the Holy Spirit. 

The ceremonial law contains rites closely resembling those in use 
among several heathen nations, but with striking differences (Spencer, 
de Leg, and Michaelis). Some (as Warburton and Maimonides) think 
the former borrowed from the latter; others (as Gale and Stillingfieet) 
think the latter borrowed from the former ; others still (as Calmet and 
Faber) maintain that both were taken from early patriarchal institutes, 
which the Gentiles corrupted and which God himself modified, to meet 
the peculiar condition of the Jews. This last theory, the most probable 
of the three, is confirmed by the fact that many primitive traditions are 
preserved in the systems, moral, religious, and philosophical, of many 
ancient nations. 

Numb. ix. 1-14. This section is out of its place, see ver. 1. 

Numb. xxxv. 31, 32. See \ 329 (h), on " satisfaction." 

When Jacob's family entered Egypt they numbered but seventy 
souls, Gen. xlvi. 27. Now their descendants number upwards (it may 
be gathered) of two millions (chap, xxvi.) ; so richly had God already 
fulfilled his promise. 



Date and Place. 


Event or Narrative. 


B. C. 

1451. 
Eccl. y. 40. 
11 m. 1 d. 


3. The Review and closing Charge of Moses. 

Moses reviews the history of the Israelites, intro- 
ducing some new particulars, Deut. i.-iv. 

The moral law repeated and enforced, 

Deut v.-ix; x. 1-5, 10-22; xi. 

The ceremonial law repeated, with injunctions against 
idolatry, etc., [Deut. xii.-x^. ; xvii. 1]. 

The judicial law repeated and explained. Christ fore- 
told as a prophet to whom they are to hearken, 

Deut. xvii. 2-20 ; [xviii.-xxvi]. 

Moses directs Israel, after entering Canaan, to write 
the law on stones, and to recite its blessings and 
curses upon Mt. Gerizim and Mt. Ebal, Deut. xxvii. 

Prophetic promises and curses, Deut. xxviii. 

Concluding appeal to the Israelites, Deut. xxix.; xxx." 



Deut. On the importance of comparing the law, as given in Deuter- 
onomy, with the law as given in the earlier books, see Pt. ii. \ 6. 



460 DEUT. XXXI. -XXXIV. — THE DESIGN OF THE LAW. 



Date and. Place. 


Event or Narrative. 


B. C. 

Eccl. y. 40. 
11 m. 


4. Joshua 's appointment ; death of Moses. 

Joshua, appointedto succeed Moses, Nmnb.xxvii. 12-23. 
Moses encourages the people and Joshua ; charges the 
priests to read the law publicly every seventh year, 

Deut. xxxi. 1-13. 

God's charge to Joshua ; Moses writes a song of wit- 
ness ; completes the writing of the law, and delivers 
it to the Levites, with a prediction of the disobe- 
dience of Israel, Deut. xxxi. 14-2£. 

Moses recites his song, and exhorts Israel to set their 
hearts upon it, Deut. xxxi. 30 : xxxii. 1-47. 

Moses ascends Mount Nebo to view the land of 
Canaan, and to die, Deut xxxii. 48-52. 

Moses prophetically blesses the tribes, Deut. xxxiii. 

Moses views the promised land ; his death, burial, 
and character, Deut. xxxiv. 



Sec, 5. — The Design of the Law — Summary of its 
Religious Institutions. 

25. "What, then, it may be asked, was the purpose of this 
ancient dispensation, and to what end must we study it? 
There was faith and piety before it was given. Faith and 
piety remain, now that it is done away. As an institute, it 
* was confessedly burdensome ; and if its aim had been either 
to regulate the worship of God, to give a figurative represen- 
tation of the Gospel, or to separate the Jews from other na- 
tions, this aim might have been reached by simpler means. 
Might not some points, moreover, not forcibly impressed upon 
the ancient Jews, have been more clearly revealed — the spir- 
ituality, for example, of the coming dispensation, and the 
glories of eternal life ? In reply to these questions, let it be 
remembered that man has a strong tendency to forget God. 
Virtue, truth, godliness, submission to the Divine will, con- 
formity to the Divine law, supreme desire for the Divine glory „ 
are things not only not natural — they are things to which man 
is directly opposed. Without successive revelations, or some 
such provision as the Old Testament supplies, the feelings 



THE DESIGN OF THE LAW. 



461 



wliich these terms describe, and the truths on which they are 
founded, must long since have perished from the earth. This 
conclusion is gained by an induction of particulars as sound 
as any in science. Let it now be supposed that God has to 
deal with men who are ever prone to idolatry and barbarism, 
in a condition of intellectual childhood, with no relish for 
blessings purely spiritual, and so earthly as to be incapable of 
comprehending them ; that he desires to impress the minds of 
such a race with his own infinite perfections, and induce them 
to worship him with becoming reverence ; to prove to them 
what is in their heart, and so humble them for their depravity ; 
to lead them to acknowledge him in all their ways, that they 
may fear his power and trust his love ; to raise their confi- 
dence towards the God of their fathers, their covenant-God ; 
to incline their hearts towards his holy place, and the privi- 
lege of communion with him ; — suppose that he wishes to dis- 
tinguish them as his peculiar people (that is, both purchased 
and separate) ; to prevent needless intercourse wHn their idola- 
trous neighbors ; to unite all classes of Israelites is one body, 
under one king ; to teach them to love one another as brethren; 
to check the tendency, in all communities, to the accumulation 
of extreme wealth in the hands of a few, and the oppression 
that springs from such accumulation ; to induce honest in- 
dustry among the people ; to give every man the conviction 
that he has a name and a place in his country ; to secure com- 
petent provision for the fatherless and the widow ; to provide 
rest and moral training for all servants ; to connect the main- 
tenance of the learned and priestly class, in part at least, with 
the obedience and piety of the people, thus stimulating them 
to diligence in teaching the law ; — suppose that he seeks to 
reveal himself with new claims ; to preserve the memory of 
what he had done for them as a nation ; to teach them impli- 
cit obedience ; to excite thoughts and feelings in harmony with 
the office, and work, and reign of that Messiah whom these 
various institutions were to introduce ; — and suppose, lastly, 

that, owing to man's guilty depravity, and the powerlessness 
39* 



462 



THE THEOCRACY — THE TABERNACLE. 



of ritual observance to cleanse him spiritually from sin, these 
precepts and rites could not, by themselves alone, secure more 
than legal forgiveness, or attain, in any sense, eternal life ; — 
admit that these suppositions describe the end of the law, and 
its adaptation to its end will at once appear. 

Now, these suppositions really do describe its end, though 
they may be stated variously. Is the law a moral code ? It 
teaches us our duty both to man and to God. Is it ritual ob- 
servance? It teaches us our faults, and God's holiness, point- 
ing, moreover, to the cross. Is it a civil institute? It regu- 
lates the worship of an Invisible King, preserves the Jews as 
a peculiar people, and enforces brotherly love. Regarded as 
a revelation of truth (objective religion), all its parts are in- 
structive. Regarded as a shadow of truth afterwards to be 
revealed, it excites and deepens holy feeling (subjective reli- 
gion). Regarded chiefly as a treasury of earlier traditional 
knowledge, that knowledge it preserves, adding much of its 
own, in order to preserve it ; though, of course, a spiritual 
perception of its truths is still, as before, essential to salvation. 
However the end of the law be defined, the chief facts remain. 
It reveals man's sin, God's holiness and love, forgiveness 
through sacrifice, and sanctification as its result, Christ's work 
and reign, while it provides for the preservation of these truths 
in a world ever prone to forget what is spiritual, and deterio- 
rate what is holy. The whole institute is at once a Gospel 
and a church. It preserved and guarded piety, union, and 
happiness; is every way worthy of its author, and entitled to 
the commendations which pious Jews have bestowed upon it 
in every age, Psalms xix., cxix. 

In theory the Jewish constitution was a theocracy, a visible 
Th j : h re P resen? tation °f the reign of God. Jehovah him- 
constitutiou self was regarded as king; the laws were deliv- 
atheocidcy. QTe ^ by him ; the tabernacle (and afterwards the 
temple) was considered as his palace ; there he gave visible 
manifestations of his glory ; there he revealed his will ; there 



THE TABERNACLE. 



463 



was offered "the bread of the presence;" there he received 
his ministers, and performed his functions as sovereign. Hence 
it is that the land of Palestine is ever represented as held by 
direct tenure from Jehovah (Lev. xxv. 23). To him, peace 
and war, questions determined under all governments by the 
supreme authority, were referred (Deut. i. 41,42: Josh. x. 
40 : Judges i. 1,2: 1 Kings xii. 24) ; and idolatry was treason. 
In relation, therefore, to the Jews, Jehovah was both God and 
king. 

27. This twofold character was preserved in all the arrange- 
ments of the ancient law. 

1. The Tabernacle, where public worship was held from the exoda 
till the reign of Solomon, was hoth the temple of God and 
the palace of the invisible king. It was his "holy habita- {j^^ete** 
tion." It was the place where he met the people and com- 
muned with them — " the Tabernacle," therefore, " of the Congregation." 
It was an oblong, rectangular erection, 55 feet by 18 feet, built of 
planks of the acacia, overlaid with gold, united by poles of gold, and 
resting on bases of silver. The whole shielded by four costly cover- 
ings. Exod. xxvi. 7-13. (See Shittim.) The eastern end was not 
boarded, but was closed by a curtain of cotton, suspended from silver 
rods, that were sustained by five pillars covered with gold. The inte- 
rior was divided into two parts by a curtain or veil made of rich stuff, 
and curiously embroidered with figures of cherubim and other orna- 
ments (Exod. xxvi. 36, 37). The first apartment was the Holy Place 
(Heb. ix. 2). The inner and smaller one, the " Holy of Holies." Here 
was the ark of the Covenant, an oblong chest of wood, covered with 
gold, and surmounted by two golden figures of cherubim with out- 
stretched wings. Above them was " the Glory," the symbol of the Di- 
vine presence. It rested between them, and came down to the lid of 
the ark — "the mercy seat." In or near the ark were the tables of 
stone, the book of the law, a pot of manna, and Aaron's rod (Exod. 
xxv. 21: Deut. xxxi. 26 ; Heb. ix. 4). In the first, or ante-room, were 
placed the golden altar of incense (Exod. xxx. 1-10) ; the seven-handed 
golden candlestick or lamp (Exod. xxv. 31-39); and the table of wood, 
overlaid with gold, where the shew-bread and wine were placed (Exod. 
xxv. 23-30). 

Around the tabernacle was an extensive court, about 180 feet by 90 
feet, formed by curtains of linen, suspended by silver hooks from rods 



464 



THE TABERNACLE — THE LEVITES. 



of silver, which reached from one column to another. These columns 
were twenty in all, of acacia, probably supported on bases of brass, 
and 8 or 9 feet (5 cubits) high. The entrance was on the east side, and 
was closed by falling tapestry, adorned with figures in blue, purple, 
and scarlet (Exod. xxvii. 9-19 ; xxxix. 9-20). In this court, which 
was open at the top, all the public services of religion were performed, 
and all sacrifices presented. Near the centre was the great brazen altar 
(5 cubits square and 3 high), with prominences at the corners called 
"horns," Exod. xxvii. 1-S: Psa. cxviii. 27. On the south side there 
was an ascent to it made of earth (Exod. xx. 24 ; xxxviii. 1-7). The 
various instruments of this altar were of brass, as those of the altar 
of incense were of gold (Exod. xxvii. 3 ; xxxviii. 3; xxv. 31-40). In the 
court of the tabernacle, between the brazen altar and tabernacle, 
stood a brazen laver, at which the priests performed their ablutions 
before approaching the altar (Exod. xxx. 15-21). On the altar a fire 
burnt continually, at first kindled miraculously, and afterwards kept 
m by the priests, (Lev. ix. 24 ; vi. 12 ; x. 1). 

The Temple of Solomon was built after the same plan, and contained 
the same furniture; but it was much larger, and the materials were 
more costly and durable. Instead of one court there were three, the 
innermost corresponding to the court of the tabernacle. The curtains 
were supplied by walls and colonnades ; the brazen laver being repre- 
sented by the brazen sea, 1 Kings vii. 26, and ten smaller vessels, 
1 Kings vii. 27-39. The greater grandeur of the temple service was in 
harmony both with the extended power of the nation, and with the 
clearer revelation which was then given of God's kingly authority. 

To a much later date belong the synagogues of the Jews. They were 
plain and unpretending buildings, in which the Jews met 
* l ° ° '"to offer prayers, to hear Moses and the prophets read, and 
to receive instruction. They are often mentioned in the New Testament, , 
and seem to have sprung up after the captivity. 

28. (2.) As the tabernacle was both the temple of God and 
the palace of the Great Kins;, so the Levites were 

TheLevites. x » 

both priests and officers of state. 
Under the law, the high-priesthood was confined to the family of 

„ Aaron, and during the purest age of that economv to the 

The priests. ' j. o j 

first-born of that house ; Nadab, however, his eldest son, 

perished by his impiety during the high-priesthood of his father, so that 

Eleazar succeeded Aaron, and from him the office passed in succession 

to Eli. From him it was transferred to the family of Ithamar (Aaron's 

fourth son) ; but in the days of Solomon it returned to the family of 



THE LEVITES. 



465 



Eleazar, where it remained till the captivity. During the Asmonean 
dynasty a private Levite family held it, and towards the close of the 
Hebrew polity the right of succession was wholly disregarded. 

Aaron was consecrated by Moses, and his sons were priests under him. 
Into the inner chamber of the tabernacle the high-priest alone entered, 
once a year, on the day of atonement. 

In the reign of David the descendants of Eleazar and Ithamar were 
so numerous that they could not all be employed at the same time in 
their sacred duties ; they were, therefore, divided into 24 courses, each 
serving in weekly rotation twice in the lunar year (1 Chron. xxiv). 
Each course had its head or chief, and these are probably the chief 
priests so often referred to in the Gospels. They had the whole care of 
the sacrifices and religious services of the temple, most of the important 
functions of their office being assigned to each by lot. 

All the priests were Levites, that is, descendants of Levi, through 
Gershom and Aaron. Levi, however, had other children, ^ 
and all their descendants were devoted to public business 
They assisted the priests, formed the guard of the tabernacle, and con- 
veyed it from place to place (Numb. iv. 1-20). In David's time the 
whole body was divided into three classes, each of which was subdi- 
vided into 24 courses. The first class attended upon the priests ; the 
second formed the choir of singers in the temple, and the third acted as 
porters and guards (1 Chron. xxiv. 25, 26) in the temple and at the 
gates. 

It seems probable that the Levites all acted, when not engaged in the 
temple service, as the instructors of the people ; they formed, in fact, 
the learned class. 

For the support of this large body of men 48 cities, with a belt of 
land round each, were assigned : a tenth of all the produce 
and cattle of the country (Lev. xxvii. 30: Numb. xxxv. po r t rsup " 
1-8), of which tenth the priests had a tenth : all shared also 
in another tenth of the produce, which the people generally were to 
expend in feast offerings, to which the Levites were to be invited (Deut 
xiv. 22-27). 

When not engaged in their sacerdotal duties the priests dressed as 
other men; but when so engaged their tunics, girdles, tur- 
bans, &c, were all of white linen (Exod. xxxix. 27, 28). J^*™*^* 
The dress of the high-priest was both splendid and significant. 
Over his white tunic he wore a woollen robe of blue, having on its hem 
small golden bells (Exod. xxviii. 31-34). Over this was a short, sleeve- 
less garment — an " ephod" of fine linen, inwrought with gold and pur- 
ple, and having on each shoulder-strap a precious stone, the whole en- 



466 



THE SACRIFICES OF THE LAW. 



graven with the name of the tribes (xxviii. 5-12). In front was the 
breast-plate of judgment, similarly adorned, each stone similarly en- 
graven (xxviii. 15, 21). On his head was a kind of mitre, to the front 
of which was fastened a plate of gold, inscribed " Holiness unto the 
Lord." Connected with the breast-plate was the urim and thummim, 
by which the priest was enabled to ascertain the will of the invisible 
king. How the response was given is not clearly known. 

To their ( pffice all the priests were consecrated with a "holy anoint- 
ing," and the spiritual significance of the whole institute is plain. 

39. (3.) Among the Jews, as among all ancient nations, sac- 
rifices formed the most essential part of religious 

Sacrifices. • ■ #. 

worship. The subject, therefore, is of great impor- 
tance, and as the laws in relation to it are scattered over the 
various books of the Pentateuch, we give the substance of 
them in a connected form. 

i. The things offered were taken from both the vegetable and the ani- 

f ma ^ kingdom, those from the former called the bloodless 
fered? offerings (7rp><rqop>tt, r^ftito. minchoth), and those from the 
latter the bloody (t^rQTj zevachim, Sw/au, slain sacrifices). With both, 
the mineral salt, an emblem of purity, was used. 

From the vegetable kingdom were taken the meat-offerings (flour, 
cakes, parched corn, frankincense), and the drink-offerings (tjD3» nesek, 
o-mvSvi, Phil. ii. 17) of wine, either in its natural or fermented state. 
Both offerings were usually united, and were considered as an addition 
to the thank-offerings made by fire, Numb. xv. 5-11 ; xxviii. 7-15 : Lev. 
xiv. 10-21. 

Heathen libations were not unlike the drink-offerings of the law. 
II. i. 462: iEn. vi. 254, with characteristic differences, however: they 
consisted of wine and blood, Sail. Cat. sec 32 : Psa. xiv. 4 : Zech. ix. 7. 

The animals offered were oxen, goats, and sheep ; all were to be 
without blemish, not under eight days old, nor over three years. Doves 
were also offered in some cases, Exod. xxii. 20; xii. 5: Lev. ix. 3. 
Fishes were never offered, and human sacrifices were expressly forbid- 
den, Lev. xviii. 21 ; xx. 25. 

ii. Offerings were presented only in the front court of the sanctuary, 

the tabernacle, that is, and afterwards the temple. Lev. 
offorfng. xv ^- : Deut. xii. 5-7. Occasionally, however, sacrifices 

were offered elsewhere, without reprehension, Judges ii. 5: 
: Sam. vii. 17 ; ix. 12 : 1 Kings xviii. 19-32. 



KINDS OF SACRIFICES. 



467 



iii. The object of the legal sacrifice was either the expression of 
gratitude to God or the expiation of sin. Thank-offerings 

had, as their object, the first: sin-offerings and trespass-of- offerings 
ferings, the second. Sin was expiated, it must be remem- 
bered, not by the merit or efficacy of the sacrifice offered, but by the 
great sacrifice of the Son of God, which it typified, and in which the 
spiritual worshipper believed. A legal or civil expiation, however, was 
effected by the sacrifices of the law: they freed the offerer from the legal 
penalty of transgression. 

iv. In the performance of the sacrifice, the offerer, himself legally 
purified (1 Sam. xvi. 5 : Exod. xix. 14), brought the victim 

to the altar, and turning towards the sanctuary (Lev. ii. formed 1 "" 
3, 4; iii. 1 ; xvii. 4), laid his hand upon its head (Lev. i. 4; 
iii. 2; iv. 33), implying a transference of his sin and punishment to the 
victim. He then slew it (Lev. i. 5), an act, however, which the priest 
might do, and sometimes did (2 Chron. xxix. 24 : Ezra vi. 24). As the 
victim was slab, the priest received the blood, and sprinkled or poured 
it near the different offerings, yet apart from them. The victim was 
cut in pieces by the. offerer (Lev. i. 6), and the fat was burnt by the 
priest. In some sacrifices, before or after the 5 laying, the victim was 
heaved or lifted up, and waved towards heaven, a symbol of its presen- 
tation to Jehovah 

v. There were various kinds of sacrifices, 

-Burnt- offerings, sin and trespass-offerings, and thank-of- kinds of 
ferings. sacrifices. 

1. Burnt-offerings, holocausts (j-j^5>, ola, Vott^'ra^), consisted in the 
immolation of a male victim, which was entirely consumed i. Bm-nt- 
in the fire. The sacrifice was slain on the north of the altar, offerings, 
deprived of the skin (which belonged to the priest, Lev. vii. 8), and 
then cut in pieces by the offerer. The blood was sprinkled around the 
altar, and the parts of the victim were laid separately upon the fire, 
which the priests kept always burning. 

The design of burnt-offerings was to make atonement for sins in gen- 
eral (Lev. i. 4). They were presented daily in the name of the nation 
,(Exod. xxix. 38-42: Numb. vii. 15-17; viii. 12), on the great day of 
atonement (Lev. xvi. 3), and on the three great festivals. They were 
also presented by private persons Levitically unclean, viz., by women 
(Lev. xii. 6-8); by lepers (Lev. xiv. 21-31); by Nazarites (Numb. vi. 
11-14) ; and by those referred to in Lev. xv. 1-15. When two doves 
were offered, one of them was made a burnt-offering, Lev. v. 10. Heca- 
tombs of such offerings were sometimes presented, Ezra vi. 17: 1 Chron. 



468 



SIN AND THANK-OFFERINGS. 



xxix. 21 ; and in later times, even the heathen sometimes presentea 
them, as did Augustus (Joseph. Bell. Jud. ii. 17). 

2. Trespass- offerings and sin-offerings are not easily distinguished. 

The first were generally presented for a sin of omission, and 

Trespass 

and' sin- the second for one of commission (Jahn and others), though 
offerings. ^-g distinction does not always obtain, Lev. v. 17-19: 
Numb. vi. 11 : Lev. xv. 25, etc. The trespass has been thought the less 
guilty ; the sin the more guilty ; sometimes this rule seems reversed. 
In fact, the two are distinguished in Scripture, and the cases are pre- 
scribed in which each is to be offered. 

Trespass-offerings are enjoined in Lev. vii. 1-10, and also in Numb, 
vi. 12 ; see ver. 14 : Lev. xiv. 12 ; see ver. 19 ; Lev. xix. 20-22 : Ezra 
x. 10. The victims offered were an ewe or she-goat, doves or fine flour, 
a ram or lamb, according to the nature of the case. Sin-offerings are 
enjoined, Lev. iv. 6, 25-30. They were offered by the high-priest when 
he had committed an offence, and brought guilt upon the nation; when 
the whole nation had sinned inadvertently, and afterwards repented ; 
and on the great day of atonement. In the first and last cases the high- 
priest laid his hand on the head of the victim, confessing his sin. In 
the second case the elders laid their hand on the victim. The transac- 
tions of the great day of atonement are exceedingly significant : see 
Numb. xxix. 7-11 : Lev. xvi. 1-34 ; xxiii. 26-42 ; the azazel, or scape- 
goat, carrying off the sins of the people, and forming, with the second 
goat, which was sacrificed, a single complete type of the work of our 
Lord. Sin-offerings were also presented by magistrates and private 
persons, who had sinned through ignorance, Lev. iv. 22-26 ; and on 
various occasions of purification, Lev. xv. 25-30 ; xv. 2, 14, 15 : Numb, 
vi. 10-14: Lev. xiv. 19-32; ix. 23. 

In all these offerings the idea of substitutionary expiation is involved. 
The blood was "the life;" and the life of the victim was accepted for 
the life of the offerer, Lev. xvii. 1 ; v. 18 ; xiv. 19. 

3. Thank-offerings consisted of the presentation of a bull, sheep, or 

goat. It was brought by the offerer, with laying on of hands, 
offerings anc ^ was s ^ n nim on the south side of the altar. The 

blood was sprinkled around the altar; the fat was burnt. 
The "heaved" breast and " waved " shoulder belonged to the priest, 
and the rest was used as a sacrificial feast : see 1 Cor. x. 18. Thank- 
offerings for particular blessings were called "sacrifices of praise" 
(fTTltl 'obWi ofAohsyt*;) ; when presented from a feeling of pious 

devotedness, they were called free-will offerings. Sometimes they were 
offered in fulfilment of a vow, Numb. vi. 3. Peace-offering is the 



JEWISH FESTIVALS. 



469 



general name for the whole of this kind ; and though the expression of 
gratitude formed part of the offerer's aim, propitiation was also involved, 
as is proved by the title of peace-offering, which was given to them. 

Everything, therefore, under the law, was purified with blood — ■ 
thanksgivings and other religious acts, man's sins, and his corrupt na- 
ture itself. For the first, there was the sprinkling of the blood of *the 
victim ; for the second, there were sin and trespass-offerings ; and for 
the last, there were the whole burnt-offerings of the daily sacrifice and 
of the great festivals. God thus sought to impress upon the people 
their guilt and his holiness, and to reveal to them, by line upon line, 
the only way of access to himself. 

The repeated purifications enjoined by the law were no less sugges- 
tive of the need of practical holiness, and of the sanctifying influence 
of the Spirit. 

See on this section Winer's Realworterbuch, or the article on sacrifice, 
translated in Dr. Pye Smith's Four Discourses. 

30. (4.) The festivals of the Jews were held weekly, monthly, 
and yearly. Each seventh and fiftieth year, moreover, was 
kept with peculiar solemnities. 

The weekly festival was the Sabbath, a day consecrated to rest and 
cheerful devotion.(Psa. lxviii. 25-27, etc). On this day addi- 
tional sacrifices were presented (Lev. xxiv. 8 : Numb, xxviii. Weekl y- 
9). Children were instructed; and those who were not far distant 
visited the temple. Later than the days of the Pentateuch, the people 
seem to have visited the prophets (2 Kings iv. 23); and after the cap- 
tivity synagogues were erected in many of the towns of Palestine, 
where the " law and the prophets" were read and expounded 
(Acts xiii. 15). The monthly festival was held on the day Monthl y- 
of the new moon, and was announced by the sound of silver trumpets 
(Numb. x. 10). Labor was not interdicted, but additional sacrifices 
were offered. The new moon of the seventh month (Tisri, or Oct.) 
commenced the civil year. The great annual festivals pre- 
scribed by the law were three ; and when they were cele- Ye »rly. 
brated, all the adult males in Israel were required to appear at the 
sanctuary (Exod. xxiii. 14-17). They were all intended to be seasons 
of joyous thanksgiving, and were commemorative of the kindness and 
favor of God. 

1. The passover was kept in remembrance of the destruction of the 
first-born of the Egyptians, of the sparing of the Israelites, 
and of their departure from Egypt. It began on the eve Passover « 
' 40 



470 



FESTIVALS. 



of the 14th of Abib ; i. e. all leaven was removed from the house on 
the 14th day, between the evenings, the feast being reckoned from the 
loth to the 21st. Between the evenings, also, the paschal lamb (a ram 
or a goat of a year old, Exod. xii. 1-16) was slain before the altar 
(Deut. xvi. 2-6). The blood was sprinkled (originally on the door- 
posts, and later) at the bottom of the altar ; the lamb itself was roasted 
whole, with two spits thrust transversely through it, and was then 
eaten with bitter herbs ; unleavened bread was broken by the master 
of the family and distributed to each, not fewer than ten nor more 
than twenty being admitted to the feast. After the third cup (the 
•'cup of bio-sing'') had been drank, praises were sung, generally, in 
later times, Psa. cxv.-cxviii. ; and sometimes, in addition, Psa. 
cxx.-cxxxvii. It was in connection with this feast, and towards its 
close, that our Lord instituted with the last supper (Matt, xxvi : 1 Cor. 
x. : Mark xiv.). During every day of the festival additional sacrifices 
were offered ; on the 16th Abib, the first ripe ears of corn were pre- 
sented at the sanctuary, and then the harvest commenced (Exod. xii. 27 : 
Lev. xxiii. 9-14). 

2. The fiftieth day after the second day of the Passover (the 16th), 

came the feast of Pentecost, called also the feast of weeks 
(i. e. seven clear weeks from the 16th Abib.) This was pro- 
perly the feast of the completed harvest of the ground. Loaves made 
of the new meal and grain were offered as first-fruits (Lev. xxiii. 17). 
Many burnt offerings were now presented (Lev. xxiii. 18-20), and 
Jews residing oat of Palestine generally chose this occasion for visiting 
Jerusalem. 

3. In autumn, from the 15th to the 23d of Tisri (October), the feast 

of Tabernacles was celebrated, the 23d being the chief day 
Taberna- of the feast ( Ley> xxiiL 34 _ 42 . T onri v ii. 23). It com- 
memorated the sojourning of the Israelites in the wilderness, 
and was intended also as the feast of the ingathering of all the fruits 
of autumn. Booths were constructed of branches of trees in all parts 
of the city, and here the people resided for the week. This feast was 
the most joyous of all; "the Great Hosanna" it was called; and more 
public sacrifices were offered than at any other (Numb. xix. 13-37: 
compare with Lev. xxiii. 38-40: Numb. xxix. 39: Deut. xvi. 14, 15). 
To the ordinary legal service of this festival, later Jews added 
others. Water was drawn from the pool of Siloam, carried with 
great pomp to the temple, and poured before the altar (see Isa. 
xii. 3). Priests also ascended the steps which separated the court of 
the women from the inner court, singing the Psalms of Degrees, Psa. 
cxx.-cxxxiv. These customs, however, are comparatively modern. 



FESTIVALS. 



471 



The fifth day before the feast of tabernacles, the 10th of Tisri (Octo- 
ber), was the great day of atonement; the only fast ap- The day of 
pointed by the law (Lev. xxiii. 27-29 ; xxv. 9 : Acts xxvii. 9). atonement. 
The people then bewailed the sins of the year, and ceremonial ex- 
piation was made by the high-priest, who on that day alone entered 
into the holy of holies, where he sprinkled the blood of the goat 
which had been sacrificed. The goat was one of two which had 
been appointed by lot to their separate destinations. The other, after 
the sins of the people had been confessed over it, and so laid upon its 
head, was sent alive to be lost in the wilderness (Lev. xvi. 6-10). AIL 
this was done to make expiation for the sins of the people (Lev. xvi. 
11-19). 

Other fasts were instituted in later times, connected with the siege 
of Jerusalem (the 10th of the 10th month), the capture of 
the city (the 17th of the 4th month), the burning of the 
temple (the 9th of the 5th month), the death of the Gedaliah 
(the 3d of the 7th month): see Jer. lii. 6, etc.: Zech. vii. 3, 5; viii. 19 

The first day of the moon of Tisri (October) was celebrated as the 
commencement of the civil year. It was introduced, by 
the blowing of trumpets, with unwonted solemnity, and year^™ 
hence its name, the feast of trumpets, Jer. xxiii. 23-25. 
Additional offerings and sacrifices were now presented, Numb. xxix. 
29 ; and, unlike the ordinary new moons, it was kept as a festival. 

There were also two other feasts, though not appointed by law, 
which require notice, as they are often mentioned in Jewish ^ 
history. The first is the feast of Purim (i. e. lots). It falls 
on the 14th or 15th of Adar (March), and commemorates the defeat of 
Haman's plot foi the destruction of the Jews (Esth. iii. 7 ; ix. 26). It 
is also called Mordecai's day (2 Mac. xv. 36). The other is the feast 
of the dedication, appointed to celebrate the re-establish- 
ment of Divine worship in Jerusalem, after Antiochus ^® dedica- 
Epiphanes had been vanquished and the temple purified, 
B. C. 164, John x. 22. It was observed for eight days, from the 25th 
of Kisleu (December), and was sometimes called the feast of lights, 
from the illuminations in which, at that season, the Jews indulged. 

Every seventh year was sabbatic; and during that year the land 
was unfilled and fruits ungathered, except by the poor ; the 
people, however, were free to hunt, to feed their flocks, batfcyear 
repair their buildings, and engage in commerce. The year 
began on the 1st of Tisri, and the institution was intended to secure 
rest for the soil, to teach economy and foresight, and probably to im- 
press upon the people their dependence. Special services were held at 



472 



FESTIVALS — THEIR USE. 



the temple during the feast of tabernacles, Deut. xxxi. 10, 13: see 
Exod. xxiii. 10, 11 : Lev. xxv. 1-7 : Deut. xxvi. 33-35. This institute, 
as Moses predicted (Lev. xxvi. 34, 35), was long disregarded, 2 Chron. 
xxxvi. 21 ; but after the captivity it was observed more carefully. 

The year after seven sabbatic years, or the fiftieth, was the jubilee, 
Lev. xxv. 8-11. This year was announced on the 10th of 
Tisri, the great day of propitiation. In addition to the 
regulations of the sabbatic year, there were others quite peculiar. All 
servants, or slaves, obtained their freedom (Lev. xxv. 39-46 : Jer. 
xxxiv. 8, etc.). All the land throughout the country, and the houses 
in the cities of the Levites, sold during the preceding fifty years, were 
returned to the sellers, except such as had been consecrated to God, and 
not redeemed (Lev. xxv. 10, 13-17, 24-28: xxvii. 16-21). All mort- 
gaged lands, too, were released without charge. 

The completeness of the release secured by these arrangements makes 
the jubilee a type of the Gospel (Isa. lxi. 2 : Luke iv. 19). 

The moral and spiritual use of these festivals is plain. They all 
tended to unite the people in holy brotherhood and to separate them 
from the heathen. They preserved the memory of past mercies. They 
illustrate the Divine holiness. They lightened the load of poverty, 
checked oppression and covetous-ness, and were all either types of 
Gospel blessings, or suggestive, to a spiritual mind, of Gospel truths. 

31. Let the whole law be thus studied; regard it as a 
scheme intended to reveal, or suggest, or impress, or preserve, 
spiritual truth, and not only will objections be removed, but 
the whole will appear a gorgeous, instructive lesson, emi- 
nently situated to the condition of the nation to whom it was 
addressed. 



, AUTHORS OF THE HISTORICAL BOOKS. 473 



CHAPTER II. 

HISTORICAL AND POETICAL BOOKS TO THE DEATH OF 

SOLOMON 

Sec. 1. — The Historical Books of Scripture generally. 

32. The historical books of Scripture — from Joshua to 

Nehemiah — contain the history of the Jewish Histor}oal 

church and nation from the first settlement in books. Jew- 
ish arrange- 

Canaan to their return after the captivity of Baby- ment of. 
Ion. The books as they are placed in the English Bible, are 
twelve in all, though the Jews reckoned them but six, classing 
Ruth with Judges, Nehemiah with Ezra, and numbering the 
double books of Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles, respectively, 
as one. In early times, moreover, they were all placed among 
the prophets ; and Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings, are 
still placed in Hebrew Bibles in this list. Taking into account, 
therefore, the fact that large portions of the Pentateuch and 
of the Prophets are historical, and that a different arrange- 
ment was adopted by the Jews, the modern classification of 
" historical books" is not very appropriate. Having men- 
tioned it, however, it may be well to give here some informa- 
tion concerning the books of which it is composed. 

33. The historical books of Scripture claim, like the rest, 
inspired authority, and the general evidence of 

their inspiration is not different from that of the whomS 7 

ten. 

Pentateuch. Some of these books bear the names 
of distinguished prophets, and the rest are attributed to writers 
who had the same high character. The annals of the Hebrew 
nation were kept only by persons appointed to their office ; 
and the writers, who are occasionally mentioned in Scripture 
as the penmen of sacred history, are expressly called prophets 
40* 



474 



HISTORICAL BOOKS. 



or seers. a The narrative portion of Scripture, moreover, 
displays throughout an intimate acquaintance with the secret 
motives of men, and with the purposes of God ; b it reveals his 
mercy and judgment in the clearest prediction ; c it exhibits 
unexampled impartiality, and enforces everywhere practical 
holiness. The facts it records are appealed to or quoted 
throughout the Bible ; the writings which record them were 
received into the Hebrew canon; in Ezra's collection they 
are placed among the productions of prophets, and are cited 
by apostles and by our Lord. That in these writings other 
documents are named, as the depositories of ampler informa- 
tion, and that some of them were written or collected long 
after the events they describe, are facts which create no diffi- 
culty, and are in accordance with what we know of the 
economy of inspiration in later times. They account, more- 
over, for the occasional blending of expressions, evidently 
contemporaneous with the events described, with others of 
clearly a later origin. 

34. The Bible is (as we have seen) a selection from the his- 
tory of the church, given iust so much as was 

Principles 

on which sufficient to teach us our duty, reveal the charactei 
of Scripture of God, and prepare us for the coming of his Son. 
is written. ^ . g ^ history, moreover, of the church only, or of 
the heathen as connected with its sufferings and destiny ; and 
nowhere is this peculiarity of the Bible more marked than in 
the portion called historical. During the times it chronicles, 

a The history of David, for example, was written by Samuel, Nathan, 
and Gad, 1 Chron. xxix. 29: of Solomon, by Nathan, Abijah, and Iddo 
the prophets, 2 Chron. ix. 29: of Rehoboam, by Shemaiah and Iddo, 
2 Chron. xii. 15: of Abijah, by Iddo : of Jehoshaphat, by Jehu the 
prophet, 2 Chron. xx. 34: 1 Kings xvi. 1; and of Uzziah and Heze- 
kiah (including probably the two intermediate kings), by Isaiah. 
2 Chron. xxvi. 22 ; xxxii. 32. Even in rebellious Israel, we read of 
several prophets, and it was no doubt their business to record what 
occurred in that country. 

b 1 Kings xii. 26, 28: Esther, chaps, v.; vi. 

c See chap, on Prophecy, \ 4.53. 



OUTLINE OF EARLY HISTORICAL BOOKS. 475 



there were many mighty nations celebrated for learning and 
valor, for illustrious men and illustrious actions; yet their 
records are all lost in silence or in fable, while the history of 
the Jews, who " dwelt apart," and were "not reckoned among 
the nations," has been carefully preserved. Such concern 
has God for his church, and so dear are its interests to him, 
Deut. xxxii. 8, 9. 

Another peculiarity is no less marked. Political events 
of deep interest are passed over; the history of long reigns 
is compressed into a few sentences ; national concerns give 
place to matters of private life, history to biography, a mighty 
monarch to a poor widow (2 Kings iii. ; iv.) These omissions 
and digressions, however, are all explained by the designs of 
the Bible. It aims to reveal the grace and providence of 
God, to show the workings of human nature, and the blessed- 
ness of obedience, while it interweaves with the whole, 
lessons and truths preparatory to the work and reign of the 
Messiah. 

35. Within these limits, however, the completeness of Scrip- 
ture history is both characteristic and instructive. 
It explains at once the law and the prophets, the complete- 
Psalms and the Gospel, the future and the past. To 
man, to nations, to the church, every chapter is a lesson ; and 
the history, studied in the light of the law and prophets, and 
applied under the guidance of the Gospel, will teach and illus- 
trate, either by examples of excellence or by contrasts, both 
our duty and the blessedness of obedience. 

Sec' 2. — Brief Outline of these Historical Books. 



36. Keeping, then, to a chronological division of the books, 
the second portion of Scripture — Joshua to Solo- Booksfrora 
mon — is readily divisible into two parts ; the first j^^f 
extending from the entry into the land of promise Solomon, 
to the establishment of monarchy; and the second reaching 
to the death of Solomon. The first period contains the his- 



476 



OUTLINE OF EARLY HISTORICAL BOOKS. 



tory of the conquest and settlement of Canaan ; of the decay 
of the spirit of obedience after the death of Joshua; the 
subsequent punishment and restorations of the people ; and 
the second describes the revival of that spirit under Samuel 
and David. Joshua, Judges, Ruth, and 1 Sam. i.-x., include 
events extending over 365 years. 1 and 2 Sam., 1 Kings to 
xi., 1 Chron., 2 Chron. to ix., include the remaining events, 
which extend over 120 years' more; on the latter period all 
agree : on the former, there is much difference of opinion (see 
§356). 

Briefly epitomized — ■ 

Joshua may be divided into three parts:— 

i.-xii. Giving an account of the conquest of Canaan, with a history 
Epitome of °f the re-establishment of Circumcision. Camp at Gilgal. 
Joshua. Seven years war : thirty-one kings destroyed. 

xiii.-xxii. The distribution of Canaan by lot, each tribe obtaining 
a portion in agreement with the predictions of Jacob and Moses. 
Tabernacle at Shiloh. Two half tribes return, 
xxiii., xxiv. Joshua's final admonitions and death. 25 years. 
Judges contains a history of subsequent conquests imperfectly com- 
pleted, and ending often in intermarriages with the Ca- 
Judges. naanites, and subsequent idolatry, i.-iii. 4; xvii.-xxii. of 
seven Servitudes and thirteen Judges, of whom Ehud and Shamgar, 
Deborah and Barak, are deemed by Usher, contemporaries. 

Chaps, xvii.-xxi. belong to the earlier part of the history. 309 
years. 

Buth gives the history of events which occurred about the middle 
of Judges or even earlier, as Obed, the son of Buth, was 
grandfather of David. His descent from Judah is given, 
iv. 18. See Gen. xxxviii. 29. Matt. i. 3. 

1 Sam. i.-x. gives the history of the judicature of Eli, i.-v., and of 

Samuel with subsequent events to the designation of Saul, 
Samuel, etc. ni 

v.-x. 21 years. 

1 Sam. x. to 2 Sam. i. 27, and 1 Chron. x.-xii. give the reign of Saul, 
the history of his wars and unfaithfulness. 40 years. 

2 Sam. ii. 1, to 1 Kings ii. 11 : 1 Chron. xi. 1, to 1 Chron. xxix. 30, 
give the reign of David, his victories, his afflictions, and their cause: 
his repentance and restoration. 40 years. 



JOSHUA — AUTHORSHIP. 



477 



1 Kings ii. 12, to xi. 43 : 2 Chron. i. 1, to ix. 31 give the reign of 
Solomon, his glory, and the extension of his kingdom. 40 years. 
Psalms, Solomon's Song-, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes. 

Sec. 3. — The Books of Joshua, Judges, and Euth. 

the book of joshua. 

37. The book of Joshua is composed of materials supplied, 
in all probability, by Joshua himself, with two or 

n , . . ii i • Authorship. 

three additions made by a later writer. 

The first fact may be gathered from the general tenor of the book, 
which is the narrative of a contemporary and eye-witness 
of the events described (v. 1; vi. 25): from chap. xxiv. 26, nessandau- 
from the character of Joshua as an instructor and inspired thentlclt y- 
prophet (1 Kings xvi. 34 : see Josh. vi. 26, and compare Eccl. xlvi. i), 
and from uniform Jewish tradition. That the book must have been 
written before the days of David or Solomon appears from xv. 63, 
compared with 2 Sam. v. 7-9, and from xvi. 10, compared with 1 Kings 
ix. 16. Additions to the original documents may be seen in xix. 47 
(Judges xviii. 27-9 : xv. 13, 19, see Judges i. 11-16), and xxiv. 29-33. 
The facts recorded in this book are repeatedly cited, a and several pre- 
dictions are found in the book itself. b 

Joshua, whose victories are described, was an Ephraimite (b. 1536), 
one of the spies, a faithful servant and companion of Moses ^. 
during many years. He was permitted to ascend Sinai with EiS history 
him, just previous to the giving of the law. He seems also to 
have been intrusted with the special care of the tabernacle, Exod. 
xxxiii. 11. After the death of Moses he took the command of the Isra- 
elites, having been early designated to that office, by God himself. 
Originally he was called Oshea, a saviour, or one saved; but after- 
wards Moses called him Joshua, "he shall save," or "the salvation of 
Jehovah," referring no doubt to the work which God was to accomplish 
by him. In this office he is a type of our Lord. 

His character and history are highly instructive. The ^ ^ 
Spirit was in him, Numb, xxvii. 18. Having a certain ter. 

* 1 Chron. ii. 7; xii. 18: Psa. xliv., cxiv. 3, 5: Isa. xxviii. 21 : Hab. 
iii. 2. 

b See Josh. i. 9 ; iii. 13 (see iv. 18) : vi. 26 (see 1 Kings xvi. 34), etc. 



478 



JOSHUA — LESSONS. 



promise of success (chap, i.) he yet prudently used whatever means were 
likely to secure it. He sent spies and disciplined his forces. Not 
resting, however, in these, but looking still to God. Thus before 
attacking the Canaanites he solemnly renewed the dedication of him- 
self and the people (v.), and in seasons of emergency sought by prayer 
special blessings and help (x. 12-14). " Efforts and prayer," " zeal and 
dependence" were clearly his rule. His piety and devotion are beauti- 
fully displayed in his closing appeals, and the spirit of affectionate sub- 
mission with which the people received them gives us a favorable im- 
pression of his influence and their fidelity (xxiii. 8). The discipline of 
the wilderness had not been unblessed. 

38. Mark in Eahab the power and rewards of faith; she was her- 
self saved with her house, and she became — though of the 
Rahab! S ' race °^ Canaan — an ancestor of David, and of Christ. 
(Heb. xi. 31). 

Our victories are of God: Implicitly obey God's commands: Detec- 
tion and punishment follow sin: God is no respecter of 
Achan?' persons — are lessons taught in the history of Jericho and 
of Achan, vii. 

The repeated renewals of the covenant recorded in this book, are 
solemn and instructive, v. ; xxiii.; xxiv. The Israelites 
renewed* were the chosen people of God ; they were his too by personal 
consecration. Often throughout their history these cove- 
nants were renewed. 

The destruction of the Canaanites is a fearful admonition of the final 
Destruction * ssues °^ transgression. Compared with the Israelites, they 
of the were, probably, a disciplined, valiant people ; but they 
Canaanites. seem ^ nave made little effort to repel the invaders. Perhaps 
they trusted to the " swellings of Jordan," which at the time when 
Joshua entered Canaan (the vernal equinox), made the stream, as they 
supposed, impassable ; or, perhaps, as one of their number expressed it, 
"the terror of the God of the Hebrews" had fallen upon them. They 
were certainly fearfully wicked (Lev. xviii. 24-30 : Deut. ix. 4 ; xviii. 
10-12). Their idolatry had, as idolatry ever does, augmented licen- 
tiousness and cruelty. The Divine will they had once known, for they 
were descendants of Noah, and for centuries the light of an early 
revelation had lingered among them (Gen xiv.). They had been 
warned — by the deluge, by the history of the cities of the plain, the 
destruction of Pharaoh, the recent overthrow of their eastern neighbors, 
the Amorites, the passage of the Jordan, the capture of Jericho, the pre- 
servation of Eahab, and the conviction of their own conscience. Their 



JOSHUA — LESSONS. 



479 



removal from Palestine, moreover, seems to have been essential for the 
preservation of the Israelites from the contaminating influence of 
idolatry, and they had the alternative of flight. In fact, many sailed 
to the distant shores of the Mediterranean, and there founded flourish- 
ing colonies, thus preserving, to comparatively modern times, records 
of the God who fought against them. 

Some may object that the war in which they were exterminated was 
cruel, and that they might have been removed by famine or pestilence. 
But to the first objection it is a sufficient reply that, the cruelties thus 
practised were common to the age, and that in ex Germinating a very 
guilty people, God did not direct milder usages than those which gene- 
rally prevailed (Josh. viii.). The second objection is answered by the 
lact that no plan could have made clearer or more impressive the* 
power and righteousness of God, his infinite superiority to the idols of 
tiiose nations, and his righteous hatred of the crimes into which they 
had fallen. It may be added that by similar discipline the Israelites 
themselves were chastised, and the general system involved in these 
events is strictly analogous to the course of moral government still 
exercised in the world;, with this difference only, that now men act 
as rods of God's anger by tacit permission ; then, under his immediate 
authority. 

As the triumphs, through faith, of the Israelites may be considered 
typical of the final triumph of the church, and of every Christian, 
through Jesus, the Captain of our salvation, the Author and Finisher 
of our faith (Heb. ii. 10 ; xii. 2), so the destruction of the Canaanites 
takes its place with the deluge, and the final overthrow of Jerusalem, 
as a signal proof of God's displeasure against sin, and may be con- 
sidered as an emblem of the judgment of the great day, Psa. cix. : 
Luke xix. 

39. And, noAv, God's promise has been in part fulfilled : 
the Jews have entered Canaan; the tabernacle of „ „ . 

' How far is 

God has been set up in Shiloh ; the law lias been the promise 

x % _ to Abraham 

promulgated and accepted. In its morality, it is fulfilled, 
eminently holy ; in its civil institutes, adapted to preserve 
the people peculiar and separate, and to set forth the reality 
of the divine government; and in its ceremonies, it is a pro- 
phetic symbol of the Gospel — but only in part. The original 
- ' promise of a blessing to all nations, ratified to Abraham, and 
renewed to the other partriarchs, though it included the pos- 



480 



THE PENTATEUCH AND JOSHUA. 



session of Canaan, seems too comprehensive to end there. Thfe 
prediction of the coming dignity of the tribe of Judah ; the 
prophecy of Balaam ; the announcement by Moses of another 
greater Prophet ; and, especially, the predictions of the 31st 
of Deut. (see also Lev. xxvi. and Deut. xxviii.), foretelling the 
sins of the people, and the consequences of them in the dis- 
persion of their race, all seemed to direct the attention of the 
Israelite to an enlarged dispensation. They plainly forebade 
him to rest altogether in Canaan or his law. Everything im- 
plied a coming universal blessing, a kingdom, a revelation not 
nigh, a prophet from among the people, a country whose 
inhabitants should no more go out, even for ever. The reve- 
lation of these blessings was not always clear; but it was 
clear enough to excite inquiry and justify faith. The position 
Th . of the pious Israelite, therefore, was not altogether 
tionofthe unlike our own. From Canaan he looked back on 
elite like a fulfilled predictions, and forward to a glorious 
our own. f^ure. Much of his future is now past; and we 
also look back on predictions gloriously fulfilled ; others, 
again, and in some sense, even these, are unfulfilled. All 
nations are not, even yet blessed in Him. A third point of 
contemplation for pious Jews and devout Christians remains; 
and the certainty of the predictions, whose fulfilment is to 
intervene, is assured to us by the records of the past. 

40. No small light will be thrown upon Joshua and Judges 
_ - , if we studv them with the Pentateuch, to which. 

Joshua and J 

Judges to more than to Samuel, they belong. Between these 

the Penta- _ J y 

teuch what books there is the same connection as between the 

the book of 

Acts is to Gospels and the Acts. 

the Gospels. 

The Pentateuch gives the history of the doings of the great law-giver 
and of the laws on which the ancient economy was to be founded. 
Joshua gives an account of the establishment of the nation itself, 
according to the repeated promise of God. The book of Judges marks 
the corruption which so early crept into the ancient church. 

The Gospels give the life of the greater prophet and the laws on 
which his church was to be established. The book of Acts gives the 



JUDGES — AUTHORSHIP. 



481 



history of its actual establishment, according to the promise of it? 
founder. The history of the Judges has its counterpart in facts referred 
to in the Epistles. If the various books be read together and com- 
pared, the connection of the two dispensations, and the differences 
between them, will more plainly appear. Study the ritual of the law 
in the incarnation and death of Christ, and compare the struggles and 
victories of the Jews with those of the church. Contrasts will be 
heightened by the comparison. The genius and spirit of the Gospel 
will appear the more glorious ; nor less glorious will be the character 
and dignity of our Lord. He combined in his own person the offices 
of legislator, priest, and leader ; offices filled of old by Moses, and 
Aaron, and Joshua, each of whom was, in his appropriate place, a type 
of Him. 

THE BOOK OF JUDGES. 

41. The authorship of Judges is not certainly known, though 
Jewish tradition ascribes it to Samuel. From the 

i ii' • r- Authorship 

book itself, we gather that it was written after the andauthen- 
commencement of the monarchy, xix. 1 ; xxi. 25, 
and before the accession of David, i. 21 : 2 Sam. v. 6-8. The 
" house of God" refers, therefore, as in Joshua, to the taber- 
nacle, xx. 18 (Josh. ix. 23), and the " captivity" spoken of in 
xviii. 30, to some contemporary servitude, see Psa. lxxviii. 60, 
61, where the same phrase is employed ; many of the sacred 
writers allude to or quote this book, 1 Sam. xii. 9-11 : 2 Sam. 
xi. 21: Psa. lxxxiii. 11,- lxviii. ; lxxxix. : Isa. ix. 4; x. 26. 

The judges, whose administrations for about 300 years are here 
described, were not a regular succession of governors, but ^ ^ 
occasional deliverers raised up by God, to rescue Israel of the 
from oppression and to administer justice. Without assuming J ud S es - 
the state of royal authority, they acted for the time as vicegerents of 
Jehovah, the invisible king. Their power seems to have been not 
unlike that of the suffetes (tPtSSiZi) °f Carthage and Tyre, or of the 
archons of Athens. The government of the people may be described 
as a republican confederacy ; the elders and princes having authority 
in their respective tribes. 

The moral character of the Israelites, as described in this book, 
& 



482 



AUTHORSHIP — RUTH. 



Moral eon- seems to have undergone a sad change. The generation 
Israelites. & who were contemporaries with Joshua were both courageous 
and faithful, and free in a great measure from the weakness 
and obstinacy" which had dishonored their fathers (Judg. ii. 7). Their 
first ardor, however, had somewhat cooled, and more than once they 
fell into a state of indifference which Joshua found it needful to rebuke. 
Perhaps the whole territory of Palestine was more than they needed 
or could usefully occupy. As each tribe received its portion, they 
became so engrossed in cultivating it, or so much fonder of ease than 
, of war, that they grew unwilling to help the rest. All found it, more- 
over, more convenient to make slaves of their subjugated nations than 
to expel them. This policy was unwise. It was also sinful. The 
results were soon seen. Another generation arose. Living in the im- 
mediate neighborhood of idolaters, and with idolaters even in their 
country, the Israelites copied their example, intermarried with them, 
and became contaminated with their abominations, Judg. ii. 13. The 
Canaanites, moreover, left alone, gathered strength to make head 
against the chosen race ; and in the same degree the latter, yielding to 
licentiousness, ease, and idolatry, lost the energy and faith of their 
fathers. So sin multiplies in the world. So sin in this case, as ever, 
brought with it its punishment. Sinners are but filled "with their own 
ways;" and in their punishment God illustrates his righteousness and 
truth, Judg. ii. 14-18. 

The grand moral lesson of the whole narrative is given in the latter 
half of the second chapter. 

It is just, however, to add, that the whole period must not be regarded 
as an uninterrupted series of idolatries. Some of the disorders men- 
tioned affected only parts of the country, while the rest was in a better 
state. The sins which incurred punishment, and the deliverances 
which followed repentance, are related at length ; while long periods, 
during which the judges governed, and the people obeyed God, are 
described in a single verse. In addition to the many who, doubtless, 
remained faithful amidst all these corruptions, St. Paul reminds us of 
several illustrious examples of courageous fidelity, Heb. xi. 32. 



THE BOOK OP RUTH. 



42. The book of Kuth may be considered as a sequel to the 
Authorship °^ Judges, an( ^ an introduction to the ensuing 

et0 - history. It contains particulars of the family of 

Elimeleeh, and informs us how Ruth, a Moabitess, became 



EUTH — AUTHORSHIP. 



483 



the wife of Boaz, an ancestor of David, and thus of Christ. 
The authorship is not certainly known ; but it is generally 
ascribed to Samuel. There are several phrases, in the origi- 
nal, identical with expressions which occur elsewhere only in 
Samuel and Kings (Ruth i. 17; iv. 6, etc.). The booh traces 
the genealogy of David to a source not flattering to that 
sovereign ; and this fact is one evidence of the truthfulness 
of the narrative. Its genealogical account is quoted in 
Matt. i. 5, and Luke hi. 32. 

The events recorded took place in the time of the Judges, i. 1 ; 
but the history was certainly written some time later, iv. 7. 

Brief as this book is, it is remarkably rich, in examples of faith, 
patience, industry, and kindness, nor less so in intimations ^ 
of the special care which God takes of our concerns ; " still 
out of seeming ill educing good." Elimelech's misfortunes ; his son's 
sin in marrying a Moabitess ; the loss of her husband— all end in her 
own conversion, and in the honor of her adopted family. What 
changes ten years have produced ! They have turned Naomi into 
Mara. 3 She who went out full has come home again empty. Her 
fortitude and faith, however, sustain her ; and in her trouble she shows 
equal wisdom and tenderness. . . . When her daughters are told what 
they must expect if they accompany her to Canaan, Orpah weeps, but 
returns to her idols ; and Ruth cleaves to her, indicating therein depth 
of affection and religious decision, i. 16 ; ii. 12. Her reward she 
received " of the Lord God of Israel, under whose wings she came to 
trust." 

It had been foretold to the Jews that the Messiah should be of the 
tribe of Judah, and it was afterwards further revealed that he should 
be of the family of David. It was important therefore, that the his- 
tory of that family should be written before those promises were de- 
livered. 

In the adoption of Ruth, a heathen, a Moabitess, into the cb'irch of 
God and the commonwealth of Israel, we see a ray of hope rising upon 
the Gentile world • and still more in her being taken into the line of 
the Messiah, we seem to have a pre-intimation of the great mystery 
that the Gentiles should be sanctified by him, and joined with his peo- 
ple, and that there should be one flock and one Shepherd. 

The contents of this book are as follows :— 



Bishop Hall. 



484 



SAMUEL — AUTHOR. 



An account of Naomi, from her departure with her husband from 
Canaan into Moab, to her return into the land of Israel with her 
daughter-in-law Ruth, chap. i. The interview of Boaz with Rath, 
and their marriage, ii.-iv. 12. The birth of Obed, and genealogy of 
David, iv. 13-22. 



Sec. 4. — The Books of Samuel, Kings and Chronicles, 
the books of samuel. 



43. The relation given in Ruth is a kind of digression in 
the sacred story, with a particular view. The gene- 

1 and 2 Sam. % r . & 

ral thread of the narrative is now resumed. We 
are furnished in the books of Samuel with, the history of the 
two last Judges, Eli and Samuel (who were not, as the rest, 
men of war, but priests), and of the first kings, Saul and 
David. 

These two books were anciently reckoned as one, the pre- 
sent division being derived from the LXX and Vulgate. In 
those versions they are called the first and second books of 
Kings, as they form part of the history of the kings of Israel 
and Judah. 

The question of the authorship of the books is not free from 
difficulty ; but the decided preponderance of evi- 
dence is in favor of the ancient view, that Samuel 
wrote 1 Sam. i.-xxiv., and that the rest was written by Nathan 
and Gad, 1 Chron. xxix. 29. The narrative was probably 
written towards the close of Samuel's life, v. 5 ; vi. 18. The 
place of the books in the canon ; the predictions they record f 
the quotations from them in later books, and in the New Tes- 
tament,* supply ample evidence of their authority. 

Gad was the contemporary of David, and is called his seer. He was 



a See 1 Sam. ii. 30: 2 Sam. xii. 10-12, etc. 

b 1 Kings xi. 26 : 2 Kings ii. 4-11 : 1 Chron. xvii. 24, 25 : see Acts 
Kiii. 22 • Matt. xii. 3. 



PROPHECY — REVIVAL AND EXTENSION. 



485 



also probably one of bis companions in the wilderness, Gad. 

1 Sam. xxii. 5. Nathan was a prominent counsellor of Nathan. 
David's, and was repeatedly commissioned to give bim 

Divine messages, 2 Sam. vii. 2; xii. 1: Psa. li. In Zech. xii. 12, bis 
name occurs as tbe representative of tbe great family of tbe prophets. 
These books contain also several odes by different writers. The song of 
Hannah is remarkable from its similarity to that of Mary (1 Sam. ii. 10: 
Luke i. 46-55). It gives a striking prophecy of Christ, who is here 
called for the first time Messiah, (the Anointed), and King. 

Samuel, whom we thus conclude to have been the author of a large 
portion of the first book, was the desired answer (so his 
name implies) of his mother's prayers, and was dedicated 
to God from his infancy. Intrusted with supreme power in the state, 
he ruled without ambition, executed his office with irreproachable 
integrity, and resigned it without reluctance. He was both feared and 
respected by Saul, and was allowed by that monarch to judge Israel all 
the days of his life, 1 Sam. vii. 15. The revelations he received, and 
the spirit that distinguished him, were such that all Israel, from Dan 
to Beersheba knew that Samuel was established to be a prophet of the 
Lord. 

Attention to the chronological arrangement of Samuel and later his- 
torical books is peculiarly important. 

44. To understand the covenant which God gave to David, securing 
the perpetual dominion oi his seed, read and compare 

2 Sam. vii. ; xxiii. 5 : 1 Chron. xvii. . Psa. lxxxix. ; cxxxii. covenant 
Its partial fulfilment in Solomon may be gathered from Wlth David - 

1 Chron. xxviii. 1-7 : 1 Kings viii. 15-26 ; xi. 9-13. 

As the temporal grandeur of David's house declined, God sent pro- 
phets to announce the stability of this covenant, and to assure Judah 
of the unprecedented glory of his great descendant, Amos ix. 11-15 : 
Isa. ix. 6, 7 ; xi. : Jer. xxiii. 5, 6 ; xxxiii. 14-26. These promises refer 
to the universal and permanent reign of Messiah, who is now exalted, 
and waiting till his enemies be made his footstool, Luke L 31-33, 69 : 
Acts ii. 25-36 ; xiii. 32-37. 

That David himself understood this covenant to refer to our Lord, 
and to spiritual blessing to be received through Him, may be gathered 
from Isa. lv. 3 : Heb. i. 5 : and Acts ii. 30. 

45. In Samuel, we have a revival of the prophetic spirit. From the 
days of Joshua to Eli there seems to have been "no open vision" 
(1 Sam. iii. 1. Jer. xv. 1: Acts xiii. 20; iii. 24). Under the judges, 
the original covenant remained as at first. The Jewish polity and 

41* 



486 PKOPHECY — REVIVAL AND EXTENSION. 



Suspension priesthood were unchanged. The law as given by Moses, 
pliecy" was m force, and supplied, in the fulfilment of its pre- 
dictions, ample evidence of its authority. In the days of 
Samuel, however, marked changes were passing over the state. Ca- 
lamities were becoming more confounding. Success more extraordinary 
and transient. The priesthood was to be transferred; kingly govern- 
ment to be established. By and by, the kingdom itself will be broken 
and divided. Idolatry will be publicly sanctioned, and will need 
public authoritative rebukes. Then will follow a long series of afflic- 
tions, ending in removal and captivity. 

Changes so serious needed special interposition. Hence the necessity 

' . . of a revival and enlargement of prophetic revelation. As 
Iv6ViVcil cinci 

enlarge- Moses required peculiar evidence of a Divine appointment 
mentofit, £ QT ^ m i ss i on) so (j oes Samuel. He appears, therefore, as 
prophet, and commences an age of prophecy, which continues without 
any material chasm to the days of Malachi. 

A supernatural call and a prophetic vision were granted to him at 
I S uel ^ G commenceinen k °f ministry, even in his youth. He 
was commissioned to repeat to Eli a prediction which a 
man of God had already announced, and the fulfilment of this predic- 
tion, with other circumstances, gave early evidence of his authority. 
The people soon sought a king, as their request implied a distrust of 
the protection and love which had made them a theocracy, it was 
opposed by the prophet in God's name. At length, God complied, and 
it became the business of the prophet to watch over the change, to 
define the laws of the kingdom, to show whom God had chosen, and 
ultimately to transfer the kingdom to the person and tribe of David. 
So far, the predictions and business of the prophet were chiefly civil. 

In David's person and reign, however, prophecy assumes a new 
character. His kingdom was first confirmed to him (2 Sam. 
vii. 12-17: Psa. lxxxix.). The character and kingdom of 
Solomon are then foretold, and, blended with these, we find revelations 
of a higher and holier kind. The promise to Abraham was, as we have 
seen, both temporal and evangelical ; so also is now the promise to 
David. To Abraham, Messiah had been announced, more or less 
clearly, as the promised seed; to Moses, as the coming prophet; to all 
of that age, as the priest; to David, he appears, in addition, as king. 
He therefore speaks of Messiah's authority, of the hostility of the 
kings of the earth, of his sceptre of righteousness, of his unchangeable 
priesthood, of his exalted nature, of his death, and his victory over 
death, and of his dominion, including both Israel and the Gentiles 
(Psa. ii. ; xvi. ; xlv. ; ex., etc.). In little more than a hundred years, 



KINGS. 



487 



the oppressed tribes rule from sea to sea, and the dimness of uo open 
vision yields to what seems the dawn of a cloudless day. 

It is very worthy of notice, too, that while David receives the pro- 
mise of the duration of his kingdom from Samuel and Nathan, it is 
David himself who is instructed to connect this kingdom with the 
kingdom of his greater Son. The prophets reveal and magnify the 
type, he passes on the prediction, calls Christ Lord, and pays every- 
where willing homage to his person and law (Psa. ex.). 

In proportion as the kingdom and character of Christ are thus 
brought into view, provision is made for deepening the im- 
pression of these Christian prophecies upon the hearts of 
the people, and making them conducive to faith and piety. They are 
given in Psalms, and thus pass into the devotions of the church. These 
Psalms form the most important additions that had yet been made to 
the Mosaic revelation, and are clearly adapted to inspire ancient wor- 
shippers with Christian hopes. Very beautiful, too, is the growing 
distinctness of these predictions. To Abraham a seed was revealed. 
When his descendants had become tribes, to Judah the promise was 
confined ; and now, when the kingdom appears, it is given to David. 
Nor can these predictions be ascribed to flattery or selfishness. It is 
not David who, in the first instance, receives them. Nor is it to him- 
self, in all their fulness, that he appropriates them. He applies them to 
another, and the messenger who gives them is Nathan ; a prophet who 
rebuked his son, and severely threatened Solomon with the conse- 
quences of his apostasy. The faithfulness of these servants of God 
had other and more immediate ends, but it proves incidentally the 
truth of their announcements. 



THE TWO BOOKS OF KINGS. 



46. The two books of Kings (which in ancient copies of the 
Hebrew Bible form but one book) contain the history of Israel 
and Judah, from the end of David's reign to the Babylonish 
captivity. The present division of the books is taken from 
the LXX and Vulgate. 

Nothing certain is known of the authorship ; the most pro- 
bable opinion is, that as memoirs of their own times 
were written by several of the prophets, for the use Authorshl P* 
of the kingdom, the present books were compiled from these 
records by Jeremiah or Ezra ; Jewish tradition is in favor of 



488 



KINGS. 



the first, and Iiavernick has recently advocated the same view. 
The events described reach to the liberation of Jehoiachim 
from prison in Babylon (twenty-six or twenty-eight years only 
after the destruction of Jerusalem). A late authorship is 
proved by the frequent use of Chaldaisms (DeWette, §115,6); 
and there is a remarkable affinity of style between Kings and 
Jeremiah (Havern.) . . . The view that the books were drawn 
up from various documents, by one hand, is confirmed by the 
bookr themselves. The frequent vividness of the narrative 
bespeaks the work of an eye-witness ; and appeals are con- 
stantly made to official documents, under the title of Chronicles 
of the Kings of Judah and Israel — a title given elsewhere to 
national annals, Est. ii. 23 ; vi. 1. That the whole was revised 
by one hand appears from the similarity of style and idiom in 
various unimportant expressions. 

Both books contain several prophecies, and other intrinsic 
Authen marks of inspiration ; and both are cited as au- 
ticity. thentic and canonical by our Lord and his apostle3 
(see Luke iv. 25, 27: Jas. v. 17). 

The comparative dates of Chronicles and Kings explain various dif- 
ferences of phraseology. In Chronicles we have Aramaean forms, 1 later 
words and expressions, more recent names, b and synonymous expres- 
sions used for others liable to misconception. 

Differences in the order of events are explained by the fact that none 
of the writers profess to give the exact order of time. d Additions, omis- 
sions and abbreviations, are in the same way explained, by a reference 
to the different aim of each narrative. 

Other differences, amounting to discrepancies, are occasionally found, 
and refer chiefly to numbers and names. It is well known that the text 
of Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles, is in a worse condition than that of 
any other of the inspired writings; nor must we ascribe to the author 
what is really due to the errors of copyists." 5 These errors, it may be 

•2 Chron. x. 18. b l Chron. xiv. 2; xix. 12; xxi. 2: 2 Chron. xvi. 4. 

c l Chron. xix. 4: 2 Chron. xxii. 12. d See Tables; 1 Chron. xiv.: 
2 Chron. i. 14-17; ix. 25, are evidently out of chronological order. 

eSee 2 Chron. viii. 18: (1 Kings ix. 28): 1 Chron. xi. 11: (2 Sam. 
xxiii. 8) ; xxi. 5 : (2 Sam. xxiv. 9) : 1 Chron. xviii. 4: (2 Sam. viii. 4); 
xix. 18 : (2 Sam. x. 18). 



CHRONICLES. 



added, do not affect any article of faith or rule of life, and till we can 
rectify them they ought to be candidly acknowledged. 

Both books record several inspired predictions, and are referred to or 
quoted in the New Testament. 1 It is remarkable that the inspired accla- 
mation of David to the praise of God is substantially adopted by our 
Lord, and is ascribed by John to the blessed spirits who celebrate the 
praises of God in heaven, 1 Chron. xxix. 10, 11 : Matt. vi. 13 : Rev. v. 
12, 13. 

THE TWO BOOKS OF CHRONICLES. 

47. These books were reckoned by the Jews as one, and 
called the words of Days, i. e. diaries or journals, probably in 
allusion to the ancient annals, out of which they appear to 
have been composed. In the LXX they are distinguished as 
the books of "things omitted" (vrapateiiropfrvp), and were re- 
garded as a kind of supplement to the preceding books of 
Scripture, supplying such information as was rendered neces- 
sary by the alterations consequent upon the captivity. The 
present title was first given to them by Jerome. 

48. The authorship of Chronicles is generally ascribed to 
Ezra. They certainly record the restoration by 

Cyrus, 2 Chron. xxxvi. 21, 22, and mention the Authorship - 
writings of Jeremiah, xxxv. 25. The style of Ezra, moreover, 
bears a marked resemblance to the style of Chronicles, and its 
history seems a continuation of Kings, Ez. i. 1-3, and 2 Chron. 
xxxvi. 23. If this view is correct, 1 Chron. iii. 19-24, giving 
an account of the genealogy of Zerubbabel to the time of 
Alexander, must have been added by a later writer. 

49. The importance of the fact that these histories were compiled 
from earlier documents, themselves the work of prophets, is well illus- 
trated in these books. These documents seem to be quoted literally, 
even when the fact recorded applies rather to the time of the writer 
than of the compiler ; see 2 Chron. v. 9 ; viii. 8 : the purpose of the com- 
piler being not to modify these documents, but to connect with them 
his own narrative. Many passages, also, are identical, or nearly iden- 



»2 Chron. ii. 5, 6: in Acts yii. 48, 49: 2 Chron. xix. 7: in 1 Pet. i. 17. 



490 SAMUEL, KINGS, AND CHRONICLES COMPARED. 



tical, with passages in Kings, both being taken probably from the same 
annals. The documents referred to or quoted are not less than a dozen, 
though three or four of these are probably the same document. 

The three double books of Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles, have much 

in common, though they have also characteristic differences, 
of ™amuel, n They treat for the most part of the same period, and should 
Chronicles ^ e rea< ^ an< ^ com P are d together. A comprehensive view may 

thus be gathered of Jewish history, and much light will be 
thrown on brief and obscure expressions. Their differences of aim, how- 
ever, are as marked as is their substantial identity. Samuel gives the 
history of the formation of the kingdom, and a biography, even more 
than a history oi the first kings. The Books of Kings, on the other 
hand, give a history of the theocracy under regal government, and are 
rich in brief allusions to the character, sins, and consequent punish- 
ment of the rulers and of the people. The Books of Chronicles, again, 
have special reference to the forms and ministry of religious worship, 
to the genealogies, and consequent possessions of the various families 
and tribes, and to other topics connected with the return. Hence gene- 
alogical tables ; hence, also, the prominence given to the pious care, in 
establishing public worship, of David, Solomon, Hezekiah, and Josiah. 
The genealogical tables of these books, though to us comparatively 

uninteresting, were highly important among the Jews, who 
caTtaMes!" were made by prophetic promises extremely observant in 

these particulars. These tables give the sacred line through 
which the promise was transmitted for nearly 3,500 years ; a fact itself 
unexampled in the history of the human race. 

50. The most remarkable feature in the historical hooks of 
Theocratic Scripture, an( i especially of Kings and Chronicles, 
character i s their religious, theocratic character. Secular his- 
histories. tory gives the public changes which nations have 
undergone, with their causes and results. Church history- 
traces the progress of sentiment, and of various influences in 
relation to the church. But here, king, church, state, are all 
represented as under God. The character of each king is de- 
cided by his fidelity to the religious obligations of his office. 
Of each it is said, He walked in the ways of David his father, 
and so prospered ; or of Jeroboam, who made Israel to sin, and 
*>o failed. These books are valuable as the history of God and 



DAVID AND SOLOMON. 



491 



his law in the nation — and that nation a monarchy ; as the 
books of Joshua and Judges are the history of God and his 
law in an aristocracy or democracy ; or as the earlier books 
are the history of God and his law in the family. In the 
Prophets, and in the Acts of the Apostles, we have glimpses 
of what is to be the history of God and his. law in the world, 
Mark, therefore, the prominence given to the erection of the 
temple ; the numerous references to the ancient law, especially 
when the two kingdoms were drawing to their end, as if to 
account for their decay and approaching fall ; the frequent in- 
terposition of prophets, now rebuking the people, and now 
braving the sovereign ; the deposition and succession of kings ; 
and the connection everywhere traced between what seem to 
be mere political incidents and the fidelity or idolatry of the 
age. a .... Were nations wise, these records would prove 
their best instructors; they are adapted to teach alike the 
world <md the church. 

51. The reigns of David and Solomon constitute the golden 
period of the Jewish state. From the first, David 
showed the utmost anxiety that every step he took David and 
towards the possession of the kingdom should be 1& iei ° n ' 
directed by God, 2 Sam. ii. 1 : 1 Sam. xxiii. 2, 4. He acted 
ever as "his servant;" and when established in his kingdom', 
it was 'his first concern to promote the Divine honor and the 
religious welfare of his people (2 Sam. vi. 1-5; vii. 1, 2). 
* During a war of seven years he never lifted his sword against 
a subject, and at the end of it he punished no rebel and remem- 
bered no offence but the murder of his rival (2 Sam. iv. 10-12). 
As a king, therefore, he sought the prosperity of the state, and 
as the visible representative of Jehovah, he took his proper 
place, aspiring to no other, but conforming strictly to the 
spirit of the theocracy. It was to this character of his admin- 
istration, probably, rather than to his private virtues, that 

»See 2 Kings v.-viii. ; x. 31; xvii. 13, 15, 37; xviii. 4-6. Elijah's 
history ; 1 Kings xv. 3 -5 : 2 Kin^s xi. 17. 



492 



DAVID AND SOLOMON. 



God referred, in describing him " as a man after his own 
heart" (1 Sam. xiii. 14: see also Acts xiii. 22), who was to 
"execute all his will." It is, indeed, impossible to vindicate 
all his acts, or to regard him as a perfect character. And yet 
when we look at the piety of his youth, the depth of his con- 
trition, the strength of his faith, the fervor of his devotion, 
the loftiness and variety of his genius, the largeness and 
warmth of his heart, his eminent valor in an age of warriors, 
his justice and wisdom as a ruler, and, above all, his adherence 
to the worship and will of God, we may well regard him as a 
model of kingly authority and spiritual obedience. 

Solomon continued the policy and shared the blessing of his 
„, , father. His dominions extended from the Mediter- 

Charaeter 

aiid h£ m ° n ranean t° the Euphrates, and from the Eed Sea and 
reign. Arabia to the utmost Lebanon (1 Kings iv. 21, etc.) 
The tributary states, of which it was largely composed, were 
held in complete subjection, and being still governed by their 
own princes, Solomon was "king of kings." The Canaanites 
who remained in Palestine became peaceable subjects or useful 
servants. His treasures, also, were immense, composed chiefly 
of the spoils won by his father from many nations, and trea- 
sured up by him partly for the purpose of building a temple 
to the Lord, but partly, also, for the purpose of sustaining the 
power and magnificence of the kingdom. The wisdom of 
Solomon was even more illustrious than his wealth. It is 
celebrated both in Scripture and in Eastern story. Three 
thousand proverbs (of which many remain) long gave proof 
of his virtues and sagacity. A thousand and five songs, of 
which we have Canticles and the 127th Psalm, placed him 
among the first Hebrew poets ; while his perfect knowledge 
of natural history was shown by writings which were long 
admired, though they have since perished. 

His very greatness, however, betrayed him. His treasures, 
wives, and chariots, were all contrary to the spirit and precepts 
of the law (Deut. xvii. 16, 17). His exactions alienated the 
affections of his people, and, above all, he was led astray by 



DAVID AND SOLOMON — THE PSALMS. 



493 



his wives, and built temples to Chemosh, or Peor, the obscene 
idol of Moab ; to Moloch, the god of Amnion ; and to Ashta- 
roth, the goddess of the Sidonians. His later days, therefore, 
were disturbed by " adversaries." Jeroboam did " mischief" 
in Edom ; Damascus declared its independence under Rezin ; 
and Ahijah was instructed to announce to Solomon himself 
that, as he had broken the covenant by which he held his 
crown, the kingdom should be rent from him and part of it 
given to his servant. There is reason to hope that these just 
punishments opened his eyes to the enormity of his sins, and 
that his last days were penitent. His reign, on the whole, was 
most prosperous. " Judah and Israel were many, as the sand 
which is by the sea in multitude, eating and drinking and 
making merry." From Dan even to Beersheba, they dwelt 
safely every man"" under his vine and under his fig-tree." 

The great event of Solomon's life was the erection of the temple. As 
this building fulfilled a prophecy (2 Sam. vii. 13), and was 
a symbol of God's resting with the people (2 Sam. vii. 6, 10), Thetemple * 
so it was itself both a prophecy and a type. A type of the Jewish peo- 
ple and of the church, and a prophecy of God's continued presence 
(Jer. vii.) Its history, therefore, is an index to the history of the Jews 
themselves. When it fell, they were scattered ; as it rose from its ruins, 
they gathered around it again ; and history dates the captivity, with 
equal accuracy, from the destruction of the temple, or from the first 
capture of Jerusalem (see \ 450), 1 Kings ix. 7, 8 : 2 Chron. vii. 20 : 
all Jer. vii. : Isa. xliv. 28. 



Seo. 5. — The Poetical Books — Psalms, Song of Solomon, 
Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes. 

the psalms. 

52. The book of Psalms is a collection of sacred hymns 
(vixvoi), composed at different times, and especially Title 
by David, 2 Sam. xxiii. 1. The Hebrew title means the book, 
"praises;" the English, which is taken from the LXX, means 
odes adapted to music {^/cXKu, to strike a chord); an appro- 
42 



494 



THE PSALMS. 



priate name, as most of the pieces were intended not only to 
express religious feeling, but to be sung devotionally in pub- 
lic service. 

53. The Psalms were collected and arranged by Ezra and 

his companions (B. 0. 450), and in the book itself 
arrange- there is evidence of its being formed from several 

smaller collections. In the Hebrew and LXX the 
Psalms are divided into five books, each of the first three con- 
taining the compositions of some particular author. 

i. 1-41. Consist chiefly of David's Psalms, collected perhaps by 
Hezekiah : see Prov. xxv. 1, and 2 Chron. xxix. 30. 
ii. 42-72. Psalms by the sons of Korah, xlii.-xlvii, and by David, 
li.-lxv. ; lxxii. 

Hi. 73-89. Psalms by Asaph, lxxiii.-lxxxiii., and Korah, lxxxiv.- 
lxxxix., mostly. 

iv. 90-106. ) Liturgic, including the Hallelujah Psalms and the songs 
V. 107-150. J of degrees ; chiefly collected for the service of the 
second temple. 

54. Of the authors mentioned in the titles, David was the 

largest composer, though not all to which his name 
is prefixed in the Hebrew (73), nor the additional 
ones in the LXX (12), were written by him. Among the 
former are Psa. exxxix. and exxii. (compare LXX) ; but their 
Chaldaisms and style point to a later date. On the other- 
hand, Psa. xcix. and civ., ascribed to him in the LXX, are 
probably his. Psa. ii. and xcv., again, which are not men- 
tioned as his in either text, are ascribed to him in the New 
Testament, Acts iv. 25, 26 : Heb. iv. 7. The name of Asaph, 
David's chief musician, or of his descendants, is connected 
with twelve, 1., lxxiii.-lxxxiii. The sons of Korah, another 
family of choristers, are named as the authors of eleven more ; 
to this family, Heman, the Ezrahite, and nephew of Samuel, 
belonged (Psa. lxxxviii. : compare 1 Chron. vi. 22, 33-38) : and 
Ethan is named as the author of lxxxix., though erroneously, 
if he were a contemporary of David's : see ver. 38-44. /Solo- 
mon's name is connected with lxxii. and exxvii. ; but probably 



THE PSALMS. 



495 



he is rather the subject than the author of the former. Moses 
is reputed to be the author of Psa. xc., and the following ten 
are ascribed to him by Jewish critics, but without good ground : 
See xcvii. 8 and xcix. 6. The anonymous Psalms have been 
ascribed to various authors. The LXX mentions Jeremiah as 
the author of cxxxvii., and Haggai and Zechariah as the au- 
thors of cxlvi., cxlvii. 

55. The peculiar value of the Psalms is twofold : 

1. They are models of acceptable devotion. Other parts of revela- 
tion represent God as speaking to man. Here man is rep- Pecul ; ar 
resented as speaking to God. By this book, therefore, we value.' 
test the utterances and feelings of our hearts. Here we have ^ons^of de- 
a rule by which we may know whether they are healthy vout feeling, 
and true ; whether the fire that rises from within is of God's kindling 
or of our own. 

2. They contain predictions of the history of our Lord, and describe 

with wonderful literalness his sufferings and slory : for his 

„ , _ . .. i t* i ' i -r, •• Prophetic, 

sufferings see rsa. xvi.; xxn.; xl. ; tor his glory, rsa. u. ; 

xlv.; Ixxii:; ex. Psa.cxxxii.il foretells his connection with David. 

Psa. cxviii. 22, his rejection by the Jews. Psa. lxviii. 18, his ascension 

and the gift of the Spirit: and Psa. cxvii., the call of the Gentiles: see 

Rom. xv. 11. 

The Christian church, therefore, takes the Psalms as her own lan- 
guage, or as the language of her Lord. When the writer Sj>eaks of his 
enemies, we understand him as speaking of the enemies of Christ and 
his church. Generally, however, the feelings of the writer are iden- 
tical with the ordinary feelings of Christians ; as, when he describes 
the confidence and love which have been common to true believers in 
all ages: see Arnold's Sermons on Interpretation, p. 143; see, also, the 
Paragraph Bible, Introduction to the Psalms, and a Note appended to 
them. 

In a purely literary point of view, the Psalms have been 
called, not inaptly, the national ballads of the He- Hebrew 
brew race. The contrast which, so regarded, they ballads, 
present to other "national ballads," is sufficiently striking. 

All classes of writers have delighted to praise these compositions. 
Athanasius, and after him, Luther, called them an epitome 
of the Bible ; Basil, and after him, Bishop Hall, " acompend ^cfes. 
of theology." "Not in their Divine arguments alone," says 



496 



PSALMS — ACCORDING TO THEIR CONTENTS. 



Milton, " but in the very critical art of composition, they may be easily 
made to appear over all the kinds of lyric poesy incomparable." " In 
lyric flow and fire," says a more modern authority, " in crushing force 
and majesty . . . the poetry of the ancient Scriptures is the most superb 
that ever burnt within the breast of man" — Sir D. K. Sandford. To 
the Christian, however, their highest praise is that they embody the 
holiest feelings, have supplied utterances to the emotions of the best 
men of all ages, and were sung by Him who, though " he spake as never 
man spake," chose to breathe out his soul, both in praise and in his last 
agony, in the words of a psalm. 

This book is quoted in the New Testament, or clearly referred to, 
upwards of seventy times. The psalms thus quoted or referred to are 
marked in Table (B), thus : * 

56. Various classifications of the Psalms have been proposed. 
Arrange- Tholuck divides them, according to their matter, into 
Psahwfac- son S s °f P ra ise> °f thanksgiving, of complaint, and 
cording to of instruction. Others arrange them under hymns 

their sub- . J 

jects. m honor of God; hymns of Zion and the temple; 
hymns of the Messiah or King; plaintive and supplicatory- 
hymns, and religious odes, as Psa. xxiii., xci., cxix. No very ac- 
curate classification can be made, for the contents are often very 
various. The following (A), however, is practically important.* 

1. Didactic Psalms; on the character of good and bad men, their 
happiness and misery, i., v., vii., ix.-xii., xiv., xv., xvii., xxiv., xxv., 

xxxii. , xxxiv., xxxvi., xxxvii., L, lii., liii., lviii., lxxiii., lxxv., lxxxiv., 
xci., xcii., xciv., cxii., cxix., cxxi., cxxv., cxxvii., cxxviii., cxxxiii.; on 
the excellency of the Divine law, xix., cxix. ; on the vanity of human 
life, xxxix., xlix., xc. ; on the duty of rulers, lxxxii., ci. ; on humility, 
cxxxi. 

2. Psalms of Praise and Adoration ; acknowledgments of God's good- 
ness and mercy, and particularly of his care of good men, xxiii., xxxiv., 
xxxvi., xci., c, ciii., cvii., cxvii., cxxi., cxlv., cxlvi. ; acknowledgments 
of his power, glory, and attributes generally, viii., xix., xxiv., xxix., 

xxxiii. , xlvii., 1., lxv., lxvi., lxxvi., lxxvii., xciii., xcv.-xcvii., xcix., civ., 
cxi., cxiii.-cxv., cxxxiv., cxxxix., cxlvii., cxlviii., cl. 

3. Psalms of Thanksgiving ; for mercies to individuals, ix. xviii., xxii., 
xxx., xxxiv., xl., lxxv., ciii., cviii., cxvi., cxviii., cxxxviii., cxliv. ; for 

a Bickersteth's "Christian Truth." 



PSALMS — THEIR DATE AND ORIGIN. 



497 - 



mercies to the Israelites generally, xlvi., xlviii., lxv., lxvi., lxviii., lxxvi., 
lxxxi., lxxxv., xcviii., cv., cxxiv., cxxvi., cxxix., cxxxv., cxxxvi., cxlix. 

4. Devotional Psalms; expressive of penitence, vi., xxv., xxxii., 
xxxviii., li., cii., cxxx., cxliii. ; expressive of trust under afflictions, iii., 
xvi., xxvii., xxxi., liv., lvi., lvii., lxi., lxii., lxxi., lxxxvi. ; expressive of 
extreme dejection, though not without hope, xiii., xxii., lxix., lxxvii., 
lxxxviii., cxliii. Prayers in time of severe distress, iv., v., xi., xxviii., 
xli., lv., lix., lxiv., lxx., cix., cxx., cxl., cxli., cxliii. Prayers when de- 
prived of public worship, xlii., xliii., lxiii., lxxxiv. Prayers asking 
"help in consideration of the uprightness of his cause, vii., xvii., xxvi., 
xxxv. Prayers in time of affliction and persecution, xliv., lx., lxxiv., 
lxxix., lxxx., lxxxiii., lxxxix., xciv., cii., cxxix., cxxxvii. Prayers of 
intercession, xx., lxvii., cxxii., cxxxii., cxliv. 

5. Psalms eminently proj>hetical, ii., xvi., xxii., xl., xlv., lxviii., lxix., 
lxxii., xcvii., ex., cxviii., mostly Messianic. 

6. Historical Psalms, lxxviii., cv., cvi. 

The folio wins; Table (B), showing the probable Arrange- 

° i i ■ merit aecor- 

occasion when each psalm was composed, is founded ding to the 
on " Townsend's Harmony of the Old Testament." and order. 



Psalms. 



After what Scrip- 
ture. 



Probable occasion on which each Psalm was 
composed. 



Book I., in tiif. Jewish Division. 
I... 



5 



12 (c) 

13, 14, 15 
16* 



Nchem. xiii. 



1 Ohron. xvii. 27. 



2 Sam. xv. 29 

2 Sam. xvii. 29 

2 Sam. xvii. 29 

1 Chron. xxviii. 21 

2 Sam. xvi. 14 

1 Chron. xxviii. '21 
1 Sam. xvii. 4, or 

1 Chron. xvi. 43... 

Dan. vii. 28 

1 Sam. xix. 3 



Written by David or Ezra, and placed as a pre- 
face to the Psalms 



1 Chron. xxviii. 1 

Dan. vii. 28 

1 Chron. xvii. 27, 
orl Sam. xxvii... 



On the delivery of the promise by Nathan to 

David— a pro'phecy of Christ's kingdom , 

On David's flight from Absalom 

During the flight from Absalom , 

During the flight from Absalom 

Inserted towards the end of David's life , 

On the reproaches of Shimei 

Inserted towards the end of David's life 

On the victory over Goliath 

During the Babylonish captivity 

When David was advised to flee to the moun- 
tains 

Inserted towards the end of David's life 

During the Babylonish captivity 

On the dehverj' of the promise by Nathan to 
David 



B. C. 



444 

1044 

11023 

1015 
1023 
1015 
1063 



1062 
1015 
539 

1044* 



Note.— The six psalms marked (u), are regarded by Calmet as of unknown date 
and authorship. The second passage of Scripture mentioned after five psalms, is 
regarded by him as the proper place of the psalm. Psalms marked (c) and (r), he 
thinks, were written respectively in the captivity, and on the return from it la 
the other psalms he agrees substantially with Townsend. 

a Applied to our Lord by Peter, Aots ii. 25-31; and by Paul, Acts xiii. 35-36. 
42* 



498 



PSALMS — THEIR DATE AND ORIGIN. 



Psalms. 



19 («). 
20. 21. 
22*...., 



23 (r), 24* 

25, 26, 27 

28. 29 

30 



31* 

32, 33 

34 

35 

36, 37 

38, 39,) 
40* 41,/ 
42 (c) 



Book II. 
43 (c)... 

44* 

45* 

46 

47 

48 

49, 50... 

51 

52 , 

53 

54 , 

55 

56 

57 

58 

59 

60(c)... 
61 (r)... 
62 

63 (r)... 

64 (c)... 

65 

66 

67 

68* 

6'J (c)... 
70, 71... 
72 



Book III. 

73 (c) 

74 

75 (c), 76 
77* 



79., 



After what Scrip- 
ture. 



1 Sam. xxii. 19. 

2 Sam. xxii. 51 , 

1 Chron. xxviii. 21 

2 Sam x 19 , 

1 Chron. xvii. 27.., 

1 Chron. xxviii. 21 
or 1 Chron. xvi.43 

Dan. vii. 28 

1 Chron. xxviii. 21 
1 Chron. xxi. 30... 



1 Sam. xxiii. 12... 

2 Sam. xii. 15 

1 Sam. xxi. 15 

1 Sam. xxii. 19 .... 
Dau. vii. 28 



Probable occasion on which each Psalm was 
composed. 



1 Chron. xxviii. 21 

2 Sam. xvii. 29 



2 Sam. xvii. 29 

2 Kings xix. 7 

1 Chron. xvii. 27... 

2 Chron. xx.26 

2 Chron. vii. 10 

Ezra vi. 22 

Dan. vii. 28 

2 Sam. xii. 15 

1 Sam. xxii. 19 

Dan. vii. 28 

1 Sam. xxiii. 23.... 

2 Sam. xvii. 29 

1 Sam. xxi. 15 

1 Sam. xxiv. 22 

1 Sam. xxiv. 22 

1 Sam. xix. 17 

1 Kings xi. 20 

1 Chron. xxviii. 21 

2 Sam. xvii. 29 

1 Sam. xxiv. 22 

1 Sam. xxii. 19 

1 Chron. xxviii. 21 

Ezra iii. 13 

Dan. vii. 28 

2 Sam. vi. 11 

1 Chron. xxviii. 21 

2 Sam. xvii. 29 

1 Chron. xxix. 19.. 



2 Kings xix. 19.... 

Jer. xxxix. 10 

2 Kings xix. 35.... 

Dan. vii. 28 

1 Chron. xxviii. 21. 

or2Chron.xix.56 5 
Jer. xxxix. 10 



On the murder of the priests by Doeg 

On the conclusion of David's wars 

Inserted towards the end of David's life 

On the war with the Ammonites and Syrians..., 
On the delivery of the promise by Nathan; or 

in severe persecution , 

Inserted towards the end of David's life , 



During the Babylonish captivity 

Inserted towards the end of David's life 

On the dedication of the threshing-floor of 

Araunah 

On David's persecution by Saul 

On the pardon of David's adultery 

On David's leaving the city of Oath 

On David's persecution by Doeg 

During the Babylonish captivity 

Inserted towards the end of David's life 

On David's flight from Absalom 



On David's flight from Absalom 

On the blasphemous message of Rabshakeh.... 

On the delivery of the promise by Nathan 

On the' victory of Jehoshaphat 

On the removal of the ark into the temple 

On the dedication of the second temple 

During the Babylonish captivity 

Confession of David after his adultery 

On David's persecution by Doeg 

During the Babylonish captivity 

On the treachery of the Ziphims to David 

During the flight from Absalom 

When David was with the Philistines in Gath.,.. 

On David's refusal to kill Saul in the cave 

Continuation of Psalm lvii 

On Saul surrounding the town of David 

On the conquest of Edom by Joab 

Inserted towards the end of'David's life 

In David's persecution by Absalom 

Prayer of David in the wilderness of Engedi.... 

On David's persecution by Saul <. 

Inserted towards the end of David's life 

On laying the foundation of tlx? second temple., 

During the Babylonish captivity 

On the first removal of the ark 

Inserted towards the end of David's life 

On Absalom's rebellion 

On Solomon being made king by his father 



On the destruction of Sennacherib..... 

On the destruction of the city and temple 

On the destruction of Sennacherib 

During the Babylonish captivity , 

Inserted towards the end of David's life... 



On the destruction of the city and temple 



B. C. 



1060 
1019 
1015 
1036 

1044 
1015 

539 
1015 

1017 
1060 
1034 
1000 
1060 
539 

1015 

1023 



1023 
710 
1044 a 
890 
1004 
515 
53!) 
1034 b 
1060 
539 
1060 
1023 
1060 
105S 
1058 
lOfiL 
1040 
1015 
1023 
1058 
1060 
1015 
535 
593 
1045 
1015 
1023 
1015 



710 
539 
1015 

588 



» Explained and applied to our Lord, Heb. i. 8, 9: 1 Pet. iii. 22: Eph. i. 22: Phil, ii 
b To Asaph, by Eichhorn, De Wette, and Rosenmuller. 



PSALMS THEIR DATE AND ORIGIN. 



499 



After what Scrip- 
ture. 



Probable occasion on which each Psalm was 
composed. 



Dan. vii. 28 

Ezra vi. 22 

2 Chron. xix. 7 

Jer. xxxix. 10 or 

2 Chron. xx 

Ezra iii. 13 

Ezra i. 4 

1 Chron. xxviii. 21 

Ezra iii. 7 

Exod. ii. 25 

Dan. vii. 28 



Numb. xiv. 45 

1 Chron. xxviii. 10 

Dan. vii. 28 

Jer. xxxix. 10 

1 Chron. xxviii. 21 
1 Chron. xvi. 43... 



2 Chron. vii. 10., 



1 Chron. xxviii. 21 
Dan.ix.27 

2 Sam. xii. 15 

1 Chron. xxviii. 21 

1 Chron. xvi. 43.... 



Ezra iii. 7 

1 Kings xi. 20 

1 Sam. xxii. 19 

1 Chron. xvii. 27... 

Ezra iii. 7 



2 Chron. xx. 26... 

Ezra iii. 7 

1 Chron. xvii 27. 
Neh. xiii. 3 



1 Chron. xxviii. 21 



During the Babylonish captivity 

On the dedication of the second temple 

On the appointment of Judges by Jehoshaphat. 
On the desolation caused by the Assyrians 



On the foundation of the second temple 

On the decree of Cyrus 

Inserted towards the end of David's life 

On the return from the Babylonish captivity, 

During the affliction in Egypt 

During the Babylonish captivity 



On the shortening of man's life, &c 

After the advice of David to Solomon 

During the Babylonish captivity 

On the destruction of the city and temple 

Inserted towards the end of David's life 

On the removal of the ark from Obed-edom's 
house 



On the removal of the ark into the temple. 



Inserted towards the end of David's life 

On the near termination of the captivity 

On the pardon of David's adultery 

Inserted towards the end of David's life 

On the removal of the ark from Obed-edom's 
house 



B.C. 



539 
515 
897 
588 

535 

536 
1015 

535 
1531 

539 



489 
1015 
539 
5S3 
1015 

1051 
1004 

1015 

538 
1034 
1015 

1051 



On the return from the captivity 536 

On the conquest, of Edom by Joab I "40 

On David's persecution by Doeg 10f30 

On the promise by Nathan to David 1044 s 

On the return from the captivity 536 

On the victory of Jehoshaphat 896 

On the return from the captivity 535. 

On the promise by Nathan to David. 



Manual of devotion by Ezra j 44 4 C 

Inserted towards the end of David's life 1 1015 



Dan. vii. 28 During the Babylonish captivity 539 

1 Chron. xxviii. 21 j Inserted towards the end of David's life 1 1015 



Ezra iii. 7 On the return from the captivity. 

Ezra i. 4 On the decree of Cyrus 

Ezra iii. 7 'On the return from the captivity. 



Ezra iv. 24 

Dan. vii. 28 

1 Chron. xxviii. 21 
1 Chron. xv. 14 

1 Chron. xxviii. 21 
Ezra iii. 7 

2 Chron. vii. 10 



On the opposition of the Samaritans 

During the Babylonish captivity 

Inserted towards the end of David's life 

On the second removal of the ark 

Inserted towards the end of David's life 

On the return from the captivity 



536 
535 
536 
535 
539 
1015 
1051 
1015 
536 
1004 

32-36- 



... On the removal of the ark into the temple. 

136 (r)... J 

a Cited by our Lord to prove his Divinity, Matt. xxii. 14: by Peter, Acts 
Paul, i. Cor. xv. 25-28: Feb. vii. 1-28 ; viii. 1. 

b Cited by our Lord, Matt. xxii. 42: explained by Peter, Acts iv. 11: 1 Pet. ii. 4, 5: 
Paul, Rom. ix. 32: Eph. ii. 20, 21. 

c Calmet, and most commentators, refer this psalm to the captivity. 



500 



PSALMS — THEIR TITLES. 



Psalrr g. 



After what Scrip- 
ture. 



137 




138 


Ezra vi. 13..-. 


339(w) 


1 Chron. xiii. 4 


140 




141 




S42 




143 




144 


2 Sam. xvii. 29 


145 


1 Chron. xxviii. 10 


146 to 150 





Probable occasion on which each Psalm was 
composed. 



B. C. 



During the Babylonish captivity 539 

On the rebuilding of the tempfe i 519 

Prayer of David when made king over all ! 

Israel :1048 

On David's persecution by Doeg 'lOGO 

Prayer of David when driven from Judea jlaoo 

Prayer of David in the cave of Adullam 10GO 

During the war with Absalom 1053 

On the victory over Absalom TO/iS 

David, when old, reviewing his past life '1015 

On the dedication of the second temple I 515 



Chronology Adopting this arrangement, the Psalms may be 
ment. a classified chronologically thus : (C). 

B. C. 1531. Psa. lxxxviii., Heman in Egypt. 
B. C. 1489. Psa. xc, Moses in the Wilderness. 

B. C. 1063-1015. David's History and Experience, ix., xi., lix., 
xxxiv., lvi., cxlii., xvii., xxxv., lii., xxxi., lxiv., cix., cxl., liv., lvii., 
lviii., lxiii., xcvi., cv., cvi., cxxxii., cxli., cxxxix., lxviii., ii., xvi., 
xxii., xlv., cxviii., lx., cviii., xx., xxi., xxxii., xxxiii., li., ciii., iii., 
vii., iv., v., xlii., xliii., lv., lxx., lxxii., cxliii., cxliv. . . . xviii., lxii., 
xxx., xci., vi., viii., xii., xix., xxiii., xxiv., xxviii., xxix., xxxviii., 
xxxix., xl., xli., lxi., lxv., lxix., lxxviii., lxxxvi., xcv., ci., civ., cxx., 
cxxi., cxxii., cxxiv., cxxxi., cxxxiii., lxxii., cxlv. 

B. C. 1004. On the removal of the ark to the temple, xlvii., xcvii., 
xcviii., xcix., c, cxxxv., cxxxvi. 

B. C. 897-710. From Jehoshaphat to Hezekiah, lxxxii., xlvi., cxv., 
xliv., lxxiii., lxxv., lxxvi. 

B. C. 588. On the Invasion of the Assyrians, lxxiv., lxxix., lxxxiii., 
xciv. 

B. C. 539. In the Captivity, x., xiii., xiv., xv., xxv., xxvi., xxvii., 

xxxvi., xxxvii., xlix., 1., liii., lxvii., lxxvii., lxxx., lxxxviii., lxxxix., 

xcii., xciii., cxxiii., cxxx., cxxxvii. 
B. C. 538-6. At the close of the captivity, and on the return, cii., 

lxxxv., cxxvi., lxxxvii., cvii., cxi.-cxiv., cxvi., cxvii., cxxv., cxxvii., 

cxxviii., cxxxiv. 

B. C. 535. At the rebuilding and dedication of the temple, lxvi., 

Ixxxiv., cxxix., cxxxviii., xlviii., lxxxi., cxlvi., cxlvii.-cl. 
B. C. 444. Ezra completes the canon, and adds i., and cxix. 
The dite and occasions of these psalms, it must be observed, are many 
of them conjectural. Townsend's opinion of the occasion of the fol- 



PSALMS — THEIR TITLES. 



501 



lowing is founded on internal evidence alone, vii., xlvii., xlv,ii., Ixxxi., 
lxxxii., lxxxiv., xci., xcvii.-c, cxix., cxxxix., cxlv. For the rest, he 
follows Lightfoot, Calmet, Horne, Gray, or Hales. Modern inquiry has 
added to our knowledge of the facts on which the dates rest, and have 
thrown doubts on the accuracy of Townsend's arrangement of Psalms 
xxv.-xxvii, and several others. See Notes of Annot. Par. Bible, Reli- 
gious Tract Society, vol. i. 563-662. 

57. All the Psalms (except 34) have titles, which, are as old 
at least as the version of the LXX, but not of inspired authority. 
They may be regarded as historically accurate, except where 
there is internal evidence against them. 

These titles give either the name of the author (1), or directions to 
the musician (2), or the historical occasion (3), or the litur- 
gical use (4), or the style of the poetry (5), or the instru- pgaims f 
ment (6), or the tune (7), to which the psalm is to be sung. 
Sometimes all these are combined, Psa. lx. 

1. Moses, Psa. xc. David, of lxxiii., to which the LXX add other 
twelve psalms. Solomon, Asaph, Heman, Ethan, and the sons of Korat 
are also named. 

2. To the chief musician, is prefixed to 53. Some suppose that the" 
music was by him. Gesenius and Ewald regard "to" as meaning 
"by," and refer "the musician" to David. 

3. Psa. iii., vii., xviii., xxxiv., li. lii., liv., etc. 

4. Psa. xvii., lxxxvi , xc, cii., cxlv., etc. 

5. Psa. xlvi., lxv., xlviii., xvi. For 6 and 7, see below. 

The following are the terms found at the beginning of Psalms. The 
meaning is not easily ascertained, and even in the ancient versions 
there is very great diversity. The authorized version leaves most of 
them untranslated, and Coverdale generally omits them. Luther pre- 
lerred to translate them with what accuracy he could. We put first the 
meaning which is most probable. 

The word translated "upon," or "on," is appropriate, whether it 
refer to the subject of the psalm, or to the instrument or cleff on which, 
or the tune to which the psalm was sung. 

Aijehth Shachar, i. e. hind of the morning (sun or dawn, = to be sung 
to the tune beginning with these words (Jewish critics), or on 
the Messiah or David, who is supposed to be so called (Luther 
Hengstenberg, Tholuck), Psa. xxii. 



502 



PSALMS — THEIR TITLES. 



Alamoth, i. e. virgins, and so = " for treble voices" (Gesenius, Hengsten- 

berg, Tholuck), Psa. xlvi. 

Al-taschith, i. e. destroy thou not, == to be sung to trie tune of the ode 
beginning with these words, Psa. lvii.-lix., lxxv. 

Degrees, i. e. of the steps, or of ascension, =a pilgrim's song for those 
going up to Jerusalem, especially from captivity, see Psa. cxxii.-iv. 
(Lowth, Ewald, etc.), or = a song ascending by degrees from clause 
to clause, as in Psa. cxxi. (De Wette, Gesenius), or = a song to be 
sung in ascending the steps of the inner court of the temple (Jew- 
ish critics), or = a song sung by the upper choir (Luther, Tholuck), 
Psa. cxx.-cxxxiv. 

Gittith, = a Gath instrument or tune, or the vintage-melody, Psa. viii., 
Ixxxi., lxxxiv. 

Higgaion, — instrumental music, Psa. ix., xvi., or = meditation (Heng- 

stenberg, Tholuck). 
Jeduthun, Psa. xxxix., lxii., lxxvii. : see 1 Chron xxv. 1, 3. 
Jonath-elem-rechokim, i. e. the mute dove among strangers, = the tune 

so called, or = the subject of the psalm, David at Gath, Psa. lvi. 
Leannoth, = to be sung, Psa. lxxxviii. 

Mahalath, = lute, or a tune so called, or = a dancing-tune, Psa. liii., 
lxxxviii. 

Maschil, = a, didactic poem (Hengstenberg, Tholuck), or = a skilful 
poem (Gesenius, De Wette), Psa. xiii. 

Michtam, = & golden or excellent psalm, or = a mystery, i. e. a psalm 
with a hidden meaning (Hengstenberg), or on hidden, i. e. experi- 
mental religion, or = a written poem (michtav), Gesenius, Rosenm., 
Tholuck, see Isa. xxxviii. 9 : Psa. xvi., lxvi.-lx. 

Muth-labban, =on the death of his son, or of Goliath (Chald.), or = on 
an instrument, or to a song so called, or with a slight variation in 
the vowels = with virgin's voice for boys, i. e. male trebles : or to 
Benaiah, 1 Chron. xv. 18, 20: Psa. ix. 

Neginoth, = stringed instruments, Psa. iv., vi., liv., lvi., Ix., lxi., lxxvi. 

JSfehiloth, == wind instruments, or = the lots (i. e. of the good and bad), 
Psa. v. 

Selah, = pause, i. e. in vocal music, or = exalt (the voice), i. e. forte, or 
= exalt (Jehovah), (Kimchi, Ewald, De Wette), 70 times in Psa. iii., 
in Habb., or = Da Capo. 

Sheminith, i. e. an eighth = bass (1 Chron. xv. 20, 21), or == an eight- 
stringed instrument, Psa. vi., xii. 

Shiggaion, = a wandering, or excited song, or = an elegy (Gesenius, 
Rosenm., De Wette, Tholuck), Psa. vii. 

Sh'shan, i. e. a lily = a very beautiful song, or instrument so called, 



SONG OF SOLOMON. 



503 



Psa. lx., xlv., lxix., lxxx. ; with eduth added, i. e., lily of testimony 
= name of tune or instrument (Gesenius, Tholuck), or=a beau- 
tiful subject of admitted excellence (Hengstenberg), Psa. lx., lxxx. 

58. In studying the Psalms, two rules of interpretation are 
of prime importance. 

(i.) Ascertain the author, the historical origin, and the obvious scope 
of the Psalm. Tables B and G will give the first two, and Table A the 
last. 

(ii.) Carefully consider the historical meaning of its terms and allu- 
sions, and ascertain from New Testatarnent quotations, 1 or from the 
general tenor of the Gospel, how it is to be applied, either to Christ or 
to the Christian Church. Though, perhaps, every Psalm is connected m 
its origin and allusions with an economy which was " to vanish away," 
all are no less closely connected in sentiment and applicability with the 
economy that "abideth;" and wisely studied, the whole book may be 
made our own, and become to us the expression of the holiest feelings 
in the holiest form. 

THE SONG OF SOLOMON, B. C. 1001. 

59. The universal voice of antiquity ascribes this poem to 
Solomon, and internal evidence confirms this testi- 
mony. His songs were a thousand and five, 1 Kings Author!ship - 
iv. 32 ; and this is called, in Hebrew idiom, the song of songs, 
the best, that is, of them all. 

This booh has always been ranked among the canonical 
writings of the Old Testament. It is not quoted, 
indeed, in the New. but it formed part of the Jew- Canomcit7, 
ish Scriptures (Jos. Antiq. viii. 2-5, and Contr. Ap. i. 8), was 
translated by the authors of the LXX, is included in all an- 
cient catalogues, and is attested expressly by Melito (2d cen- 
tury), Origen (d. 253), Jerome (5th century), the Jewish 
Talmud, and Theodoret of Cyprus (450 A. D.) 

On what occasion it was written is not certain. The imagery seems 
derived from the marriage of Solomon, either with Pharaoh's daughter 
(1 Kings iii. 1 ; vii. 8 ; ix. 24, compared with Song i. 9 ; vi. 12), or with 

*See chapter vi. 



504 



SONG OF SOLOMON — CONTENTS. 



some native of Palestine, espoused some years later (chap. ii. 1), of noble 

birth (vii. 1),. though inferior to her husband (i. 6). 

Whatever the occasion of the poem, we find in reading it two char" 

acters, who speak and act throughout; the one called Shelomoh (the 

peaceful), and the Other by the same name with a feminine ending, Shu- 

lamith, like Julius and Julia, i. 6 ; iii. 11 ; vi. 13 ; viii. 12. There is also 

a chorus of virgins, daughters of Jerusalem, ii. 7 ; iii. 5 ; v. 8, 9. Towards 

the close, two brothers of Shulamith appear, viii. 8, 9 ; see i. 6. As in all 

ancient poems, there are no breaks to indicate change of scene or of 

speakers. In detecting these changes, we are guided partly by the sense, 

but chierlv by the use in the original of feminine and mas- 
Outline. * 

culine pronouns, of the second or third person. A neglect 

of this distinction has much obscured the English version. 

i. Shulamith speaks, i. 2-6 : then in dialogue with Shelomoh ; Shul. 

i. 7: Shel. i. 8-11: Shul. i 12-14: Sliel. i. 15. Shul. i. xvi.-ii. 1 : Shel. 

ii. 2: Shul. ii. 3. 

ii. Shulamith now rests, sleeps and dreams (Shelomoh addressing the 
daughters of Jerusalem, and charging them not to wake her, ii. 7; 

iii. 5) : ii. 4-6 ; viii.-iii. 4. 

iii. The daughters of Jerusalem see a nuptial procession approaching, 

iii. 6-11. 

iv. Dialogue between Shelomoh and Shulamith. Shelomoh speaks, 

iv. 1-16 (as far as " flow out"), Shul. iv. 16: Shel v. 1. 

v. A night scene ; Shulamith seeking for Shelomoh; meets and con- 
verses with the daughters of Jerusalem; Shul. v. 2-8: daughters of 
Jerusalem, v. 9: Shul. v. 10-16: daughters of Jerusalem, vi. 1: Shul. 
vi. 2, 3. 

vi. Morning scene ; Shelomoh visits his garden early, and meets Shu 
lamith; Shel vi. 4-10: Shul. vi. 11, 12; the dialogue continuing to 
viii. 8. 

vii. The brothers of Shulamith are introduced ; the brothers speak, 
viii. 8, 9 : Shul. answers them, viii. 10-12: Shel. speaks, viii. 13 : and 
Shul. answers, closing the scene, viii. 14. 

Literally regarded, the whole of this poem is a description of wedded 
love ; one of the noblest of our affections, and one which 
cfnicancy^" our ^ j0Y ^ l nas employed as a kind of type of his own. In 
this aspect, the book gives a beautiful representation of the 
sentiments and manners which prevailed among the Israelites, on con- 
jugal and domestic life. But the poem had, no doubt, a higher aim. 
The names of the two chief characters are as significant as any in " Bun- 
yan's Allegory." The sudden change from the singular pronoun to the 



SONG OF SOLOMON — CONTENTS. 



505 



plural (i. 4, etc.), indicates that Shulamith must be taken collectively. 
Both she and Shelomoh, moreover, appear in positions which, literally- 
regarded, are highly improbable, v. 7 ; ii. 14-16 ; iv. 8. And from the 
earliest times, Jews and Christians have applied the whole to the his- 
tory of the chosen people of God, and their relation to him. These 
views are confirmed by the fact that throughout the Bible, the union of 
Christ and his Church, or of God and his ancient people, is represented 
under the same endearing relation as that which this book discloses ; 
see especially Psa. xlv. : Isa. liv. 5, 6; lxii. 5: Jer. ii. 2; iii. 1: Ezek. 
xvi. 10, 13 : Hos. ii. 14-23 : Matt. ix. 15 ; xxii. 2 ; xxv. 1-11 : John 
iii. 29: 2 Cor. xi. 2: Eph. v. 23-27: Rev. xix. 7-9; xxi. 2-9; xxii. 17. 

Much of the language of this poem has been misunderstood by early 
expositors. Some have erred by adopting a fanciful method 
of explanation, and attempting to give a mystical meaning terpretatioii 
to every minute circumstance of the allegory. In all figu- 
rative representations there is always much that is mere costume. It 
is the general truth only that is to be examined and explained. Oth- 
ers, not understanding the spirit and luxuriancy of Eastern poetry, have 
considered particular passages as defective in delicacy, an impression 
which the English version has needlessly confirmed, and so have ob- 
jected to the whole ; though the objection does not apply with greater 
force to this book than to Hesiod and Homer, or even to some of the 
purest of our own authors. If it be remembered that the figure em- 
ployed in this allegory is one of the most frequent in Scripture ; that in 
extant oriental poems it is constantly employed to express religious 
feeling ; a that many expressions which are applied in our translation to 
the person, belong properly to the dress ; b that every generation has its 
own notions of delicacy (the most delicate in this sense being by no 
means the most virtuous) ; that nothing is described but chaste affec- 
tion ; that Shulamith speaks and is spoken of collectively ; and that it 
is the general truth only which is to be allegorized ; the whole will ap- 
pear to be no unfit representation of the union between Christ and true 
believers in every age. 

Properly understood, this portion of Scripture will minister to our 
holiness. It may be added, however, that it was the practice of the 

* See examples in Lowth's Lectures on Hebrew Poetry, 30, 31 ; 
Clarke or Rosenmuller on the Song of Solomon. Stuart on the Canon; 
Sir W. Jones's Works, ii. 469 ; As. Res., 353 ; and in Kitto's Bible 



"Chap. v. 10, 14; vii. 2. 

43 



506 



PROVERBS. 



Jews to withhold the book from their children till their judgments 
were matured. 

THE BOOK OF PROVERBS, (ABOUT B. C. 1000). 

60. The book of the Proverbs of Solomon contains more 
than the title indicates. A proverb is a short sen- 
tence, conveying some moral truth or practical lesson 
in a concise, pointed form, and sometimes the name is applied 
to enigmatical propositions of the same moral or practical 
tendency. In this book, however, we have, in addition, many 
exhortations to prudence and virtue, with eulogies on true 
wisdom. These latter form the subject of the first nine chap- 
ters. The last two chapters, moreover, are from the pen of 
another author. Those that are Solomon's are part, probably, 
of tbe 8,000 proverbs he is recorded to have spoken, 1 Kings 
iv. 32, and formed, besides the Canticles and Ecclesiastes, tbe 
only works of his whicb were undoubtedly inspired. He 
sought wisdom rather than any other gift, and God honored 
his request by granting him a larger measure of it than was 
enjoyed by any of his contemporaries. To communicate a 
portion of what he had received for the lasting benefit of 
others was the aim of this collection. The proverbs, from the 
25th to the 29th chapters inclusive, were collected by the men 
of Hezekiah, among whom were Hosea and Isaiah. 

Proverhial instruction is common in the early history of most nations, 
and especially in the East. This style of communication excites atten- 
tion, exercises ingenuity, is favorable to habits of reflection, and fastens 
truth upon the memory in a form at once agreeable and impressive. 
The elegance and force of the proverbs of Solomon are increased by the 
poetic parallelisms in which they are written. Nearly every sentence 
is antithetical or explanatory, and attention to corresponding clauses 
will often fix the reading and determine the sen$e. 

The leading aim of the writer is. as stated at the outset, to "give a 
Aim young man knowledge and discretion." This book is, for 

practical ethics, what the book of Psalms is for devotion. 
It has lessons for every age and condition. All may draw from it the 
most excellent counsels; and the man who, possessed of the sound 



PROVERBS — AIM. 



507 



principles of piety, shall form his life by the rules of this volume can- 
not fail to attain honor and happiness. The wisest authors have done 
little more than dilate on the precepts and comment on the wisdom of 
Solomon. 

Though most of his rules are based chiefly on considerations of pru- 
dence, strictly religious motives are either presupposed or expressly 
enioined. " The fear of the Lord is," with him, " the beginning of 
wisdom," i. 7; ix. 10. . His morality is based on religion. Vice, more- 
over, is condemned, and virtue enforced, by appeals to the holiest 
motives ; as the authority of God, xvi. 6 ; his exact knowledge of men's 
hearts and ways, v. 21; xv. 11; the rewards of righteousness, and the 
punishment of wickedness, by his just appointment, xix. 29; xxiii. 
17-19 ; xxvi. 10. Practical wisdom, therefore, resting upon and rising 
out of religious charaacter, is the aim of this portion of the inspired 
volume. 

Ponder its lessons, form your opinion of men and things according 
to them, and treasure them in your memory as the best rules of pru- 
dence. 

The book may be divided into five parts : — 

i. Containing a connected discourse on the value and 

, B . . 1 . . Divisions, 

attainment ot true wisdom, i.-ix. 

ii. Extending from x.-xxii. 16, comprises proverbs, strictly so called, 

expressed with much force and simplicity. 

iii. Reaching from xxii. 17-24, contains renewed admonitions on the 

study of wisdom, as in part i. 

iv. Containing proverbs selected by the men of Hezekiah; by those, 

that is, whom he employed to restore the service of the Jewish 
church. These are also true proverbs, xxv.-xxix. 

V. Consisting of chaps, xxx. and xxxi., contains the wise instructions 
of Agur to his pupils Ithiel and Ucal, and lessons addressed to 
Lemuel by his mother. Who these persons were is not known. 
The proverbs of chap. xxx. are chiefly enigmatical, and chap, 
xxxi. gives a picture of female excellence adapted to that age 

and country. 

The description of Wisdom given in chap. l. 20—23 ; viii. ; and ix. 
applies emphatically to the wisdom of God, revealed and embodied in 
his Son, and to the Son himself, as the eternal Word. Compare John 
i. 1 ; xiv. 10 with chap. viii. Pre-intimations of immortality are also 
given in chaps, iv. 18 ; xii. 28 ; xiv. 32 ; xv. 24. 

The nature and consequences of sin are implied in the very terms 
•which describe holiness, i. 20; see also i. 24; xvi. 5; xxi. 4; xxiv. 9; 
and that holiness is a Divine gift, is plainly implied in i. 23. 



508 



PROVERBS — CONTENTS. 



61. In expounding and applying the maxims of this Ihook 
Rules for * nere are two golden rules. 

applying 

verlbs' " ^^- e a ^ g enera l laws, some of them have occasional 

exceptions. Not all are unlimited or universal. For ex- 
ample, Prov. x. 27, "The fear of the Lord prolongeth days, but the 
years of the wicked shall be shortened." Such is often the rule : but 
Abel was murdered and the life of Cain prolonged. Jonathan and 
Saul — the one a very brother of David, the other an apostate — perish 
in the same battle: "the corn cut down with the weeds, though to 
better purpose." Men are less likely to harm us if we be followers of 
that which is good, and yet persecution, because of our goodness, is 
supposed, 1 Pet. iii. 13. In truth, God has to teach us a double lesson 
— that he certainly will punish, and that he will punish hereafter. 
The shortening of the years of the wicked — present punishment — • 
teaches the first: the lengthening of their years — the postponement of 
punishment — the second. Hence both the exception and the rule. 
Prov. xvi. 7, " When a man's ways please the Lord, he maketh even 
his enemies to be at peace with him." So it was with Abraham and 
the Israelites, with Solomon and Jehoshaphat; so it was not with 
David, or with Paul. 

2. The force and significancy of these maxims will be most clearly 
seen and felt, if they be studied in the light of Scripture examples. 
They are comprehensive laws, understood best when examined in par- 
ticular cases. 

The following instances are taken from NichoFs Treatise 
on this book ; an admirable specimen of biblical exposition. 

Prov. i. 7, " The fear of the Lord is the beginning of knowledge: 
but fools despise wisdom and instruction." (Rehoboam, 1 Kings xii. 13'; 
Eli's sons, 1 Sam. ii. 25; Athenian philosophers, Acts xvii. 18). 

Prov. i. 10, "My son, if sinners entice thee, consent thou not." 
(Adam, Gen. iii. 6; Balaam, Numb. xxiL; Jehoshaphat, 1 Kings xxii. 4; 
prophet of Judah, 1 Kings xiii. 15-19, 24 ; Micaiah's firmness, 1 Kings 
xxii. 13, 14). 

Prov. i. 32, "The prosperity of fools shall destroy them." (The 
Israelites, Dent, xxxii. 15-25: Hos. xiii. 6; Tyre, Eisek. xxviii. 2, 16, 
17 ; Sodom, Ezek. xvi. 49). 

Prov. iii. 5, 6, "Trust in the Lord with all thine heart; and lean not 
unto thine own understanding. In all thy ways acknowledge him,- 
and he shall direct thy paths." (Asa, 2. Chron.. xiv. 9.-15 ; He&ekiah, 



PROVEEBS — CONTENTS. 



509 



2 Kings xix. 14, etc.; Abraham's servant, Gen. xxiv. 12-27; Nehe- 
miah ii. 4 : Ezra viii. 21-23 ; David, 1 Sam. xxx. 6-8). 

Prov. iv. 14, " Enter not into the paths of the wicked." (Lot, Gen. 
xiii. 10-13 ; David, 1 Sam. xxvii. 1). 

Prov. iv. 18, 19, " The path of the just is as the shining light. (The 
wise men, Matt. ii. 1-13 ; Nathanael, John i. 46-51 : the eunuch, Acts 

viii. 27-40; Cornelius, Acts x. ; Paul, 2 Cor. iii. 18). " The way of 
the wicked is as darkness ; they know not at what they stumble." 
(Ahab, 1 Kings xviii, 17; the Jews, Ezek. xviii. 29: Jer. v. 19, 25. 
Also, their ignorance, that the cause of their present miseries is their 
rejection of the Messiah, Deut. xxviii. 29). 

Prov. v. 22, " His own iniquities shall take the wicked himself." 
(Agag, 1 Sam. xv. 33 ; Adoni-bezek, Judges i. 7 ; Haman, Esther, vii. 
10 ; Judas, Matt, xxvii. 3-5). 

Prov. ix. 8, " Eebuke a wise man, and he will love thee." (David 
loved Nathan ; Peter loved our Lord, John xxi. 17 ; the two disciples 
constrained their reprover to abide with them, Luke xxiv. 25, 29). 

Prov. x.^2, " Treasures of wickedness profit nothing." (Tyre, Ezek. 
xxvi. 15: xxvii. : xxviii. ; the rich man, Luke xvi. 23). " But righte- 
ousness delivereth from death." (Noah, Gen. vii. 1, with Heb. xi. 7 : 
Dan. v. 6, Belshazzar contrasted with Daniel). 

Prov. x. 7, "The memory of the just is blessed." (Elisha, 2 Kings 
xiii. 21 ; Jehoiada, 2 Chron. xxiv. 15, etc. ; Dorcas, Acts ix. 36, etc 
Mary, Mark xiv. 9) " But the name of the wicked shall rot." (Absa- 
lom, 2 Sam. xviii. 17; Jehoiakim, Jer. xxii. 18, 19; Jezebel, 2 Kings 

ix. 37 ; Jeroboam, son of Nebat, 2 Kings xiii. xiv. xv.). 

Prov. x. 8, " The wise in heart will receive commandments." (David, 
2 Sam. vii. ; the mother of our Lord, John ii. 4, 5 ; the nobleman, 
John iv. 50). " But a prating fool shall fall." (Amaziah, 2 Kings xiv.). 

Prov. x. 24, " The fear of the wicked, it shall come upon him." 
(The Canaanites, Josh, v.; Belshazzar, Dan. v.; Ahab, 1 Kings xxii.; 
Haman, Esther vii. 7-10). "But the desire of the righteous shall be 
granted." (Hannah, 1 Sam.'i. : Esther iv. 16; viii. 15-17; Simeon, 
Luke ii. 29, 30 : see also Psa. xxxvii. 4 : John xvi. 23, 24). 

Prov. x. 25, " As the whirlwind passeth, so is the wicked no more." 
(Elah, 1 Kings xvi. 9; Zimri, 1 Kings xvi. 18, 19). "But the righte- 
ous is an everlasting foundation." (Abraham, Gen. xvii. 1-8 ; David, 
2 Sam. vii. 16 : See also Matt. vii. 24, 25). 

Prov. xi. 2, " When pride cometh, then cometh shame." (Miriam, 
Numb. xii. 10 ; Uzziah, 2 Chron. xxvi. 16-21 ; Nebuchadnezzar, Dan. 
iv. 30, etc.). " But with the lowly is wisdom." (Daniel, Dan. ii. 30; 
Joseph, Gen. xli. 16.) 
43* 



i 



510 PROVERBS — CONTENTS. 

Prov. xi. 5, 6, " The righteousness of the perfect shall direct his way : 
but the wicked shall fall by his own wickedness. The righteousness 
of the upright shall deliver them : but transgressors shall be taken in 
their own naughtiness." (Haman, Esther vii. 10; viii. 7: Daniel's 
accusers, Dan. vi. 24, etc. ; Ahithophel's death, 2 Sam. xvii. 23, con- 
trasted with David's restoration to his throne). 

Prov. xi. 10, " When it goeth well with the righteous, the city re- 
joiceth. (Mordecai, Esther viii. 16). " When the wicked perisheth, 
there is shouting." (Sisera, Judges v. ; Athaliah, 2 Kings xi. 13, 20: 
see Kev. xix. 1-3). 

Prov. xi. 21, " Though hand join in hand, the wicked shall not be 
unpunished." (Tower of Babel, Gen. xi. 4, etc.; the kings who com- 
bined together, Josh. ix. 1, 2; Adonizedec, Josh. x.). "But the seed 
of the righteous shall be delivered." (Mephibosheth, 2 Sam. xxi. 7; 
Solomon, 1 Kings xi. 12, 34; Abijam, 1 Kings xv. 4; the Israelites 
often, Exod. iii. 15, 17: 2 Kings viii. 19. 

Prov. xi. 25, "The liberal soul shall be made fat, and he that 
watereth shall be watered also himself." (Abraham, Gen. xiii. 9, 14; 
widow of Zarephath, 1 Kings xvii. 10, etc. ; the Shunamite, 2 Kings iv.). 

Prov. xii. 5, " The counsels of the wicked are deceit." (Geshem, 
Neh. vi. 2 ; Ishmael, Jer. xli. 1-7 ; Daniel's accusers to Darius, Dan. 
vi. 8 ; Herod's to the wise men, Matt. ii. ; the Pharisees respecting 
the tribute money, Matt. xxii. 15 ; the Jews laying wait for Paul, Acts 
xxiii. 15). 

Prov. xii. 11, " He that followeth vain persons is void of understand- 
ing." (Followers of Abimelech, Judges ix. ; and of Absalom, 2 Sam. xv.; 
of Theudas and Judas, Acts v. 36, 37). 

Prov. xii. 13, " The wicked is snared by the transgression of his lips; 
but the just shall come out of trouble." (Adonijah, 1 Kings ii. 23; 
Daniel's accusers, Dan. vi. 24 ; the Jews, Matt, xxvii. 25). 

Prov. xii. 15, " The way of a fool is right in his own eyes." (Lot's 
sons-in-law, Gen. xix. 14; Pharisees, John ix. 34). "But he that 
hearkeneth unto counsel is wise." (Moses, Exod. xviii. 19-24; Apollos, 
Acts xviii. 24-26; Pharaoh, Gen. xli. 37-45; Jacob, Gen. xliii. 11; 
Nathanael, John i. 46, 47). 

Prov. xii. 19, " The lip of truth shall be established for ever." (Caleb 
and Joshua, Numb. xiii. 14; Nathan to David, 2 Sam. vii. 12-17, with 
Luke i. 32). " But a lying tongue is but for a moment." (Gehazi, 
2 Kings v.; Ananias, Acts v.). 

Prov. xii. 25, " Heaviness in the heart of man maketh it stoop, but 
a good word maketh it glad." (Nehemiah, Neh. ii. 1, 2; the woman 



PEO VERBS ECCLESIASTES. 



511 



that was a sinner, Luke vii. 38, 50; Mary Magdalene, John xx. 11-18; 
see also Luke xxiv. 17-32). 

Prov. xiii. 7, "There is that maketh himself rich, yet hath nothing." 
(Haman, Esther v. 13 ; church of Laodicea contrasted with the church 
of Smyrna, Rev. iii. 17; ii. 9; Ahab, 1 Kings xxi. 4, 16, 22). There is 
that maketh himself poor, yet hath great riches." (Matthew, Luke v. 
27, 28 ; Paul, 2 Cor. vi. 10 : Phil. iii. 8). 

Prov. xiii. 24, "He that spareth his rod hateth his son ; but he that 
loveth him chasteneth him betimes." (Eli, 1 Sam. iii. 13 ; David, 

1 Kings i. 5, 6. 

Prov. xiv. 6, "A scorner seeketh wisdom, and findeth it not." (Athe- 
nian philosopher^, Acts xvii. 18 ; Herod, Luke xxiii. 8 ; the Jews look- 
ing for the Messiah, and yet rejecting Christ, Acts xiii. 41; John, ix. 
29). " But knowledge is easy to him that understandeth." (David, 
Psa. cxix. 18, 98-100: see also Jas. i. 5: Matt. xi. 25). 

Prov. xiv. 8, " The wisdom of the prudent is to understand his way." 
(Job xxviii. 28: Deut. iv. 6: Eccles. xii. 13). "But the folly of fools 
is deceit." (Gehazi, 2 Kings v. 20, 27; Daniel's accusers, Dan. vi. 24; 
Ananias and Sapphira, Acts v. 1-11). 

Prov. xiv. 32, " The wicked is driven away in his wickedness." 
(Hophni and Phinehas, 1 Sam. iv. 11). " But the righteous hath hope 
in his death." (Jacob, Gen. xlix. 18 ; Stephen, Acts vii. 55-60 ; Paul, 

2 Tim. iv. 6-8 ; Peter, 2 Pet. i. 14, 16 ; iii. 13). 

Prov. xv. 1, "A soft answer turneth away wrath." (The Reubenites, 
Josh. xxii. 15, 21-30; Gideon, Judges viii. 1-3; Abigail, 1 Sam. xxv. 
23, etc.) " But grievous words stir up anger." (Rehoboair 2 Chron. 
x. 13, etc. ; Paul and Barnabas, Acts xv. 39 ; Saul and Jonathan, 1 Sam. 
xx. 30-34). 

Prov. xv. 10, " Correction is grievous to him that forsaketh the way." 
(Asa, 2 Chron. xvi. 10; the Jews, Isa. i. 5: Jer. v. 3: John viii. 40). 
"And he that hateth reproof shall die." (Amaziah, 2 Kings xiv. 11: 
2 Chron. xxv. 27 ; the Jews, 2 Chron. xxxvi. 15-17 : Luke xix. 42, 43). 

ECCLESIASTES (b. C. 997). 

62. The English name of this book, which is taken from the 
Greek version, signifies (as does the Hebrew) one who convenes 
or addresses an assembly, and is, on the whole, accurately ex- 
pressed by the term "the preacher." The illustrious prince, 
the author of the book, though so richly endowed with wis- 
dom, turned away from God and sought happiness Authorship. 



512 



ECCLESIASTES. 



in earthly and idolatrous practices, 1 Kings xi. 1-13 ; but in 
his latter years, being made sensible of his folly, he here 
records his experience. Perhaps the truths here given were 
''proclaimed" by him in public; nor was it unbecoming his 
station or character thus to inform those who crowded from 
all parts to his court, to be instructed by his wisdom. The 
book is further interesting, as it supplies satisfactory evidence 
of the fact that, towards the close of his life, Solomon re- 
pented of his unholy practices and licentious principles, if in 
such a course, as is probable, he had imbibed them. 

The great design of this book is evidently to show the utter insuffi- 
ciency of all earthly pursuits and objects, as the chief end 
tlie S |fookf °f n ^ e ' t° confer solid happiness, and then to draw men off 
from the apparent good to the only real and permanent 
good — the fear of God and communion with him. " Vanity of vanities, 
all is vanity," is its first lesson. " Fear God, and keep his command- 
ments," is its last. In accomplishing this design the writer gives us 
a dramatic biography of his own life, not only recording, but reacting 
the successive scenes of his own search for happiness; reciting past ex- 
perience, and in his fervor becoming the various phases of his former 
self. He shows us, moreover (and this is a subordinate design of the 
book), how men ought to demean themselves amidst the various disap- 
pointments with which they will have to contend. Hence the warnings 
and counsels with which his descriptions of vanity, and exhortations 
to make the fear of God and the performance of moral and religious 
duties our chief good, abound. 

The difficulty and vividness of the narrative are greatly increased by 
The author ^ e ^ orm i n which it is written. The author appears to be 
is for the for the moment what he himself describes. He seems to 
he de- have (what our older writers call) fyttes of study (i. 12-18), 
scribes. Q f i uxul y (ij 1-11), of grossness and refinement, of convi- 
viality and misanthropy ; fyttes of building, and of book-making, all 
ending in collapses of bitterest disappointment. "We have in succession 
the man of science and the man of pleasure becoming fatalist, mate- 
rialist, epicurian, and stoic; speaking in each character much truth, 
and interposing some earnest enlightened interludes, the fruits of his 
maturer wisdom ; and at last we have the noblest style of man — the 
humble and penitent believer. Nor is it, be it observed, that he has 
given us descriptions merely of these ; he has given us, in his own per- 
son, the men themselves. 



ECCLESIASTES — ITS PECULIABI.UES. 



513 



If this fact be kept in view, the meaning of several passages will be 
plain. Many of his conclusions are the expressions of strong 

applied. 



shrewd sense; others of them are eminently holy and spirit- 



ual (v. 1-3 ; vii. 29 ; xi. 5 ; xii. 1,8); others, again, are but 
partially true, and some are absolutely false (iii. 19 ; ii. 16 ; ix. 2). 
Many efforts have been made, in vain, to harmonize these last with 
other parts of Scripture, or with other sayings of Solomon. But it is 
not thus they are to be explained. Each picture is the likeness of a 
sagacious disappointed worldling, with added lights thrown in from a 
Divine source. The book is a narrative of fantastic hopes and blank 
failures, with descriptions somewhat stronger than truth, and appro- 
priate to each. The conclusion of the whole matter is, that we are to 
fear God and keep his commandments. That conclusion is true, as are 
many of the incidental warnings and appeals ; but much of the matter 
it includes is not. And on this principle the whole must be explained. 
A comparison may illustrate both the aigument and the end. As the 
45th Psalm is a lesser Canticles, so we have a lesser Ecclesiastes in the 
73d. 

While all agree that the main design of the book is to exalt religion 
as man's "chief end," different views (it may be added) have been taken 
of the illustrations and arguments. Some have held that tne grand 
lesson is, the vanity of everything earthly apart from godliness, and 
with such, every illustration and every part is true. Luther, on the 
other hand, thought the lesson of the book to be — be godly, and con- 
cerning everything else, be tranquil ; for life is not worth your care. 
Within certain limits both views are just. Apart from religion, all 
things are vain, though not equally v a,in ; and with religion nothing 
can harm us, though even then wisdom and folly are not indifferent: 
nor does one thing happen alike to all. Some, again, put the remarks 
that are untrue into the mouth of objectors, while others put them as 
questions. The sounder view of the whole is certainly the one we have 
given. a 

Note, that in Ecclesiastes, wisdom is used in the sense of science, or 
sagacity ; in Proverbs, it is identical with piety. 

It is a strange proof of the depravity of our nature that ^^ om 
modern infidels (Frederick the Great, Voltaire, and others) 
have warmly praised those parts of Ecclesiastes in which Solomon 
records the false principles which his folly had for the moment led him 
to maintain. The true wisdom of the book they entirely disregard, 
chap. xii. 

a Stowe, Stuart. Dr. Hamilton, and others. 



514 



JOSHUA I.-VIII. — EPITOMIZED. 



The eanonicity of Ecclesiastes is recognized by the early 
Christian writers, and though the book is not for- 
Canomcity. ma jj q UO t e d by our Lord or his apostles, there are 
several references to it in the New Testament. 

By the Jews it was not reckoned one of the poetical books, and 
indeed the whole, except iii. 2-8 ; vii. 1-14 ; xi. 17 ; xii. 7, is written 
in prose. 

Sec. 6. — The whole Arranged and Epitomized with 
occasional Helps. 

63. From the Entrance into Canaan to the Death of Solomon, 
(475 years). 

Part I. (25 years; . 



Date and Place. 



Event or Narrative. 



B. C. 1. Conquest of Canaan (7 years). 

1451. God's charge to Joshua, Josh. i. 1-9. 

Eccl. y. 41. Spies sent to Jericho ; Rahab receives them, Josh. ii. 
1 m. 1 d. Joshua reminds Reuben, etc., of their engagement 
(cf. Numb, xxii.); they promise obedience. The 
Israelites directed concerning the passage of the 
Jordan. God encourageth Joshua, 

* Josh. i. 10-18 ; iii. 1-13. 
10 d. Passage of the Jordan (A. M. 2553) ; . a memorial 

erected ; the Canaanites alarmed, 

Josh. iii. 14-17 ; c iv. ; d v. 1. 
1451, Circumcision renewed ; the Passover; manna ceases, 

Gilgal. Josh. v. 2-12. 

The Captain of the Lord's host appears to Joshua, see 
230 ; miraculous capture of Jericho ; a curse on the 
rebuilder of it, Josh. vi. 1 ; e v. 13-15 ; vi. 2-27. 
The Israelites discomfited through Achan's sin ; he is 
destroyed, ' Josh. vii. 

Capture of Ai by stratagem, Josh. viii. 1-29. 

* Josh. xiv. 7, 10. 

b For this order, see Bedford's Scrip. Chron., quoted in Gray, p. 147, 
? Townsend, i. 495. c iii. 15; Jordan overflows: see $404. 

d iv. 19 ; 40 years, less five days : § 358 b. 
e For order, see Faber's Horse Mos., ii. 107. 



JOSHUA IX-XXIV. — EPITOMIZED. 



515 



Date and Place. 



B. C. 

Gilgal. 

1450—1445. 
1444. 
Ebal and 
Gerizim. 



1444. 



Hebron, Kir- 

jath Arba, 
Josh. xxi. 11. 

1444. 
Shiloh. 



1427. 

Shechem, 
Sychar N. T. 
1426. 
Shechem. 



Event or Narrative. 



The Gibeonites obtain a league with Joshua, Josh. ix. a 
Conquest of several kings in succession, Josh. x. b 
The rest of the conquests, Josh. xi. 

The law written on a stone altar (cf. Deut. xxvii.)and 
proclaimed to all the people, Josh. viii. 30-35.° 
Beuben, etc., return to their land on the eastern side 
of Jordan ; they erect an altar of memorial ; Israel 
offended, ask an explanation, Josh. xxii. 

2. General Division of the Land. 

Enumeration of conquests, [Josh. xii.]. 

Land not yet conquered, [Josh. xiii. 1-6]. 

Joshua divides the land ; the nine tribes and a half 
receive their portions by lot ; d the Levites not to 
receive land, [Josh. xiii. 7-14; xiv. 1-5], 

Inheritance of Reuben, etc., on the eastern side of 
Jordan, [Josh. xiii. 15-33 

Inheritance of Caleb, [Josh. xiv. 6-15; xv. 13-19 

Lot of Judah, [Josh. xv. 1-12, 20-63 

Lots of Ephraim and half of Manasseh, 

[Josh. xvi. ; xvii.]. 

The tabernacle set up, Josh, xviii. 1. 

Lots of the other tribes ; Joshua's inheritance, 

[Josh, xviii. 2-28 ; xix.]. 

Cities of refuge appointed, Josh. xx. 

Levitical cities, [Josh. xxi.]. 

3. Last Acts of Joshua, etc. 

Joshua's charge to the elders of Israel, Josh. xxiii.« 
Joshua addresses the tribes and renews the cove- 
nant, Josh. xxiv. 1-28. 
Death and burial of Joshua, Josh. xxiv. 29-31. 
Burial of Joseph's bones, etc., Josh. xxiv. 32, 33. 



a The Gibeonites remained for ages a monument of the truth of Jew- 
ish history ; as are now the Jews. 

b God thus proved his power over the objects of Canaanitish worship. 

c Jf'or order, see Horsley's Bib. Crit. i. 260, and compare chap. i. 14; 
it immediately follows the close of the war. 

d Though these divisions were made by lot, each tribe received such 
an inheritance as fulfilled the predictions of Jacob and Moses ; thus 
illustrating the faithfulness of God. 

e Ver. 3, mark how God is honored : see 198. 



516 



JUDGES I.-X. — EPITOMIZED. 



Date and Place. 


Event or Narrative. 


B. C. 


64. (Part II). 



1425, 
Bochim. 

1413. 



1406, 
Gibeah, Jeba. 



1402-1394. 
1354-1336. 

1316-1296. 

1256. 

Be thl eli em, 
Beit-el-lahm. 
' 1249, 
Shechem, 

1235-1232. 
1232-1188. 



Interregnum and Government of Judges (330 years). 

Conquests after Joshua's death, Judg. i. 1-26. 

Nations not subdued by Israel, Judg. i. 27-36. 

The angel of the Lord rebukes the Israelites for not 
driving out the Canaanites, Judg. ii. 1-5. 

Commencement of idolatry in Israel, Judg. ii. 6-13. 

Account of Micah and his image, Judg. xvii. 

A party of Danites having robbed Micah of his image, 
established themselves in Laish (afterwards Dan) 
and set up idolatry,* Judg. xviii. b 

History of the Levite and his concubine; slaughter 
of the Benjamites, etc., [Judg. xix. ; xx. ; xxi.]. 

The captivities of Israel for idolatry, and their de- 
liverance by Judges, Judg. ii. 14-23 ; iii. 1-4. 

Captivity of the eastern Israelites for 8 years to Meso- 
potamia ; Othniel, judge, Judg. iii. 5-11. 

Captivity of the eastern Israelites for 18 years to 
Moab; Ehud, judge, Judg. iii. 12-30. 

Captivity of the western Israelites to the Philistines ; 
Shamgar, judge, Judg. iii. 31. 

Captivity of the northern Israelites for 20 years to 
the Canaanites; Deborah, judge, song of Deborah 
and Barak, Judg. iv. ; v. 

Captivity of the eastern and northern Israelites for 7 
years to Midian, Judg. vi. 1-6. 

The history of Ruth, an ancestress of the Messiah, 

Ruth i.-iv. c 

Gideon, judge ; is invited by the angel of the covenant, 
and delivers Israel from Midian ; refuses to be made 
king, Judg. vi. 7-40 ; vii.; viii. 

Ursurpation of Abimelech; Jothan's fable, Judg. ix. 

Tola and Jair, judges, Judg. x. 1-5. 



a This idolatry continued to the days of Eli, and was resumed by 
Jeroboam, 1 Sam. iv. 10, 11. Hence, probably, the omission of Dan 
from the sealed ones, Rev. vii. 

b That these five chaps, belong to this early age is clear; Dan was 
not yet settled, xviii. 1 ; Phinehas, the grandson of Aaron, was living, 
xx. 28, and the iniquity of Gibeah is mentioned, Hos. x. 9, as the first 
open sin of Israel m*Canaan. 

c Compare Ruth i. 1, with Judg. vi. 4, the only famine mentioned in 
Judges: see, for other reasons, Gray, p. 166. 



JUDGES X — 1 SAMUEL — EPITOMIZED. 



517 



Date and Place. 



Event or Narrative 



B 
1206-1188. 

1187. 
1182-1157. 
1156-1116. 

1156. 

1155. 
Shiloh. 

1143. 
1136-1117, 
. Shiloh. 

1116, 

Gaza. 
1116. 
Ebenezer. 
Ashdod, Azo- 
tus, Acts viii. 
40; Shdood, 
30 w. Jerus. 

1112, 

Mizpeh. 
1095, 
Kamah, in 
Ephraim. 



1096, 
Eamah. 
Mizpeh. 
Gilgal, 
N. E. Jericho. 
1094. 



The Philistines and Ammonites oppress Israel for 18 
years ; Jephthah ; his vow, Judg. x. 6-18 ; xi. 

Slaughter of Ephraim by the Gileadites, Judg. xii. 1-6. 

Ibzan, Elon, and Abdon, judges, Judg. xii. 7-15. 

The Philistines oppress Israel 40 years, Judg. xiii. 1. 

Birth of Samson, Judg. xiii. 2-25. 

Birth of Samuel; Hannah's song, 1 Sam. i.; ii. 1-11. 

The wickedness of Eli's sons, a * 1 Sajn. ii. 12-21. 

Call of Samuel, 1 Sam. iii. 

Marriage of Samson ; his exploits, 

Judg. xiv; xv. 1-19; [xvi. 1-31. 

Judgment of Eli's house, 1 Sam. ii. 22-36, [22-25]. 

Capture and death of Samson, 

Judg. [xv. xx.] ; xvi. 4-31. 

Israel twice defeated by the Philistines ; ark taken and 
Eli's son slain; death of Eli, 1 Sam. iv. [19-22]. 

The ark placed in the house of Dagon ; removed to 
Ekron (Akir), then to Bethshemesh (Ain Shems), 
thence to Kirjah-jearim, where it remains till re- 
moved by David, Town. i. 612, 

1 Sam. v.; vi.; vii. 1, 2. 

Samuel, judge; he moves the Israelites to repent- 
ance ; the Philistines discomfited, 1 Sam. vii. 3-17. 

Samuel appoints his sons judges ; their corrupt govern- 
ment; the Israelites ask for a king; God bids Samuel 
hearken to them, 1 Sam. viii. 

65. (Part III.) 

The Reign of Saul (40 years)* 



Samuel privately anoints Saul as king, and gives him 
three signs, 1 Sam. ix. ; x. 1-16. 

Saul chosen and proclaimed king, 1 Sam. x. 17-27. 
Saul rescues Jabesh-Gilead ; is inaugurated as king; 
Samuel's address to Israel, 1 Sam. xi. xii. 

Saul gathers an army against the Philistines ; he dis- 
obeys Samuel, and is warned of his rejection from 
the kingdom, 1 Sam. xiii. 1-15. 

The Philistines discomfited ; Saul's rash oath endangers 
Jonathan; the people rescue him ; Saul's victories; 
his family, 1 Sam. xiii. 16-23 ; xiv. 



• On the chronology of this part of the book of Judges, see Town. 
Bend, i., 592, or Calmet. 
b Acts xiii. 21. 
44 



518 1 SAMUEL — EPITOMIZED AND ARRANGED. 



Date and Place. 



1063. 



1062. 

Gibeah 
Naioth. 

1062. 
1061. 
Nob and Oath. 

Adullam. 



Nob. 
Keilah. 



1060, 
Ziph. 

1059, 
Engedi, Ha- 
zezon Tamar, 

10.58. 

Ziph. 

1057. 



Event or Narrative. 



B. 0. 

1080. Saul smites the Amalekites ; spares Agag and the 

best of the spoil; denounced by Samuel, 1 Sam. xv, 
1064, Samuel secretly anoints David at Bethlehem, as future 

Bethlehem. king, 1 Sam. xvi. 1-13, 

David's victory over Goliath ; Jonathan loves David, 
1 Sam. xvii. 1-40, 55, 56, 41-54, 57, 58 ; xviii. 
1-4: Psa. ix. a 
David's victories ; Saul's melancholy ; he attempts to 
kill David, 

1 Sam. xviii. 5-9 ; xvi. 14-23 ; b xviii. 10-16 
David marries Saul's daughter ; Saul makes various 
attempts to kill him ; David flees to Samuel ; Saul 
sends after him, 1 Sam. xviii. 17-30; xix. 1-3 ; 

Psa. xi: 1 Sam. xix. 4-24: Psa. lix. 
David's covenant with Jonathan, 1 Sam. xx. 

David flees to Ahimelech (where his lie costs the lives 
of the priests of the house of Eli), then to Achish; 
feigns madness, 1 Sam. 21: Psa. lvi. ; xxxiv. 

David flees again, joined by several followers, 

1 Sam. xxii. 1: Psa. cxlii. : 1 Sam. xxii. 1 I. p. and 
2. [1 Chron. xii. 8-18]: 2 Sam. xxiii. 13-17: 1 
Chron. xi. 15-19. 
David goes to Mizpeh, then to Hareth ; slaughter of 
the priests by Saul, 1 Sam. xxii 3-19 . 

Psa. lii. ; cix. ; xvii. ; cxl. ; xxxv. ; lxiv. 
Abiathar joins David ; David defeats the Philistines, 
1 Sam. xxiii. 1 ; xxii. 20-23 ; xxiii. 6, c 2-5, 7-12, 

Psa. xxxi. 

Saul pursues David ; an invasion obliges him to re- 
turn, 

1 Sam. xxiii. 13-23: Psa. liv.: 1 Sam. xxiii. 24-28, 
Saul pursues David ; David spares Saul's life ; Saul 
confesses his fault, 

1 Sam. xxiii. 29; xxiv. : Psa. lvii. ; lviii.; lxiii. 
Death of Samuel ; David and Nabal, 1 Sam. xxv. 
David again spares Saul's life, 1 Sam. xxvi. 

David flees to Achish, 1 Sam. xxvii. 1-7; Psa. cxli.: 
several resort to him, [1 Chron. xii. 1-7]. 

David makes an excursion on the Amalekites and re- 
pairs to Gath with the booty, 1 Sam. xxviii. 8-12. 

» See Lightfoot and Town. i. 638. 

b The order here is fixed by Bishop Horsley. Compare xvii. 33, 
38, 39, 42, 56, with xvi. 18, and it will be seen that xvi. 14r-23 belongs t© 
a later period than xvii. 1-40. 

c See Townsend on the order. 



2 SAMUEL — EPITOMIZED. 



519 



Date and Place. 



B. C. 
1056. 



Gilboa, 
(Djebel Gilbo) 

Ziklag (16 
S.W. Gath?). 



Hebron, 
1056. 
Acts xiii. 21. 
1054. 



1049, 
Hebron, 
Jerusalem. 



1048, 



1046, 
from Kirjath 
Jearim to 
house of 
Obededom, 
thence to 
Zion, Psa.cxxxii 



Event or Narrative. 



The Philistines prepare for war, and advance to 
Shunem ; David accompanies them ; Saul consults 
the witch of Endor, 1 Sam. xxviii. 

David dismissed from the army of the Philistines ; on 
his way back to Ziklag he is joined by several, 

1 Sam. xxix. : [1 Chron. xii. 19-22]. 

On his return to Ziklag, David finds that it had been 
sacked by Amalek, and his family taken; he pur- 
sues Amalek, and smites them, 1 Sam. xxx. 

Saul, defeated in battle and his sons slain, kills him- 
self, 1 Sam. xxxi. : [1 Chron. x. 1-14]. 

An Amalekite pretends to have slain Saul, and is put 
to death by David, 2 Sam. i. 1-16. 

David's lament over Saul and Jonathan, 

2 Sam. i. 17-27. 

66. (Part IV.) 

The Reign of David (40 years) 

David acknowledged as king of Judah, 

2 Sam. ii. 1-7. 

Ishbosheth proclaimed king of Israel, 2 Sam. ii. 8-11. 

Civil war ensues ; David waxes stronger ; Abner and 
Ishbosheth treacherously slain, 

2 Sam. ii. 12-32 ; iii. ; iv. 

David made king over all Israel ; his troops ; he dis- 
possesses the Jebusites of the hill of Zion, and dwells 
there, 2 Sam. v. 1-3 ; xxiii. 8-12 ; [xviii. 39] ; v. 4, 
5, 6-10 : 1 Chron. xi. 1-3 ; [xii. 23-40] ; xi. 10-14, 
20 [26-47], 4-9. 

Hiram of Tyre congratulates David ; David's family ; 
he twice defeats the Philistines, 

2 Sam. v. ll-25, a [13-17] ; 1 Chron. xiv. 1-17. 

David removes the ark ; Uzzah, not being a Levite, 
smitten for touching the ark (see Numb. iv. 15): 2 
Sam. vi. 1-11 ; vi. 12-23: Psa. lxviii., cxxxii., cv., 
xcvi., cvi. : 1 Chron. xiii. l-4, b 5-14; xv. 1-16, 43 ; 
[5-24]. «? 

David forbidden to build the temple ; great blessings 
promised him ; his prayer and thanksgiving, 2 Sam. 



a Ver. 24 : see 2 Kings vii. 6. 

b Townsend, following Chronicles, places the removal of the ark after 
David's conquest of Zion, and reads xiii. 1-4 after 2 Sam. v. 1-3. 
Ver. 4 : see vi. 31. 



520 



2 SAMUEL — EPITOMIZED. 



Date and Place. 



B. C. 



1041. 



1038—1037, 
Medeba. 
1036 and 1034, 
Jerusalem. 

1033. 



1031. 

1028. 

1025. 
1024. 



1024. 
Bahurim. 
Jerusalem. 

Mahanaim, 

65 N. E. 
Jerusalem. 
Ephraim. 



1023. 
1021. 



Event or Narrative. 



Vll. 
CX. 



1 Chron. xvii. : Psa. ii., xlv., xxii., xvi., cxviii., 



Victories over Philistia, Moab, Syria, and Edom, 

2 Sam. viii. : 1 Chron. xviii.; Psa. lx., cviii. 
David's kindness to Mephibosheth, 2 Sam. ix. a 

David defeats Ammon and Syria, 

[2 Sam. x.] : 1 Chron. xix. : Psa. xx., xxi. 
Siege of Kabbah ; David's adultery and murder, 
2 Sam. xi. 1 ; [xi. 2-12, 23] ; 26-31 : 1 Chron xx. 
1, 3. Psa. li., xxxii., xxxiii., ciii. b 
Birth of Solomon; Amnon, David's eldest son, forceth 
his sister Tamar, David's only daughter; David 
fails to punish this injury, 

2 Sam. xii. [24, 25 ; xiii. 1-22]. 
Absalom kills Amnon, and flees, 2 Sam. xiii. 23-39. 
Absalom brought back, and restored to his father's 
presence, 2 Sam. xiv. 1-7, 15-17, 8-14,<= 18-33. 
Absalom raises a revolt against David, 

2 Sam. xv. 1-12.<* 

David and his followers flee ; Zadok and Abiathar 
sent back with the ark ; Hushai desired by David 
to join himself to Absalom to circumvent Ahitho- 
phel's counsels, 2 Sam. xv. 13-37 : Psa. iii. 

Ziba's treachery to Mephibosheth ; Shimei curses Da- 
vid, 2 Sam. xvi. 1-14 : Psa. vii. 

Hushai defeats Ahithophel's counsel ; Ahithophel 
hangs himself, 2 Sam. xvi. 15-23 ; xvii. 1-26. 

David furnished with provisions, chiefly by Barzillai, 
2 Sam. xvii. 27-29 : Psa. xlii., e xliii., lv., iv., v., 
lxii., cxliii., cxliv., lxx., lxxi. 

Absalom defeated and slain by Joab, 2 Sam. xviii. 

David returns ; Shimei pardoned ; Mephibosheth 
exposes Ziba's treachery ; David's gratitude to 
Barzillai, 2 Sam. xix ; xx. 3. 

Eevolt of Sheba (at Abel), 2 Sam. xx. 1, 2, 4-26. 

The three years' famine, 2 Sam. xxi. 1-14. 



a See 1 Sam. xx. 15. 

b Psa. li. is David's penitential Psalm, and Psa. ciii. his Psalm of 
thanksgiving on being forgiven. The punishment was remitted ; but as 
a chastisement, nearly the whole of the remainder of David's life was 
embittered. c The sense requires this change (Horsley). 

d xv. 7 : 40 years, i. e. after David's anointing (Lightfoot), or read 4, 
as Josephus, Syriac, Hales. 

e David crosses Jordan, Psa. xiii. 6. 



2 SAMUEL — 1 CHRONICLES — ARRANGED. 



521 



Date and Place. 



Event or Narrative. 



B. C. 
1019. 



1018. 



1016, 
Jerusalem. 



1016, 
Gibeon, Jib, 
17 N. W. 
Gilgal, 



Last wars with the Philistines ; David's praise for 
victories ; his enemies subdued, 2 Sam. xxi. 15-22 : i. 
[xxii. 2-51]: ] Chron. xx. 4-8: Psa. xviii. 

David, in pride, numbers Israel ; the plague, 2 Sam. 
xxiv. 1-9 ; a x.-xxv. : b 1 Chron. xxi. 1-5; xxvii. 23, 
24: xxi. 6, 7, 8-30. 

David prepares materials, and instructs Solomon as to 
the building of the temple, 1 Chron. xxii. 

Adonij ah's rebellion; Solomon anointed and pro- 
claimed David's successor; Adonij ah submits, 

1 Kings i. [1-4].° 

David arranges the courses of the priests, etc., 

[1 Chron. xxiii.-xxvi.] 

Arrangement of the state officers, 

[1 Chron. xxvii. 1-22, 25-34.] 

David calls a solemn assembly, and exhorts both them 
and Solomon to the work of the temple ; the offer- 
ings of the princes and people ; David's thanks- 
giving; Solomon acknowledged as king, 1 Chron. 

xxviii. [11-21]: xxix. 1-25: Psa. lxxii., xci., cxlv. 
David's final charge to Solomon ; directs Joab and 

Shimei to be put to death ; David's last words ; his 
death, 1 Kings ii. 1-9 : 2 Sam. xxiii. 1-7 : 1 Chron. 

xxix. 26-30: 1 Kings ii. 10, 11. 

Psalms of David, of which the date and occasion are 
not known, Psa. vi., viii., xii., xix., xxiii., xxiv., 
xxviii., xxix., xxxviii., xxxix., xl., xli., lxi., lxv., 
lxix., Ixxviii., lxxxvi., xcv., ci., civ., cxx., cxxi (| 
cxxii., cxxiv., cxxxi., cxxxiii., cxxxix. 

67. (Part V.) 

The Reign of Solomon (40 years). 

Solomon's burnt-offering ; God giving him a choice, 
he asks for wisdom ; wealth and honor added to 
him, 1 Kings [ii. 12] ; iii. 4-15 :* 2 Chron. i. 1-5* 

' [6-12]. 



a Samuel omits the standing army (300,000), which Chronicles in- 
cludes, and Samuel includes Jerusalem (30,000), which Chronicles omits: 
Bee Lightfoot. 

b Ver. 13, i. e. three full additional years : compare 1 Chron. xxi. 12. 
See I 358 (d.) 

e On the order, see Townsend, who differs here from Lightfoot. 
* Passages marked thus (*) give the fuller narrative. 
44* 



522 



1 KINGS. — 1 CHRONICLES. — ARRANGED. 



Date and Place. 



B. C. 
1015, 
Jerusalem. 



Tyre, Tsur, 
102 N. Jer. 
1012, 

Jerusalem. 
1012—1005, 
1 Kings vi. 

1-37. 

1005, 
Jerusalem. 



1002. 



1001, 
Jerusalem. 



993, 
Jerusalem. 
980—977. 



Event or Narrative. 



Solomon's wise judgment, 

1 Kings iii. 15-28 :* [2 Chron. i. 13]. 
Adonijah and Joab put to death; Abiathar deposed; 

Shimei not to leave Jerusalem, 1 Kings ii. 13-38. 
Solomon obtains materials and men for the building 

of the temple, 1 Kings v. 1-18 . [2 Chron. ii. 1-18]. 
Shimei put to death for going to Gath, 1 Kings ii. 

39-46. 

Solomon marries Pharaoh's daughter, 1 Kings iii. 1-3 
The building of the temple, 1 Kings vi. 1-8, [15-36], 

[vii. 13-50] ; vi. 9-14, 37, 38-; vii. 51 : [2 Chron. iii. 

1-9],* [3, 4, 22], [10-14]; [iii. 15-iv. 22] ; [v. 1]. 
The dedication of the temple, 1 Kings viii. 1—11, 62- 

64, 12-61, 65, 66: 2 Chron. [v. 2-14;" vii. 4-7; 

vi. -vii. 3, 8, 10] : Psa. xlxii., c xcvii., xcviii., xcix., 
c, cxxxv., cxxxvi. 

Other buildings of Solomon : God makes a covenant 
with him, 1 Kings vii. 1-12; [ix. 1-9]: 2 Chron. 

vii. 11-22. 

Acquisitions of Solomon ; he . carries out David's 

arrangements for the temple services, 1 Kings ix. 
'10-14, 15-25: [2 Chron. viii. 1-10, 12-16]. _ 
Pharaoh's daughter brought by Solomon to his new 

palace, 1 Kings ix. 24 : [2 Chron. viii. 11] 

Solomon's song upon the occasion, [Cant. i.-viii]. d 
The greatness of Solomon, 1 Kings iv. 1-28, [2-19] ; 

x. 26 ; ix. 26-28 ; x. 14-25, 27-29 : [2 Chron. ix. 

26, 25; i. 14: viii. 17, 18; ix. 13-21, 24; i. 15-17; 

ix. 27, 28]. 

The wisdom of Solomon, 1 Kings iv. 29-33 : [2 Chron. 

ix. 22]: Prov. i.-xxxi ; [v.; vi. 24-35; vii). 
Solomon's fame ; visit of the Queen of Sheba, 1 Kings 

iv. 34 ; x. 1-13 : (2 Chron. ix. 23, 1-12). 
Solomon's wives seduce him into idolatry ; Hadad and 

Rezon stirred up against him, 1 Kings xi. 1-25. 



a Ver. 3, of the first measure, i. e. the larger cubit used before the 
captivity, nearly a yard. 

b Ver. 11, " white raiment'' additional to 1 Kings. The Jews offered 
the sacrifice, then prayed, and then the fire descended ; hence this order 
(Townsend). 

c Psa. xlvii. 5 : see 2 Chron. v. 13. The other Psalms are all appro- 
priate to this service, and were probably used. The date of their com- 
position is not known. 

d Compare iv. 8 ; vii. 4, with 2 Chron. viii. 6. 



PROPHETICAL BOOKS. 



523 



Date and Place. 



Event or Narrative. 



B. C. 
977. 



976, 
Jerusalem. 



976, 
Shechem. 



Ahijah predicts to Jeroboam the division of the 
kingdom ; Solomon seeks to kill Jeroboam, who 
flees into Egypt, 1 Kings xi. 26-40. 

Solomon writes Ecclesiastes, probably as an expres- 
sion of repentance, 

Eccl. or the Preacher, i.-xii; [iii.-xi. 8], 
Death of Solomon ; Rehoboam his son succeeds, 

1 Kings xi. 41-43 : [2 Chron. ix. 29-31]. 

68. The Division of the Kingdom. 

On the accession of Rehoboam, the people, headed by 
Jeroboam, demand a relaxation of burdens, 

1 Kings xii. 1-5 : [2 Chron. x. 1-5]. 

Acting upon the advice of the young men instead of 
the old men, Rehoboam refuses the request of the 
people, 1 Kings xii. 6-15 : [2 Chron. x. 6-15]. 

Ten tribes revolt; Judah and Benjamin adhere to 
Rehoboam, and form the kingdom of Judah, 

1 Kings xii. 16-19: [2 Chron. x. 16-19]. 

The ten tribes make Jeroboam their king, and form 
the kingdom of Israel, 1 Kings xii.-xx. 



CHAPTER III. 

historical and prophetical books from the death of 
solomon to the close of the old testament canon. 

Sec. 1. — Brief Historical View of this Period. — The 
Prophets in Connection with History. 

69. With the reign of Solomon ended the glory of Israel. 
The kingdom was thenceforth dismembered. Ten 

, ., ? , . , , , . , p The division. 

tribes, ot which Jiipnraim was chiei, separated from 

the rest, and formed the kingdom of Israel; Judah, with 



524 



PROPHECY AND HISTORY. 



\ 



which Benjamin was now united, alone remaining faithful to 
the house of David. To the latter, however, most of the Le- 
vites, and many who feared God out of all the tribes, ulti- 
mately adhered, 2 Chron. xi. 13-16. 

70. The history of these kingdoms presents striking con- 
trasts and instructive lessons. 

Israel from 

the division 

to the de- Jeroboam, the first king of Israel, and himself an Ephrai- 
struetion ' ° ' f 

of the mite, was raised to the throne by God, and a conditional 
kingdom. p rora i se was given that his kingdom should be as David's 
(1 Kings xi. 38). But Jeroboam had neither the faith nor the obedi- 
ence of David. To preserve the independence of his . kingdom, he 
established a separate priesthood, and set up idol- altars and images at 
Dan and Bethel. He thus framed a system of idolatry, denied practi- 
cally the unity and spirituality of God, and perpetuated, in an exag- 
gerated form, the evil for -which the kingdom had been rent from Solo- 
mon (Deut. xxviii. 15: 1 Kings xi. 11). Unhappily, the people shared 
his feelings, and through his influence idolatry became ever after part 
of the national religion. He himself, therefore, is branded in history 
as "Jeroboam, the son of Nebat, who made Israel to sin." 

From the time of Jeroboam, the first king, to Hoshea, the nineteenth 
and last, we find no one king free from the charge of general depravity. 
Of king after king, it is said that he " did that which was evil in the 
sight of the Lord." Jehu, indeed, destroyed the prophets of Baal, and 
for his partial obedience was rewarded with enlarged temporal blessing ; 
but he " took no heed to walk in the law of the Lord, for he departed 
not from the sin of Jeroboam, who made Israel to sin." The nation 
copied their kings. There were a few exceptions, but it needed, in Eli- 
jah's days, a direct revelation to discover them ; and out of the hundreds 
of thousands of whom Israel was composed, but 7,000 are mentioned 
as not having bowed the knee unto Baal. 

This fearful condition was the more guilty because of the warnings 
which had been given. Jeroboam knew why God had rejected Solo- 
mon, and was himself repeatedly rebuked by Ahijah and others. 
"Within fifty years appeared the prophets Jehu and Micaiab. Elijah and 
Elisha ; the two latter working more miracles than any prophet had 
wrought since the days of Moses and Joshua. A few years after their 
protracted ministry came Jonah, Hosea, and Amos. All the messages 
of these prophets were confirmed by Divine chastisements. Jeroboam 
and his family were cut off, as were Baasha and Zimri. In the 254 
years of the monarchy, nine different families occupied the throne, and 



PROPHECY AND HISTORY. 



525 



nearly their entire history is made up of bloodshed and confusion. 
Zechariah, the son of Jeroboam the second, was slain, after a reign of 
six months, by Shallum ; and he, after a reign of one month, by Mena- 
hem, his son and successor. Pekahiah was assassinated by Pekah, and 
Pekah is put to death by Hoshea; while most of this wickedness is 
ascribed to an unhallowed adherence to the policy and idolatries of 
their first king, 1 Kings xiv. 9, 10 : 2 Kings xvii. 21-23. He thought 
that policy essential to the stability of his throne ; it proved the ruin 
both of himself and of his kingdom. There is, indeed, "a way that 
seemeth right unto a man, but the end thereof are the ways of death." 

The distrust of Divine power and contempt of Divine law in which 
these evils originated, proved the means as well as the primary cause 
of the overthrow of the kingdom. Pekah sought an alliance with 
Rezin of Syria against Ahaz of Judah. Pekah was at first victorious, 
and Ahaz, copying the sin of his neighbor, applied for help to Tiglath- 
Pileser, son of Pul, king of Assyria. He came and chastised the Isra- 
elites, carrying into Media the two and a half tribes beyond Jordan, 
and making the rest tributary. This was the beginning of the cap- 
tivity, and might have proved a salutary warning (738 B. C.) Tea 
years later, So, king of Egypt, alarmed at the power of Assyria, induced 
Hezekiah and Hoshea to withhold the tribute which their predecessors 
had engaged to pay. This revolt brought up Shalmaneser, the son of 
Tiglath-Pileeer, with a large host; and in the end Samaria fell ; Hoshea 
was carried to Nineveh, and Israel was annexed to the Assyrian crown. 

The conquered country was afterwards peopled by settlers from the 
-egion of the Tigris and Euphrates. They intermarried with those of 
ne Israelites who had remained, and ultimately took the name of Sa- 
jaaritans. At first they served the "God of the country," and "wor- 
shipped idols;" but Josiah having destroyed the altar at Bethel, and 
carried his reformation even into Zebulon, they; rested in a system of 
Delief nearly as pure as that of the Jews, though less regular in some 
of its observances. What became of the ten tribes is not known. Cus- 
toms, rites, and features like theirs have been discovered in all parts of 
the world. Many of them seem to have returned at different periods 
to their own land. Cyrus addressed his proclamation to all the people 
of Jehovah (Ez. i. 1-3), and some of the rites connected with the con- 
secration of the temple imply that there were present remnants of all 
the tribes ; while many Israelites seem to have been settled in Galilee 
nd Persea long before the days of our Lord (1 Mac. v. 9-24). 



71. Very different were the destinies of Judah. Hlstory 
)f twenty kings, all descendants of David, who for of Judah. 



526 



PEOPHECY AND HISTORY. 



388 years occupied the throne, six are mentioned with great 
praise (Asa, Jehoshaphat, Uzziah, Jotham, Hezekiah, and 
Josiah), and others are commended. Several, however, were 
fearfully wicked ; Jehoram, Ahaz, Manasseh, and Amon, intro- 
ducing idolatrous worship into the temple itself, and filling 
Jerusalem with blood. 

The fatal error of the Jews, politically and religiously, was their alli- 
ance with idolators, originating, as it did, in worldliness and distrust, 
and tending to conform them to their idolatrous neighbors. Ahaz 
sought, as we have seen, the aid of Tiglath-Pileser against the kings 
of Israel and Syria; and though, at first, he was delivered from im- 
pending evil, he really received from the Assyrians " no help at all '' 
The payment of a heavy tribute was the first immediate result of this 
alliance; and other results soon followed. It cost Hezekiah most of 
his treasure, and but for special interposition would have cost him his 
throne. Manasseh it cost his liberty, and Josiah (who felt himself 
bound to oppose the progress of Necho eastward to Carchemish), his 
life. Jehoahaz, his son, was carried captive to Egypt. Jehoiakim (the 
brother and successor of Jehoahaz), who owed his crown to Necho, was 
set aside by Nebuchadnezzar. Shortly afterwards, his son Jeconiah 
was deposed by the same monarch and taken to Babylon, Zedekiah, 
the uncle of Jeconiah, and the third son of Josiah, being made king, 
after a solemn oath of allegiance, in his room. Tempted by Pharaoh 
Hophra, and against the remonstrance of Jeremiah, he revolted, and a 
third time Nebuchadnezzar came against Jerusalem. After a siege of 
eighteen months, the city was taken at midnight; most of the inhabi- 
tants were put to death, the children of Zedekiah were slain, and he 
himself (his eyes put out) was carried in chains to Babylon. At the 
same time, or a few months later, Nebuzaradan, the general of Nebuch- 
adnezzar, burned the city, destroyed the temple, and carried off the 
remainder of the sacred vessels and the greater part of the nation, a 
few poor only being left to till the soil. 

It is remarkable that no attempt was made to colonize the country, 
as had been done in the case of Israel ; the providence of God thus 
keeping it vacant, to be reoccupied by the people on the completion of 
their captivity. On the first visit of Nebuchadnezzar to Jerusalem 
(606), he carried off to Babylon Daniel and his companions : on the 
second, when he took away Jeconiah (597), Ezekiel also was taken ; 
Jeremiah and the other prophets of the captivity being left in the 
land. 



PROPHECY AND HISTORY. 



527 



72. Comparing these facts with prophecy, we have some, 
instructive conclusions. All the events thus hastily 
sketched were foretold, and yet in every case the pTuj™ecy ° f 
fulfilment of prophecy involves a moral lesson, and knowledge 

1 • , i it n t c ,i with human 

m no case does it supersede the freedom oi the freedom 
human agency which accomplished it. sibiihymus- 

trated in 

Ahijah, for example, foretells the division of the king- tory. 
dom, the captivity of Israel, and even the place where they 
were to be scattered (1 Kings xiv. 15). Isaiah foretells the overthrow 
of Samaria, as Hosea had done, and the date ; the preservation of 
Judah, and, finally, its destruction by Babylon, then a feeble and 
friendly state ; the catastrophe is hopeless to Samaria, " for Ephraim 
is to be broken from being a people ;" but not to Judah, for a restora- 
tion is promised. The person and name of the restorer, his country 
then scarcely known, the restoration effected by the destruction of 
Babylon, with the circumstances of the siege, the rebuild: ag of the city 
and of the temple — all these events, and many others, are foretold, 
and we read in Scripture of the accomplishment of these prophecies ; 
but in every case the moral lesson and the freedom of human agency 
remain undisturbed. Jeroboam's appointment, for example, was not 
kindness to him, but chastisement to the degenerate family of David ; 
and its immediate cause was the folly of Kehoboam, who acted under 
the excitement of human passions, irrespective of the Divine predic- 
tion. What change a race of pious kings in Israel might have made 
in the destiny of that people need not be conjectured; but the final 
overthrow of its actual kings, though foretold, was not less a fit con- 
sequence of their sins ; which sins, however, were repeatedly rebuked. 
The prophecy was still moral, and human agency still Lse. The failure 
of Sennacherib in his attack upon Jerusalem was foretold: and it was 
the fitting result of his defiance " of the Holy One of Israel" (Isa. 
xxxvii. 23). Hezekiah's deliverance, too, though foretold, was no less 
a blessing vouchsafed to a humble praying frame. Both Judah and 
Israel, again, might have been punished immediately by God; but in 
fact, both nations were suffered to work out their own punishment. 
Their disobedience was the very agency employed for the fulfilment of 
the Divine word. Everywhere in prophecy we have, as Davidson 
has remarked, God's overruling power and man's agency concurring 
to complete predictions, and that completion a moral end, in con- 
formity to a sentence of the Divine law." In some of the narratives 
of the Bible we have the first and second only ; as when Amon, a 



528 



PROPHETS — ARRANGED. 



wicked prince, called his son Josiah (1 Kings xiii. 2), not knowing the 
prediction till he had fulfilled it ; or as when Csesar Augustus issued a 
decree that brought Mary to Bethlehem (Luke ii. 4); or as when the 
cry of " Galilee" by the Jewish crowd sent Jesus to Herod (Luke 
xxiii. 5). But in the prophets we- have generally the three combined : 
Divine power, human agency, and such dispositions of heart in all 
concerned as make the fulfilment of predictions in harmony with the 
principles of the moral government of God. The fact may involve 
mystery, but it is not therefore the less instructive or true. See, for 
examples, 1 Kings xxii. 34: 2 Kings ix. 34-37, and the fulfilment of 
Jer. xxix. 10-15. 

The books ^* ^e books of this period may be arranged 
epitomized. an( j briefly epitomized as follows : 

(1). 1 Kings xii.-2 Kings xvii. ) Giving the history of Judah and 
2 Chron. xii.-xxxi. a ) Israel from the division of the king- 

dom to the captivity of Israel by Shalmaneser : 254 years. 
Jonah : history of his mission to Nineveh. 

Joel : the desolation of Judah ; the outpouring of the Spirit; judg- 
ments against different nations. 

Amos : prophecies concerning different nations and Israel. 

Hosea: warns Israel ; foretells overthrow, and points to latter days. 

Isaiah : various predictions and warnings to Israel and Judah ; 
also to various nations, i.-xxxvi. ; history, xxxvi.-xxxix. ; the 
return and the latter days, xl.-end. 

Micah : prophecies to Israel and Judah, and on the latter days. 

Nahum : just after the destruction of Samaria, he foretells the 
destruction of Nineveh. 
(2.) 2 Kings xviii.-xxv. ) Giving the history of the decline and fall 

2 Cheon. xxxii.-xxxvi. ) of the kingdom of Judah, and the 
captivity by Nebuchadnezzar : 184 years. 

Isaiah, Nahum : see above. 

Zephaniah : warns Judah ; prophesies against various nations ; 

speaks of the return and the latter days. 
Jeremiah : in Jerusalem and Egypt, gives predictions concerning 

Judah, Israel, and various nations, i.-xxxix., xlvi.-l. r xl.-xlv., 

chiefly historical ; li. not his. 
Habakkuk : prophesies on the return and on the Chaldees. 

3 2 Chron. gives the history of Judah only, not twenty verses being 
devoted to Israel; both books contain many additional facts. 



PROPHETS — ARRANGED. 



529 



Daniel: in Babylon, history, i.-vi. ; prophesies on various king- 
doms and Christ, vii.-ix. (x.-xii. : see under 3). 

Obadiah : prophesies of Edom and the latter days. 

Ezekiel: on the Chebar, gives various predictions on Israel, 
Judah, heathen nations, and the latter days. 
(3.) Haggai, Zechariah : at Jerusalem, 536-520, B. C 1 

Daniel: x.-xii., at Babylon. 

Esther : in Babylon : Nehemiah, in Babylon and at Jeru- j 

salem, 457-445, B. G. J 
Giving an account of successive restorations under Zerubbabel 
(536, B. C.) ; Ezra (457, B. C.) ; and Nehemiah (445, B. C.) ; 
the rebuilding and final completion of the temple, with pro- 
phecies of various kingdoms (Dan.) and the latter days. 
Malachi : rebukes the corruptions of Divine service ; foretells the 
coming of " Elijah" and of our Lord, 436-397, B. C. 



45 



530 PROPHETS IN ISRAEL. 

A Table of the Prophets, showing when they prophesied. 



Kings of 
Judah. 



B.C. 

840- 



Amaziah, 819 



800- 



Uzziah, 810 



790— 
780— 



760- 



750- 



Jotham, 758 



Abaz, 742 



Hezekiah, 727 
720 



710- 



700- 



Manasseh, C98 
690 



650- 
640. 



Anion, 643 
Josiah, 641 



620- 



Jehoahaz, 610 



610- 



Jehoiakim, 610 



Jeconiah, 599 



Dest. of Jeru- 
salem, 588 



550- 



Zerubbabel,53( 
520 



Kings op 
Israel. 



Jeroboam II., 825 



Interregnum. 784 



Menahem, 772 



Pekahiah, 761 



Pekah, 759 



Anarchy, 729 



Hosea, 730 



a Z 



> 
I 

* Malachi, be- 
tween 436 and 
420. 



The date after each king's name indicates the commencement of his reign- 
Joel is placed twice, as it is doubtful at which period he lived. 



NATURE OF LATER PROPHECIES. 



531 



Sec. 2. — The Nature of Prophecy during this Period. 

Predictions arranged. 

74. The prophetic spirit which we have seen revived in the 
days of Samuel and David (Pt. ii. § 45), becomes Prophet3 of 
yet more active during the later period of the this period. 
Jewish history. We have in succession sixteen prophets, 
whose writings remain, in addition to the authors of some, of 
the Psalms and the large class who appeared in Israel and 
Judah, such as Elijah- and Elisha, without leaving any per- 
manent records of their teaching. Of the prophets whose 
writings are included in Scripture, Jonah, Amos, Hosea, ad- 
dressed the Israelites before the destruction of Samaria, as did 
both Isaiah and Micah, though these latter prophesied to 
Judah chiefly. After the captivity of the ten tribes, Jere- 
miah prophesied briefly concerning them, as did Ezekiel. 
Most of the prophecies, however, are devoted to the destinies 
of Judah, of heathen nations, and of the church. 

75. A synoptical view of the prophecies of Scripture will be 
seen in § 76, and though not minutely accurate it will synoptical 
give a just idea of the topics and connection of the prophetic 6 
whole. Its partial inaccuracy, or rather, incomplete- ™onf S: 
ness, is owing to the fact, that events foretold are so taught by it 
closely connected with one another, and predictions so blended 
with moral instruction, that they can be grouped only according 
to the aim or general purpose of each. This has been done, and 
the lessons taught by this view are both obvious and important. 

1. Comparing this table of prophecy with the miracles of the Old 
Testament, it will be seen that as prophecy gains greater compass and 
clearness, the evidence of miracle is withdrawn. Before the later era 
of prophecy begins, in the days, for example, of Elijah, miracles are 
comparatively frequent; but even then we have nothing equal to those 
of Moses and Joshua. Now they cease. Prophetic revelation is en- 
larged, and having its fulfilment as it enlarges, it supplies the place of 
all other evidence. How strikingly it illustrates the infinite import- 
ance of the Gospel to notice that, to sustain and prove Christ's mission, 
all forms of ancient evidence combine. He fulfils old predictions and 
gives new ones; while his very person and life form a miraculous em- 
bodiment of power, wisdom and love. 



532 



NATURE OF LATER PROPHECIES. 



2. Prophecy on the subject of heathen nations becomes most copious 
in the age when these nations seem to triumph the most. Their victo- 
ries, and the boasting idolatrous spirit these victories cherished, severely 
tried the faith of true believers, and seemed to shake the credit of their 
religion, Psa. lxxix., lxxx. : Lament. The pride of the conquerors is 
therefore rebuked, and the faith of the church confirmed by a series of 
predictions denouncing the overthrow of the very nations whose suc- 
cesses are foretold. See the prophecies of Isaiah to various nations ; 
of Nahum to Assyria ; of Habakkuk to the Chaldeans ; of Obadiah to 
Edom ; Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel. 

3. The gradual extension of Divine revelation, so as not only to 
include a larger range of topics, but to reach various nations, is highly 
instructive. Jonah and Nahum address, in their written prophecies, 
Gentiles only. Gentiles only are also the theme of the prophecies of 
Habakkuk and Obadiah, and in most of the other prophets whole 
chapters are devoted to them. Plainly, God is not the God of one place 
or people. His providence rules over the earth, and all people are 
subject to Him. Heathen nations, it is true, are introduced into Scrip- 
ture predictions, as into Scripture history, because of their connection 
with the church or chosen nation, but the lesson remains. All are 
within his government, and it is distinctly intimated that all are by 
and by to become obedient to his law. 

4. It will be remarked, also, that the era of the decline and fall of 
the temporal kingdom (both of Israel and Judah)is the very era selected 
for the fullest and most expressive disclosure of a new spiritual king- 
dom. As the first dispensation seems hastening to decay, the objects 
and promises of the second are set forth to our view. All the prophets 
who speak of the ruin speak also of the restoration, and blend with the 
restoration predicted blessings, such as had never yet been possessed. 
This arrangement clearly indicates the unchangeableness of the Divine 
counsel. And it does more. It displays Divine mercy. In the heart 
of the devout Jew, under a dispensation which promised temporal 
blessing as the token of Divine favor, prophecy and recent events must 
have created the utmost perplexity. The threatened and actual visita- 
tions were all deserved ; but in that fact he found no relief. To quiet the 
agitations of his afflicted faith, the evangelical prophecies were inter- 
posed. By means of them, the hopes of the church were sent on into 
the more distant future and present anxieties were alleviated. As, 
therefore, at first, prophecy enlightened the darkness of fallen nature, 
so now it lightens the darkness of misused or neglected grace. How 
much even inspired prophets needed this consolation may be gathered 
from the Lamentations of Jeremiah, and from several of the Psalms, 
Psa. lxxix. 4, 9 ; lxxiv. 2, 20. 



NATURE OF LATER PROPHECY. 



533 



In the meantime, also, the spirituality of true religion, and the na- 
ture of that work on which it is founded, are more clearly disclosed. 
The prophets bring out the true meaning of the ancient law, insisting 
on the inferiority of ritual worship, and indicating with quite evan- 
gelical plainness the great Sacrifice of the cross, the Divine nature, and 
the ultimate rule of the sufferer, Isa. liii. : Dan. ix. How touching, 
that this clearer revelation of the spirituality of religion should be 
made at a time when all public religious institutions were corrupt, and 
after the temple itself had been destroyed. 

5. The most remarkable lesson remains. While nearly all the pro- 
phets point to the Gospel and the reign of our Lord, each speaks in 
language at once appropriate and peculiar. All foretell a glorious future, 
and the same glorious future ; but the terms in which they foretell it 
are taken either from impending evil or contemplated good. That 
future is • the opposite of present calamity, or it is the completion 
of present blessing. Joel, for example, foresees desolating invasions 
of Judah, but in the end the scene of desolation is Egypt and Edom ; 
while Judah shall dwell forever, and Jerusalem from generation to 
generation, iii. 19, 20. Amos foresees the overthrow of both Samaria 
and Zion ; but beyond these calamities he beholds a different scene. 
" In that day I will raise up the tabernacle of David that is fallen . . . 
and I will build it as in the days of old," ix. 11. And such is the char- 
acter of all predictions till the end of the captivity. Eestoration liter- 
ally is the first theme ; but the predictions that foretell it, borrow from 
it phraseology intended to express the glory of the latter days. 

After the captivity, the building of the temple is the first theme of 
inspired predictions. Haggai foretells its coming glory, ii. 6-9; and, 
under the type of Zerubbabel, the victories of our Lord, ii. 21-23. 
Zechariah foretells its completion, i. 16, 17 ; and by the symbolical act 
of crowning Joshua the priest, connects with this work the coming of 
him whose name is the Branch (Isa. iv. 1 ; xi. 1 : Jer. xxiii. 5), who shall 
Lai Id the temple of the Lord and bear the glory, vi. 10-15. Malachi 
again appears after the temple is built. What was then wanting was 
sincere worship and a holy priesthood, i. 10, 11 ; iii. 10. He therefore 
foretells a new covenant, and the coming of a messenger who shall pu- 
rify the sons of Levi; so that the offering of Judah and Jerusalem shall 
"be pleasant unto the Lord, as in the days of old," iii. 4. Here, there- 
fore, as elsewhere, prophecy takes its phraseology from the condition 
of the people to whom it was addressed. It foretells an early blessing, 
and in terms which make this blessing a pledge and type of infinitely 
richer blessings to be bestowed in the more distant future. Important 
rules of interpretation are suggested by this fact. 



534 THE prophets' order, 



76. Tabular View of the Prophets, showing the 



Passages chiefly 

Moral, Devotional 
To Israel 


Jonah, B. C. 
840—784. 


Amos, 

Kin 78^ 


Hosea, 
gOQ 725. 


Isaiah, 
765—698. 


Joel, 
810—795. 


Micah, B. C. 
758—699. 


r?c6 

t\ 

IS 








xxv.-xxvii. 11 
ix. 8-21; xxviii. 
i.-v. ; xxii. 8, etc.; 
xxix.; xxx. 

xxxvi.-xxxix. 

vii. 1-25 (xiv. 24- 

viii. ;ix.S; J 28; xvii. 
XV. 11 1 

xxii.l;xxiv. (. viii. 5-9 
Iii. 

ix.; xiv.; xxx.; xxxi. 
xiii.; xiv. 24-28; xxi. 

xix.; xx. 

xviii. 
xxi. 11 

xv.; xvi. 
vii. 1-9; viii.; xvii. 

xxiii. 
Arabia, xxi. 13, etc. 

vii. 14; ix.; xl.-lxiii. 










ii.-viii. 


iv.-xiii. 
iv. 15, etc.; 
xii. 2 


i. 8- 

ii. 12 


f ii.iii 
I vi. 






i.-iv. 






Prophetic (a) — 


ii.-ix. x. 
i. 2, iv. & 


"1 


v. 8-vi.3 




1 ^ 
[ vii. 








i.; ii. 
27 




Assyria, Nineveh 
Babylon,Chaldea 


iii. 4. 


i.-iii 








































i. 11. 

ii. l 

i. 1, iii. 5 

i. 9 
Ammon, 

Philistia, 
i. 


































Tvie 
























Prophetic (b) — 
Our Lord's first 
coming 

Events subse- 
quent, where — 
Israel is named 


i. xvii. 


xi.l; xiii. 14 


ii. 28 


v. 






ix. 11-15 

ix. 12 

See Acts 
xv. 17 


xiii.14fi.l0: 
ii.14 
" 23 
xlv. [iii. 5 

{ 


xxviii. 5; f f x.- 
x. 20, etc. xii. 

< viii. 
xxii. xx ; xl. 
xxiv. 14, |_ 
etc.ix.; tQ 

xxvii.-xxxv. 

.lxvi. 

xix. 18-23 
xix. 23-25 


ii.28 
■i iii. 


r ii.12 

iv. 5 

J • 

and 
L vii. 





Egypt converted 












Moab restored... 









































AND SUBJECTS OF THEIR PROPHECIES. 

order and chief subjects of their prophecies. 



535 



c to 



Jeremiah, 
628—585. 



Daniel, 
f.()6— 534. 



Ezekiel, B C. 
595—536. 



Lam. i.-v. 



xxvm.; xxix.; xxxh. 
1-25; xxxvi-xliii. 
7; lii. 

xxx.: xxxi. 



-xxv.; xxvu.; xxix. 
xxx.-xxxi.; xxvi.; 
xxxiii. ; xxxiv. ; 
xliv.; xlvi. 26 ; 1. 



i.; vi. 



ii. 13 



ii. 12 
ii. 9 



xxv. 12; xxxvii.; 1. ; 
li. 

xliii. ; xliv. 29 ; xlvi.; 
1. 



n. 36; iv 
19 ; v. 25 



xlix. 7 : Lam. iv. 21 



xlviii. 
xlix. 23. 



Ammon, 



Philistia : 
ii. 



Ammon, xlix.; Phi- 
listia, xlvii.; Ara- 
bia, Persia, xlix. 



xxxi. 22; xxx. 



Persia, 
Grecia, 
Rome, 
xi.; the 
four 
king.vii, 

ix. 24-26 
vii. 13 



vii.; xn. 



xxx.; 

xxxiii. 

xxxi. 
xxiii. 5 



iii.8-20 



xvn 
xxi 



iii. 13 



ix.-xxiv.; xxxiii.: 
xxxvi.; xxxvii.; 
xxxix.-xlviii.? 



xxxi. 3-18 



xxix.-xxxi. 

, xxx. 4-6 
xxv.-xxxv. 

xxv. 

xxvi.-xxviii. 
Ammon, xxi. 28; 
xxv.; Philistia, 
do.; Gog, 
xxxviii.; xxxix. 



xxxiv. 23, etc. 



vi. 

X. 

xxxix 
23, 
etc. 



vii i.; I 
ix. 21; L 



xxvm 

XX 

xxxvi.25; 
xxxiv.20, 
2'.; xl.-xlvii 



xlviii. 47. 
xlix. 39. 



10- 
19 



i.7, 



536 



JONAH. 



Seo. 3. — The Books of Jonah, Joel, Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, 

Micah, Nahum. 

THE BOOK OF JONAH (b. C. 840-784). 

77. Jonah succeeded Elisha as the messenger of God to the 
~ . , ten tribes, and flourished between 120 and 180 

Date and ^ ' 

history. years after the death of Solomon. He probably 
lived in the reign of Jehoahaz, when Hazael was fulfilling the 
predictions of Elisha, 2 Kings viii. 12; x. 32. He foretold 
the enlarged territory and brief prosperity of Israel under 
Jeroboam the second, in whose reign the prophet himself 
probably lived, 2 Kings xiv. 25. He was a native of Gath- 
hepher, in Zebulun or Galilee, and is thus a proof of the 
falsehood of the statement of the Pharisees, that out of 
Galilee cometh no prophet, John vii. 52. He is certainly the 
most ancient of the prophets whose writings have come down 
to us. 

This book, with the exception of chap, ii., is a simple narrative, and 
relates that Jonah, being sent on a mission to Nineveh 
(which was at that time the chief city of the Gentile world, 
and was distinguished equally for its magnificence and its wickedness), 
attempts to flee to Tarshish ; but being overtaken by a storm, he is cast 
into the sea, swallowed by a great fish, and continues in its belly three 
days (chap i.) ; when, earnestly praying to God, he is delivered, chap. ii. 
At the renewed command of God, he goes to Nineveh and announces 
its destruction ; upon which the Ninevites, believing his words, fast, 
pray, repent, and are graciously spared, chap. iii. Jonah, fearing to 
be thought a false prophet, peevishly repines at the mercy of God, and 
wishes for death. Leaving the city, he is sheltered by a gourd, which, 
however, shortly withers; and Jonah, manifesting great impatience and 
rebellion, is shown, by his concern about the gourd, the propriety of 
God's mercy to Nineveh, chap. iv. 

That this book is a strictly historical narrative, is evident not only 
from the plain meaning of the language employed, but also from the 
manner in which the existence and ministry of Jonah, together with 
the main facts of his history, are referred to by our Lord (Matt. xii. 
39-41 ; xvi. 4 : Luke xi. 29, 30), who, explicitly recognising his pro- 
phetical office, as he does that of Elijah, Isaiah, and Daniel, represents 



JONAH — LESSONS — JOEL. 



537 



his being in the belly of the fish as a real miracle ; grounds upon it, aa 
a fact, the certainty of a future analagous event in his own history : 
and after mentioning the prophet's preaching at Nineveh, and the 
repentance of the inhabitants, concludes by declaring respecting him- 
self, "Behold! a greater than Jonah is here." 

As Jonah himself has generally been considered the author (a con- 
clusion which the Chaldaisms of the original confirm), the record of the 
sin of the prophet affords another illustration of that strict regard to 
truth which characterizes the inspired volume. 

The spiritual lessons in this narrative are highly instructive. The 
prophet is in his own person a prophetic sign of Christ. 
The miracle of his deliverance from his three days of death lessons* 
is "the fullest and nearest shadow of Christ's lying in the 
grave which the Scripture affords" (Cradock). The first image, there- 
fore, which meets us in the opening of the prophetic canon is one that 
shadows forth, though dimly, the great fact of the resurrection of our 
Lord (Davison). 

The whole narrative presents, too, the most striking contrast between 
the tender mercy of God, and the rebellion, impatience, and selfishness 
of his servant; and further, between the readiness with which the 
Ninevites repented, at the preaching of a prophet who visited them a3 
a stranger, and the manner in which the Israelites treated the servants 
of Jehovah, who lived and labored amongst them. 

At the same time, it might serve to teach the people of Israel that 
the Divine regard and compassion were not confined to them alone, 
but were extended to other subjects of God's government; also to 
intimate to them their high destiny, in carrying the tiding of salvation 
to the pagan world, and to keep up the expectation of that happy 
period, when repentance and the forgiveness of sins should be preached 
in the name of Christ to all nations. If not a formal type, the history is 
a real example of the genius of the gospel. 

To all, the book furnishes encouragement to humiliation and prayer; 
to faithfulness in publishing God's word to the guilty, and to implicit 
resignation to his will. 

THE BOOK OF JOEL, B. 0. 810-795. 

78. We have no account in the Bible of the personal his- 
tory of Joel, nor does tradition give much light in relation to 
him. He was the son of Pethuel (Joel i. 1), and it is said, 
of the tribe of Eeuben. It is inferred from his writings, that 



538 



JOEL. 



he lived in Judah, probably not later than the reign of 
Uzziah, which extended from 810 B. 0., to 758 B. C. ; for 
when he mentions the enemies of his country, he names the 
Phoenicians, Philistines, Idumeans, and Egyptians, chap. iii. 
4-19, but makes no reference to the Assyrians and Baby- 
lonians ; which he probably would have done, had those two 
empires been already formidable to the Jews. The whole 
book indicates, moreover, that the prophet lived at a time, 
when the people of Judah had not fallen into that extreme 
depravity, which, in later times, drew down upon them such 
heavy chastisements. Uzziah had indeed begun to lift up his 
heart, 2 Chron. xxvi. 16 : but the evil seems as yet rather a 
subject of prophecy than of history, though given in histori- 
cal form. He was contemporary with Hosea and Amos ; and 
as they addressed Israel, so he addressed Judah. 

In the first chapter, (i.-ii. 11), the prophet delineates, with most 
C t ts g ra phi° force, an impending devastation, successive armies 
of locusts (i. 4), and burning drought (ver. 18, 19), repre- 
senting in this form, probably, the calamities consequent upon coming 
invasions. 

He then exhorts to penitence, fasting, and prayer (ii. 12-17), 
promising the removal of these evils, and rich evangelical blessings. He 
foretells in the clearest terms, the effusion of the Holy Spirit (ii. 18-31 •■ 
Acts ii. 1-21 ; x. 41), and the destruction of Jerusalem, a prediction 
given with such force, as to be in some measure descriptive of the final 
judgment (ii. 30: Matt. xxiv. 29). 

In chap, iii., he foretells of the assembling of the nations in the 
valley of the Judgment of the Lord (Jehoshaphat), and their destruc- 
tion, the establishment of Jerusalem as the holy city, and the glorious 
state of peace and prosperity to be enjoyed by the church in the days 
of the Messiah. 

His style is remarkably clear and elegant; obscure only towards the 
close, where its beauties are shaded by allusions to events 
not yet accomplished. The double destruction foretold in 
chaps, i.-ii. 11, the first by the locusts, the second by the enemies of 
whom they were harbingers, is painted in terms that are reciprocally 
metaphorical, and admirably adapted to the two-fold character of the 
description. (Gray.) 



JOEL — AMOS. 



539 



Joel was held in great reverence by the ancient Jews, and is quoted 
by both Peter and Paul, Acts ii. : Rom. x. 13. 

79. There are different views, it may be added, on the 
meaning of the description given in chaps, i-ii., xii. 

Some regard the whole as literal, and apply it either to the famine 
and drought, of which Amos speaks, iv. 7, 8 ; or to the 
seven years of famine, that desolated Judaea in the days of ^f^ 11 ^ fj f 
Joram, 2 Kings viii. 1-3. Others regard the description as 
figurative, and apply it to the invasion by Tiglath-Pileser, Shalmaneser, 
Sennacherib, and Nebuchadnezzar, or to the subjugation of the country 
by Assyrians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans. Others, as Olshausen, 
combine these views, and deem it a description of impending calamity 
generally, both literal and figurative. " Locust" is certainly used with 
this double reference in Scripture (see symbols), and in the second 
chapter, expressions are used with apparently a double aspect, as like 
expressions were afterwards used by our Lord, Matt, xxiv., referring 
to an earlier and a final visitation. Indeed, as all great and Divine 
deliverances prefigure or represent the deliverance of the Cross, so all 
great punitive visitations supply figures for describing the Judgment. 



THE BOOK OF AMOS, B. C. 810-785. 



80. Amos appears to have been contemporary with Hosea, 
and like him, was sent to the ten tribes. Both pro- 

History. 

phesied during the reigns of Uzziah and Jeroboam 
II., and Amos saw his first vision "two years before the 
earthquake," which happened, as we learn from Zechariah, 
in the days of Uzziah (Zech. xiv. 5, see also Isa. v. 25). 

He appears to have prophesied in Bethel (vii. 10-13), but; 
he did not belong to the kingdom of Israel, being an inhabi- 
tant, and probably a native, of Tekoa, a city south of Jeru- 
salem, and on the borders of the vast open pastures (" wilder- 
ness"), of the hill country of Judah, By profession he was 
a herdsman, and a dresser of sycamore trees (vii. 14) : " Not 
a prophet, or prophet's son," i. e., not trained to that office, 
but called by an irresistible Divine commission (iii. 8; vii. 15),. 
to prophesy unto Israel. To this fact he alludes, when 



540 



AMOS. 



Amaziah, the idolatrous priest of Bethel, charged him with 
conspiring against Jeroboam. His previous occupation ought 
to have removed all suspicion of political connection with the 
house of David, and to us it illustrates the grace which 
selects its ministers " from the tents of the shepherd, as well 
as from the palace of the sovereign," qualifying each for the 
duties to which he is called, see 1 Gor. i. 27, 29. 

Amos speaks of himself as the author of these prophecies (vii. 8 ; 
viii. 1, 2), and his prophetic character is established by the testimony 
of Stephen the first martyr, and James (Acts vii. 42, 43; xv. 15-17), 
and by the exact fulfilment of his predictions. This book is enume- 
rated in all the early lists of canonical authors (see Part i. \ 160). 

The style of Amos is simple, but by no means deficient in picturesque 
beauty. His manner of life may be traced in the illustrations he 
selects ; which are taken mostly from rural employments : many of 
them are original and striking, while all have a life and freshness of 
nature. His knowledge of events of remote antiquity (ix. 7), and of 
others more recent, not elsewhere recorded (vi. 2), the regular course 
of his thoughts, and the correctness of his language, all tend to show 
that the responsible and often dangerous (iii. 12), occupation of a 
shepherd was still as favorable to mental culture, as in the days of 
Moses and David. 

The people of Israel were now rapidly filling up the measure of their 
sins. The mission of Amos was, therefore, rather to threaten than to 
console. He rebukes, among other things, the corruption of their 
manners, which kept pace with their prosperity : he charges the grtat 
men with partiality as judges, and violence towards the poor : and he 
foretells, as a punishment from God, the captivity of the ten tribes in 
a foreign country ; a prediction accomplished about sixty years aftei- 
wards, when Shalmaneser, the king of Assyria, destroyed the king- 
dom. 

This book begins with announcing Divine judgments against tne 
states around Judaea, and against the two Hebrew nations 
themselves 1 (1, 2). The prophet then sets before the 
Ephraimites their sins in detail : what God has done to bring them 
back to himself ; how they may return to God ; and the chastisements 
which were in reserve for their obduracy (iii.-vi.). This is followed 
by symbolical visions, representing successive punishments to be in- 



Fulfilled in the victories of Assyria and Babylon. 



AMOS — HOSEA. 



541 



fiicted on the Israelites, each more severe than the preceding. The 
certainty and the near approach of their ruin is declared (viii. 9-14). 
But, beyond this calamity, the prophet is commissioned to foretell new 
things in the distant future. And he concludes, with assurances that 
God will not utterly destroy the house of Israel ; but after sifting and 
cleansing it among the nations, will raise it again to more than its 
former glory, in the kingdom of the Messiah (ix. 11-15). In the 
blessing of this kingdom, the Gentiles are also to share (see Acts xv. 
16, 17). 

THE BOOK OF HOSEA, B. C. 800-725. 

81. Hosea was probably a native and inhabitant of Israel. 
He lived during the reigns of the last six or seven of its kings, 
from Jeroboam II. to Hoshea, a period of about sixty years. 
He was contemporary with Isaiah, though he began to pro- 
phesy some time before him (Isa. i. 1 : Hos. i. 1). 

The prophecies of Hosea are directed almost exclusively to the ten 
tribes. He addresses them under the title of Israel, of Samaria, which 
had been, since the days of Omri, their capital; of Ephraim, the most 
distinguished of the tribes, to which Jeroboam, their first king belonged. 
The idolatry which commenced in his days at Dan and Bethel, had now 
been continued for more than 150 years, and had diffused every form 
of vice among all classes. The last short interval of outward pros- 
perity, under Jeroboam II., was soon followed by general anarchy and 
decay. The kings and princes were murderers and profligates (vii. 3-7) : 
the idolatrous priests had spread their shameful festivals and their de- 
ceitful oracles all over the land (iv. 12-14; x. ; xii. ; xiii. 2): the great 
parties in the state resorted for help sometimes to Assyria, at other 
times to Egypt (2 Kings xv. 19; xvii. 4); while the whole nation relied 
entirely on human help (v. 13; vii. 8-12; viii. 9, 10; x. 13, etc.); 
worldly and sinful objects were pursued with the same eagerness by 
Ephraim as by Canaan (xii. 7, 8): a listless security blinded all minds 
(v. 4; xii. 8); giving place in the moment of danger to a repentance 
merely of the lips (vii. 16) : and, what was the root of all the other 
evils, God and his word were forgotten (iv. 1-6 ; viii. 12). 

This condition the prophet most earnestly condemns, using the ex- 
pressive figures of adultery to reprove their idolatry; figures which 
imply the violation of a solemn covenant, and the alienation of the 
affections of the people from God. These lessons were illustrated in 
the assassination of four kings successively, and in the general disor- 
ders of the state. 
46 



542 



HOSEA. 



For sixty years these warnings and appeals were continued, without 
success — a bright example of persevering fidelity under the greatest 
discouragements. 

As Hosea speaks in these prophecies in the first person (iii. 1, 2, 3), 
no doubt he compiled them himself. They contain many specific pre- 
dictions, literally fulfilled, and the book is cited by Matthew, by Paul, 
and by our Lord, Matt. ii. 15 . Rom. ix. 25, 26 : 1 Cor. xv. 35 : Matt, 
ix. 12, 13 ; xii. 7. 

Considering the long period to which the ministry of Hosea extended, 
it may appear surprising that his writings are comprised within so 
small a compass ; but it must be remembered that, as in the case of 
others of the prophets, there is no reason to suppose that this book con- 
tains all that he ever uttered. Such portions only of his inspired com- 
munications are recorded as the Holy Spirit saw fit to preserve for the 
benefit of the Jews, and the world. 

The language of Hosea is to us peculiarly difficult. His style is very 
gt k concise and abrupt, abounding with figures and meta- 

phors, which are often much intermixed ; and the transitions 
from one subject and figure to another, are frequent and sudden. The 
particular occasions on which his prophecies were delivered, are in 
themselves rarely obvious, and are never specified by the author. 
Some parts of them, however, are peculiarly pathetic, animated, and 
sublime. 

Among the more remarkable of his predictions are those in which ho 
foretells the captivities and sufferings of Israel ; a the deliverance of Ju- 
dah from Sennacherib, a figure of salvation by Christ ; b the punishment 
of Judah and her cities ; c the present state of the Jews . d their future 
conversion and union with the Gentiles under the Messiah ; e and the 
call of our Saviour out of Egypt ; f while the final ransom of his people 
from death and the grave is celebrated in the loftiest strains. e 

All these predictions are not equally clear; but the evangelical tenor 
of most, nothing can exceed. These predictions are blended in the 
original with a form of phraseology closely allied to the phraseology 
of the ancient law (Hengstenberg). 

Chaps, vi., xiii., xiv., are peculiarly rich in statements adapted to 
awaken those feelings of penitence and faith which become the Chris- 
tian and the church in every age. 

a v. 5-7 ; ix. 3, 6-11 ; x. 5, 6, 15 ; xiii. 16. 

b i. 7 ; compare 2 Kings xix. 35. c v. 10 ; viii. 14. 

d iii. 4. «* i. 10 ; ii. 23 ; i. 11 ; iii. 5 ; xiv. 4, 8. 

f xi. 1 (see Matt. ii. 15); vi. 2 (see 1 Cor. xv. 4). 

* xiii. 14 (see 1 Cor. xv. 55). 



HOSEA — ISAIAH. 



543 



This book may be divided into two parts, comprising, 1st, A sym- 
bolical narrative, chaps, i.-iii. ; and, 2dly, Prophetic discourses, chaps, 
iv.-xiv. 

1. The first part gives a symbolical representation of the past, present 
and future history of the people of God. It describes their adoption, 
their rebellion and infidelities, their chastisement and rejection, the 
conversion of the Gentiles, and the future repentance and restoration 
of Israel. These three chapters are an abridgement of the whole book, 
and the gracious promises which they contain, and which are not 
noticed in the seven following chapters, re-appear in the eleventh, and 
close the book. 

2. In the second part, containing several prophetic discourses deliv- 
ered at different times, the things which have been before revealed un- 
der a symbolical form, are further illustrated by the most vivid images. 
It begins with rebukes and threatenings, which present to view in the 
foreground various frightful calamities ; but by degrees the horizon be- 
comes clear, and the glory of the latter time shines forth with unclouded 
lustre. 

Various attempts have been made to classify the latter chapters of 
the book chronologically, but without success. The general drift is 
clear, but the writer has given us no other indication of the order of 
the several prophecies than their place in the book itself. 

The narrative of Hosea's marriage we have described as symbolical. 
Some (Augustine, Grotius, Horsley), regard it as literal history ; others 
suppose that a marriage with an Israelitish woman is all that is in- 
tended ; but most (Jerome, Rosenm., Louth, Hengs.), regard it as alle- 
gory only, or as a vision. It may be added that the narrative-exactness 
of the whole, and the use of names, are as consistent with the supposi- 
tion that it is a parable or vision, as with the supposition that it is a 
real occurrence which is described, Ezek. xxiii. : Luke xvi. 20-31. 

THE BOOK OF ISAIAH, (b. 0. 765-698). 

82. Though Isaiah has given incidentally decisive evidences 
of his humility, his pity for his countrymen, and for the na- 
tions whose desolations he announced,* he has told us very 
little of his own history. He was called to the prophetic 
office in the reign of Uzziah, king of Judah, and he continued 
to prophesy during the reigns of Jotham, Ahaz and Hezekiah; 
perhaps, also, during a portion of the reign of Manasseh. Of 
his parentage nothing is known, though, as his father's name 



* vi. 5 ; lxvi. 2 ; xxi. 3 ; xvi. 9. 



544 



ISAIAH. 



is mentioned, the Jews concluded that he was a prophet, 
They add that Isaiah belonged to the royal house, and that 
he was father-in-law of Manasseh, by whom they say he was 
put to death, being sawn asunder for contradicting or adding 
to the Mosaic law 8 (Isa. vi. 1, compare with Exod. xxxiii. 20). 
His wife is styled a prophetess (viii. 3), and he had two sons, 
whose names and history were intended to illustrate and en- 
force his predictions (vii. 3 ; viii. 3, 4). His name means 
"salvation of Jehovah," and is, in a large degree, descriptive 
of his character and writings. In the New Testament it is 
spelt (from the LXX and Vulgate) Esaias. His father was 
often confounded with Amos, the prophet, whose name (o*to» 
Amos) the Septuagint writes in the same way as the name of* 
Amos (fittat Amotz), the father of Isaiah, r, Apuq. 

The duration of his ministry is not known. The whole of 
the reigns of Uzziah, etc., to Hezekiah, amount to 112 years. 
From the last year of Uzziah to the 14th of Hezekiah, when 
we last find traces of Isaiah in history (2 Kings xx. 1 : Isa, 
xxxviii. 1), is forty-seven years, and if, according to Jewish 
tradition, he survived till the days of Manasseh, he must have 
been more than 100 years old. 

When Isaiah entered on his office the throne was occupied by Uzziah 
or Azariah. His general character was that of integrity and piety ; 
and under his reign the nation enjoyed great temporal prosperity. He 
was a worshipper of the true God ; though he failed to remove the 
groves and high places established for idolatrous worship. Uzziah was 
succeeded by his son Jotham, whose general character was like that of 
his father; but the idolatrous altars were still allowed to remain, and 
owing to the increase of luxury and sensual indulgence, true piety de- 
clined more and more. The next king, Ahaz, was a very wicked and 
idolatrous prince; and his reign was very disastrous. The law of God 
was broken in the most reckless manner, and the temple not only de- 
faced and plundered, but at last shut up. During this period Isaiah 
came forward publicly as a reprover of sin ; but his counsels and warn- 
ings were disregarded. Hezekiah' 's character was the reverse of that 
of his father. He abolished idolatry, restored the temple and worship 



a See Heb. xi. 37. 



ISAIAH — GEN UINEKESS. 



545 



.of Jehovah, and relieved the people from foreign oppression. He 
treated Isaiah with great respect, and during the agitating occurrences 
of his reign the prophet had an important part in directing the public 
counsels. 

83. The life of Isaiah includes the last years of the kingdom 
of Israel. Under Jeroboam II., the contemporary of Uzziah, 
Samaria had flourished, but for several years it had been 
ruled by usurpers, and at length, in the sixth year of Heze- 
kiah, the kingdom was overthrown, and its inhabitants re- 
moved. 

His prophecies, however, have little reference to the condition of 
Israel, and are directed chiefly to Judah. 

The relation of Judah to neighboring nations it is important to 
remember. With Moab, Edom, and the Philistines, Judah had repeated 
conflicts. Though within the boundaries of Judah, and subdued by 
David, they were constantly endeavoring to maintain an independent 
position, and during the reign of godless, feeble kings, their efforts 
were generally successful. Assyria had increased in strength, and was 
extending her conquests on all sides. Egypt had been subdued by 
Ethiopia, and both countries had been united under one dynasty. 
Assyria and Egypt were both preparing for a coming struggle, and 
each in succession sought the alliance of both Judah and Israel. The 
safest policy, whether we regard the temporal interests or the religious 
character of the Jewish kingdoms, was clearly to stand aloof from 
both Babylon, as Havernick has shown, was at this time an inferior 
kingdom, struggling against Assyria for independence, and rising slowly 
into importance. Hence the wisdom of Merodach-Baladan in seuding 
an embassy to Hezekiah ; hence, also, the need of Divine teaching to 
foretell the future power of Babylon, and the subjugation by it of tne 
kingdom of Judah. 

The two most remarkable events of this period are, the invasion of 
Judah by the combined forces of Syria and Israel, followed by the de- 
struction of the kingdom of the ten tribes ; and the Assyrian invasion 
of Judah in the fourteenth year of Hezekiah, ending in the defeat of 
Sennacherib. Within the same period, and twenty or thirty years 
earlier than the last-mentioned facts, fall th e two most remarkable epochs 
of chronology ; A. U. C, 753 B. C, and the era of Nabonassar, 747 
B. C. Just before the days of Isaiah is the date of the first Olym., 
776 B. C. 



46* 



546 



ISAIAH CONTENTS. 



84. The genuineness of Isaiah has been much discussed in 
modern times, and especially the latter portion of his pro- 
phecies, chaps, xl.-lxvi. 

The objections to the genuineness of this portion of his hook are 
founded chiefly on alleged peculiarities of style, such as Chaldaisms, 
and differences in expression between the earlier and later divisions of 
his writings. All these objections, however, have been met by facts, 
taken from the book itself, a and the genuineness of the whole is attested 
by universal antiquity, and by the New Testament. Of the sixty-six 
chapters, forty-seven are directly or indirectly quoted by our Lord or 
his apostles ; and out of the twenty-one cases in which Isaiah is ex- 
pressly named, we find quotations from chaps, i., vi., ix., x., xi., xxix., 
xl., xlii., liii., lxi., lxv. The view, therefore, that the whole of Isaiah 
(the later and earlier portions) had one author is sanctioned by in- 
spired teachers. 

85. This book may be divided into two principal parts. 

(i.) The first part, i.-xxxix., contains prophetic addresses and wri- 
tings of different dates, most of them bearing immediately on the 
morals, piety, and welfare of the nation. Of these there are four sec- 
tions : — ■ 

1. Reproofs, warnings, and promises addressed to Judah and Israel, 
chiefly during the early part of the prophet's ministry, with 
prophecies of the success of the Gospel, and the coming of the 
Messiah to judgment, i.-xii. 

2. Predictions respecting neighboring hostile nations, in which are 
described the sins and destruction of Assyria, Babylon, Moab. 
Egypt, Philistia, Syria, Edom, and Tyre, xiii.-xxiii. 

3. Writings probably of the time of Ahaz and Hezekiah, describ- 
ing the sins and misery of the people; picturing the Assyrian 

. invasion; the destruction of Samaria; the alarm, distress, and 
final deliverance of Jerusalem, with many references, also, to 

8 There are, for example, Chaldaisms in Isaiah, and this fact was 
made one reason for ascribing the book to different authors. Hirzet, 
however (De Chal. Bib. Origine, 1830), has shown that, in all the po- 
etical parts of Scripture especially, there are Chaldaisms, that in Isaiah 
there are but four true Chaldaisms, and that these are all found in the 
part which is admitted to be genuine, vii. 14(?); xxix. 1; xviii. 7; 
xxi. 12. 



ISAIAH — CONTENTS. 



547 



the conversion of the Jews under the Gospel, and the destruction 
of all the enemies of the church, xxiv.-xxxv. 
4. History of the invasion of Sennacherib, of the destruction of 
his army, in answer to Hezekiah's prayer. Hezekiah's sick- 
ness, his miraculous recovery, and the prolongation of his life 
for fifteen years, xxxvi.-xxxix. 
(ii.) The predictions which form the second part of the book (xl.-lxvi.), 
relate chiefly to more distant events, and embrace the whole period, 
from the captivity to the end of the Christian dispensation. The de- 
livery from Babylon is employed as an image of an infinitely greater 
redemption ; the prophet so connecting these two events, as seldom to 
treat of the first without pointing to the second. The design of the 
whole of this portion of the book is expressed in chap. xl. 1, 2. 

The subjects particularly foretold are, the deliverance of the Jews by 
Cyrus (above 200 years before his birth), and the overthrow of their 
oppressors ; a the return to Judsea, and the establishment of their an- 
cient polity ; b the coming, character, appointment, sufferings, death and 
glory of the Messiah ; c the downfall of idolatry ; the call of the Gen- 
tile world ; d the wickedness of the Jews consummated in their rejection 
of the Messiah, and the consequent rejection of them by God ; their 
future conviction and recovery, e and the final triumphant perfection of 
the church. f These subjects are often blended together, and sometimes 
there is a rapid transition from one to another. 

The office of the Holy Spirit is also distinctly noticed, though it is 
implied that the full manifestation of his influence is reserved for the 
times of the Gospel, lxiii. 10-14 ; xliv. 3. 

The numbers and distinctness of predictions that refer to the Gospel 
are indeed so striking, that Isaiah has acquired the title of "the Evan- 
gelical Prophet," and his writings may be almost classed among th» 
historical books of the inspired volume. 

In the writings of Isaiah we find several prophecies which had an 
early or immediate fulfilment, and these, as they were fulfilled, con- 
firmed the faith of the people in the more remote. Syria and Israel, 
for example, were to be conquered by Assyria before the infant son of 
the prophet could say "my father. "s The glory of Kedar was to fail 
in one year, h that of Moab in three years,' that of Ephraim in 65 years.i 

» xliv. 28 ; xlv. 1-5; xlvii. b xliv. 28. 

c xl. 3, 4 ; xlii. 1, 6, 7 ; xlix. 1 ; lv. 4, 5 ; liii. 12 ; lxi. 1,2; 1. 6 ; lih. 

4-12. d xlix. 5-12; lxv. 1. 

• lii. 3 ; lxv. ; lxii, f lix. 19 ; lxv., etc. 

* Isa. viii. 4. h xxi. 16. 1 xvi. 14. J vii. 8, 



548 



MICAH. 



that of Tyre in 70 years;* while the predicted prolongation of Heze- 
kiah's life b must have established the authority of the prophet, and 
illustrated the providence of God. 

Prophecies which were thus instructive as evidence, were no less sc 
as moral lessons. The Jews were proud of Egypt, "their glory," and 
trusted in Ethiopia, "their expectation." God denounced both, and 
thus taught the folly of fleeing to them for protection or help. The 
predictions against Edom and Babylon were also rich in instruction. 
They comforted pious Jews in the prospect of the calamities their 
nation was about to suffer, and they teach what the sins are which 
have brought down God's indignation in every age. The cruelties and 
oppression of the heathen are sufficiently notorious, and these are 
everywhere condemned. We notice, also, the condemnation of pride 
in Babylon and Moab, in Tyre and Ephraim ; c of covetousness, and the 
confounding of moral distinctions in Judah ; d of a heart set on worldly 
pleasure, in Jerusalem and Babylon; 6 of self-conceit and unbelief every 
where. Predictions apart, therefore, these prophetic writings are among 
the most instructive of the revelations with which God has favored our 
race. 

THE BOOK OF MICAH, B. C. 758-699. 

86. Micali calls himself a Morasthite, and was a native of 
Morasthi, near Grath, or (if the two places be the same) Mare- 
shah, a place of some importance in the south of Judah (i. 1, 
15). He seems to have been commissioned not long after 
Hosea, Amos and Isaiah had begun their ministry, and reit- 
erates the reproofs and warnings which they had addressed 
to both Israel and Judah. Greek writers (Epiphanius and 
others) say he was slain by Jehoram, son of Ahab ; but they 
confound him with Micaiah, the son of Imlah, 1 Kings xxii. 
8-28; Micah, moreover, does not appear to have suffered 
martyrdom, but died in peace in the days of Hezekiah, Jer. 
xxvi. 18, 19. One of his predictions saved the life of Jere- 
miah, who would have been put to death for foretelling the 
destruction of the temple, had it not appeared that Micah had 
foretold the same thing above a hundred years before. He, 



a xxiii. 15. b xxxviii. 5-9. c xiv. 13 ; xvi. 6 ; xxiii. 9 ; xxviii. 3. 
d v. 8, 20. • xxii. 13 ; xlvii. 8. 



MICAH — CONTENTS. 



549 



himself, wrote his predictions (iii. 1, 8), and is referred to as a 
prophet by Jeremiah, and in the New Testament, Matt. ii. 5 : 
John vii. 42. His language seems also quoted by Zephaniah 
(iii. 19; Ezekiel xxii. 27); perhaps by Isaiah (ii. 2-4; xli. 15), 
and by our Lord, Matt. x. 35, 36. 

His predictions may be divided into three sections. 

He first describes the approaching ruin of both kingdoms ; particu- 
larizing several of the towns and villages of Judah in his own neigh- 
borhood, chap i. He then rebukes and threatens the princes, prophets 
and people, for their prevailing sins, introducing, however, an intima- 
tion of mercy (ii., iii.) In the second section he proceeds to unfold the 
future and better destinies of the people ; dwelling at length upon the 
happiness and glory of the church under the reign of Christ, in a pro- 
phecy which presents a beautiful epitome of the latter parts of Isaiah ; 
and then reverting to the nearer deliverance of the Jews, and the de- 
struction of the Assyrian power (iv., v ) The third division exhibits 
the reasonableness, purity and justice of the Divine requirements, in 
contrast with the ingratitude, injustice and superstition of the people, 
which caused their ruin. From the contemplation of this catastrophe, 
the prophet turns for encouragement to the unchanging truth and mercy 
of Jehovah, which he sets before the people as the most powerful in- 
ducement to hearty repentance (vi., vii.) 

Micah has much of the poetic beauty of Isaiah, and of the vigoi oi 
Hosea. His style is, however, occasionally obscure, through concise- 
ness and sudden transitions from one subject to another. 

He foretells in clear terms the invasions of Shalmaneser* and Sen- 
nacherib ; b the dispersion of Israel ; c the cessation of prophecy ; d the 
utter destruction of Jerusalem ; e nor less clearly, the deliverance of 
Israel ; f the destruction of Assyria, and of the enemies Assyria repre- 
sents -s the birth-place of Christ, and his Divine nature, for his goings 
forth are "from everlasting;" 11 the promulgation of his Gospel from 
Mount Zion, and its results,' and the exaltation of his kingdom over 
all nations .J 

* i. 6-8 (2 Kings xvii. 4, 6). b i. 9-16 (2 Kings xviii. 13). 

c v. 7, 8. ° d iii. 6, 7. e iii. 12. ' ii. 12 ; iv. 10 ; v. 8. 

jv. 5,6; vii. 8, 10. * v. 2 (Matt. ii. 6). ! iv. 1-8 (Isa, ii. 2-4). 
> iv. 1-7, compare Luke i. 33 ; v. 5, compare Eph. ii. 14; vii. 17, 18, 
compare Luke i. 72, 73. 



550 



NAHUM. 



THE BOOK OF NAHUM, B. C. 720-698. 

87. The Book of Nahum is a striking illustration of the 
moral use of prophecy, of its fitness to console (so the name 
of the prophet implies) the believer, and strengthen him for 
present duties. 

Of Nahum himself, nothing is known, except" that he be- 
longed to Elkosh, a place now unrecognized, but which Jerome 
(who lived a thousand years afterwards) asserts to have 
belonged to Galilee (Pref. to Com.) 

He probably prophesied in Judah, after the ten tribes had 
been carried captive, and between the two invasions of Sen- 
nacherib. At this period of perplexity, when the overthrow 
of Samaria must have suggested to Judah many fears for her 
own safety, when J erusalem had been drained of its treasure 
by Hezekiah, in the vain hope of turning away the fury of 
Sennacherib, and when distant rumors of the conquest of 
part of Egypt, added still more to the general dismay, the 
prophet is raised up to reveal the power and tenderness of 
Jehovah (i. 1-8), to foretell the subversion of the Assyrian 
empire (i. 9-12), the death of Sennacherib, and the deliver- 
ance of Hezekiah (i. 13-15). The destruction of Nineveh is 
then predicted in the most glowing colors, and with singular 
minuteness ; and profane history tells us, that these predic- 
tions have been literally fulfilled (see § 190). 

Eightly to understand Nahum, compare it with Jonah, of which it 
is a continuation and supplement. The two prophecies form connected 
parts of the same moral history ; the remission of God's judgments 
being illustrated in Jonah, and the execution of them in Nahum. The 
devoted city had one denunciation more given a few years later, by 
Zephaniah (ii. 13), and shortly afterwards (606 B. C), the whole were 
fulfilled. 

Nineveh, the destruction of which is foretold by the prophet, was 
at that time the capital of a great and flourishing empire. It was a 
city of vast extent and population ■ and was the centre of the princi- 
pal commerce of the world. Its wealth, however, was not altogether 
derived from trade. It was a " bloody city," " full of lies and robbery," 



NAHUM — ZEPHANIAH. 551 

(iii. 1). It plundered the neighboring nations, «nd is compared by 
the prophet to a family of lions, which " fill their holes with prey and 
their dens with ravin" (ii. 11, 12). At the same time it was strongly 
fortified; its colossal walls, a hundred feet high, with their fifteen 
hundred towers, bidding defiance to all enemies. Yet, so totally was 
it destroyed, that, in the second century after Christ, not a vestige 
remained of it; and its very site was long a matter of uncertainty. 

This book is surpassed by none in sublimity of description. It 
consists of a single poem which opens with a solemn description of the 
attributes and operations of Jehovah (i. 2-8). Then follows (i. 9-14), 
an address to the Assyrians, describing their perplexity and overthrow ; 
verses 12 and 13 being thrown in parenthetically, to console the 
Israelites with promises of future rest and relief from oppression. 
Chapter ii. depicts the siege and capture of Nineveh, and the conster- 
nation of the inhabitants. Chapter iii. describes the utter ruin of the 
city, and the various causes contributing to it. The example of No- 
Ammon (or Thebes), a great and strong city of Egypt, which fell under 
the judgments of God, is introduced (iii. 8-10), to illustrate the similar 
punishment coming on the Assyrians. 

Sec. 4. — The Books of Zephaniah, Jeremiah, Habak- 
kuk, Daniel, Ezekiel, and Obadiah. 

THE BOOK OF ZEPHANIAH, B. C. 640-609. 

88. Between the cessation of the prophecies of Isaiah, 
Micah, and Nahum, and the days of Zephaniah, Jeremiah, 
and the other later prophets, an interval of fifty years elapses, 
dnring which there was no prophet whose writings have 
reached us, unless Joel belonged to this period. The lessons 
taught by the destruction of Samaria, and by earlier prophets, 
especially Isaiah, seem to have been left to produce their 
proper effects on the minds of the people. The wicked reign 
of Manasseh, moreover, occupied nearly all this interval, and 
seemed to render reformation by prophetic teaching hopeless. 
With Josiah, however, the prophetic spirit revived, and 
Zephaniah (" Jehovah hath guarded") is the earliest of the 
prophets of his age. He seems to have prophesied near tJu* 
commencement of Josiah's reign, and at all events before the 



552 



ZEPHANIAH. 



eighteenth year, -when the altars of Baal were destroyed. 
He probably assisted Josiah in his efforts to restore the worship 
of the true God. Of the prophet personally nothing is 
known, but from the title of this book. As he traces back 
his pedigree for four generations, he was probably of noble 
birth. Some of the Jews, and Eichhorn, suppose him to have 
been a descendant of king Hezekiah ; but this conclusion is 
hardly justified by the text, and a hundred years (the time 
between Hezekiah and the prophet) is scarcely sufficient to 
admit three intermediate ancestors. 

The first chapter contains a general denunciation of vengeance against 
Judah and those who practised idolatrous rites ; Baal, his black-robed 
priests (Chemarin), and Malcham (Moloch), being all condemned; and 
declares " the great day of trouble and distress" to be at hand, (i.-ii. 3). 
The second chapter predicts the judgments about to fall on the Philis- 
tines, those especially of the sea-coasts (Cherethites), the Moabites, 
Ammonites, and Ethiopians ; and describes in terms wonderfully 
accurate the desolation of Nineveh : prophecies which began to be 
accomplished in the conquests of Nebuchadnezzar. 

In the third chapter, the prophet arraigns Jerusalem, rebukes her 
sins, and concludes with the most animating promises of her future 
restoration, and of the happy state of the people of God in the latter 
days (iii. 1-7; iii. 8-20). 

Coincidences of expression between Isaiah and Zephaniah are frequent 
and still more between Zephaniah and Jeremiah. It may be added 
that the predictions of Jeremiah complete the view here given of the 
devastation to be effected by Chaldsea in Philistia and Judah. 

89. Dr. Keith has noticed the minute discrimination with 
vhich Zephaniah, Amos, and Zechariah, foretell the destinies 
of the four chief cities of Philistia — Gaza, Ashkelon, Ashdod, 
and Ekron. 

Comparing Amos i. 6, 7, 8 ; Zech. ix. 5, and Zeph. ii. 4-6, it will be 
seen, that of Gaza it is declared that baldness shall come upon it, and 
that it should be bereaved of its king. At present, amid ruins of 
white marble indicating its former magnificence, a few villages of dry 
mud are the only abode of its inhabitants. Of Ashkelon and Ashdod 
it is said that both shall be "without inhabitants;" and so they are. 



JEREMIAH. 



5 r )3 



Gaza is inhabited ; Ashkelon and Ashdod are not, though their ruins 
remain. Different from the destiny of each was to be the end of 
Ekron : " it shall be rooted up," Now its very name is lost, nor is the 
spot known on which it stood. . . . Clearly, prophecy and provi- 
dence — predictions and the events that fulfill them — are guided by the 
eame nand. 

THE BOOK OF JEREMIAH, B. C. 628-585. 

90. Jeremiah was the son of Hilkiah, a priest of Anathoth, 
in Benjamin. He was called to the prophetic office about 
seventy years after the death of Isaiah, in the thirteenth year 
of king Josiah, whilst he was very young (i. 6) and still living 
at Anathoth. It would seem that he remained in his native 
place for several years ; but at length, probably in conse- 
quence of the persecution of his fellow-townsmen, and even 
of his own family (xi. 21 ; xii. 6), as well as under the Divine 
direction, to have a wider field for his labors, he left 
Anathoth, and came to Jerusalem. He also visited the 
cities of Judah, and prophesied altogether upwards of forty 
years (xi. 6). 

During the reign of Josiah, he was, doubtless, a valuable 
coadjutor to that pious monarch in the reformation of religion. 
From his notice of Jehoahaz (xxii. 10-12), he probably pro- 
phesied without hinderance during his reign. But when 
Jehoiakim came to the throne he was interrupted in his 
ministry ; " the priests and prophet" becoming his accusers, 
and demanding, in conjunction with the populace, that he 
should be put to death (xxvi.) The princes did not dare to 
defy God thus openly ; but Jeremiah was either placed under 
restraint, or deterred by his adversaries from appearing in 
public. Under these circumstances, he received a command 
from God to commit his predictions to writing ; and having 
done so, sent Baruch to read them in the temple on a fast 
day. The princes were alarmed, and endeavored to rouse 
the king by reading out to him the prophetic roll. But it 
was in vain : the reckless monarch, after hearing three or four 
47 



554 



JEREMIAH. 



pages, cut the roll in pieces, and cast it into the fire, giving im- 
mediate orders for the apprehension of J eremiah and Baruch. 
God, however, preserved them ; and Jeremiah soon after- 
wards, by Divine direction, wrote the same messages again, 
with some additions (xxxvi.) 

In the short reign of the next king, Jehoiachin, we find 
him still uttering the voice of warning (see xiii. 18 ; compare 
2 Kings xxiv. 12 and chap. xxii. 24-30), though without 
" effect. 

In the reign of Zedekiah, when Nebuchadnezzar's army 
laid siege to Jerusalem, and then withdrew upon the report 
of help coming from Egypt, Jeremiah was commissioned by 
God to declare that the Chaldseans should come again, and 
take the city, and burn it with fire. Departing from Jeru- 
salem, he was accused of deserting to the Chaldseans, and was 
cast into prison, where he remained until the city was taken. 
Nebuchadnezzar, who had formed a more just estimate of his 
character, gave a special charge to his captain Nebuzar-adan, 
not only to provide for him, but to follow his advice. The 
choice being given to the prophet, either to go to Babylon, 
where doubtless he would have been held in honor at the 
royal court, or to remain with his own people, he preferred 
the latter. He subsequently endeavored to persuade the 
leaders of the people not to go to Egypt, but to remain in the 
land ; assuring them, by a Divine message, that if they did so 
God would build them up. The people refused to obey, and 
went to Egypt, taking Jeremiah and Baruch with them 
(xliii. 6). In Egypt he still sought to turn the people to the 
Lord (xliv,); but his writings give no information respecting 
his subsequent history Ancient historians, however, assert 
that the Jews, offended by his faithful remonstrances, put him 
to death in Egypt : Jerome says at Tahpanhes. 

Jeremiah was contemporary with Zephaniah, Habakkuk, 
Ezekiel and Daniel. Between his writings and those of Eze- 
kiel there are many interesting points both of resemblance and 
of contrast. Both prophets were laboring for the same object 



JEBEMIAH — CONTENTS. 



555 



at nearly the same time. One prophesied in Palestine, the 
other in Ckaldsea; yet the substance of both messages ia 
the same. In the modes of expression adopted by the pro- 
phets, however, and in their personal character, they widely 
differed. The history of Jeremiah brings before us a man 
forced, as it were, in spite of himself, from obscurity and re- 
tirement into the publicity and peril which attended the pro- 
phetical office. Naturally mild, susceptible, and inclined 
rather to mourn in secret for the iniquity which surrounded 
him, than to brave and denounce the wrong-doers, he stood 
forth at the call of God, and proved himself a faithful, fearless 
champion of the truth, amidst reproaches, insults and threats. 
This combination of qualities is so marked that Havernick 
regards it as a proof of the Divine origin of his mission. In 
Ezekiel, on the other hand, we see the power of Divine inspi- 
ration acting on a mind naturally of the firmest texture, and 
absorbing all the powers of the soul. 

The style of Jeremiah corresponds with this view of the 
character of his mind. It is peculiarly marked by pathos. 
He delights in expressions of tenderness, and gives touching 
descriptions of the miseries of his people. 

The prophecies of this book do not appear to stand in respect to time 
as they were delivered. Why they are not so arranged, and how they 
are to be reduced to chronological order, it is not easy to say. Blay- 
ney proposes the following arrangement : the prophecies delivered (1), 
in the reign of Josiah, comprising i.-xii. ; (2), in the reign of Jehoiakim, 
xiii.-xx. ; xxii. ; xxiii. ; xxv.; xxvi.; xxxv. ; xxxvi. ; xlv.-xlviii. ; xlix. 
1-33; (3), in the time of Zedekiah, Xxi. ; xxiv.; xxvii.-xxxiv. ; xxxvii.- 
xxxix. ; xlix. 34-39 ; l.-lii. ; (4), during the administration of Gedaliah, 
and in Egypt,- xl.-xliv. Chap. lii. seems made up from the later chap- 
ters of Kings (see xxiv. 18-xxv. 25), and repeats parts of chaps, xxxix. 
and xl. From chap. li. 34, and the later date of some of the facts, the 
whole chapter may be regarded as the work of a later writer, and 
probably of Ezra. 

Ewald proposes divisions founded upon the present order of the chap- 
ters, and endeavors to discover the plan upon which they have been 
arranged. He remarks that various portions are prefaced by the 



556 



JEREMIAH — CONTENTS. 



expression, "The word which came to Jeremiah from the Lord,"vii. 1 
xi. 1 ; xviii. 1 ; xxi. 1 ; xxv. 1 ; xxx. 1 ; xxxii. 1 ; xxxiv. 1, 8 ; xxxv. 1 ; 
xl. 1 ; xliv. 1 : or, " The word of the Lord which came to Jeremiah," 
xiv. 1 ; xlvi. 1 ; xlvii. 1 ; xlix. 34 ; that some other divisions, chiefly 
historical, are plainly marked by notices of time prefixed, xxvi. 1 ; 
xxvii. 1 ; xxxvi. 1 ; xxxvii. 1 ; and that two other portions are in 
themselves sufficiently distinct, xxix. 1 ; xlv. 1 ; thus forming five 
books, namely: — 

i. The introduction, i. ii. Eeproofs of the sins of the Jews, ii.-xxiv., 
consisting of seven sections, namely, ii.; iii.-vi.; vii.-x.; xi.-xiii.; xiv- 
xvii. 18: xvii. 19-xx.; and xxi.-xxiv. iii. A general view, of all na- 
tions, the heathen as well as the people of Israel, consisting of two 
sections, xxv. and xxvi -xlix., with a historical appendix of three sec- 
tions, xxvi., xxvii., and xxviii., xxix. iv. Two sections picturing the 
hopes of brighter times, xxx., xxxi., and xxxii., xxxiiL; to which, as in 
the last book, is added a historical appendix in three sections, xxxiv. 
1-7 ; xxxiv. 8-22 ; and xxxv. v. The conclusion T in two sections, 
xxxvi. and xlv. All this Ewald supposes to have been arranged 
in Palestine during the short interval of rest between the taking of 
the city and the departure of Jeremiah into Egypt ; in which country, 
after some interval, he considers the prophet to have written three 
sections, namely, xxxvii.-xxxix. ; xl.-xliii.; and xliv., together with 
xlvi. 13-26, completing his earlier prophecy respecting Egypt; and 
to have made, perhaps, some additions to other parts previously 
written. 

Jeremiah professes to be the author of all these predictions, but some 
of them were written by his disciple, i. 1, 4, 6, d; xxv. 13; xxix. 1; 
xxx. 2; li. 60; xlv. 1. 

He has sometimes been regarded as a prophet to the Gentiles (i.5-10). 
He certainly delivered many predictions that refer to foreign nations, 
and his predictions were published to those nations themselves (xxvii. 
3) ; but it is to Jerusalem chiefly he was sent. 

He foretold the fate of Zedekiah, a the precise time of the Babylonish 
captivity, 1 ' and the return of the Jews. c The downfall of Babylon' 1 
and of many nations e is also foretold in predictions, the successive 
completion of which kept up the faith of the Jews in those that 
refer to the Messiahs He foretells very clearly the abrogation of the 

» xxxiv. 2, 3 : compare 2 Chron. xxxvi. 19 1 2 Kings xxv. 5 : Jer. 
Iii. 11. b xxv. 11, 12 (see Dan. ix. 2.) 

c xxix. 10-14 (Ez. i. 1). d Jer. xxv. 12. « See (Pt. ii. \ 77). 
f xxiii. 3-8; xxx. 9; xxxi. 15; xxxii. 36; xxxiiL 26. 



JEREMIAH — B.A BAKKUK. 



557 



Mosaic law ; speaks of the ark as no more remembered ; foretells the 
propagation of a more spiritual religion than the old; the mediatorial 
kingdom of the Messiah, whom he calls "Jehovah our righteousness;" 
describes the efficacy of his atonement ; the excellence of the Gospel in 
giving holiness as well as pardon ; the call of the Gentiles ; and the 
final salvation of Israeli 

THE LAMENTATIONS OF JEREMIAH. 

This book is a kind of appendix to the prophecies of Jeremiah, of 
which, in the original Scriptures, it formed part. It expresses with 
pathetic tenderness the prophet's grief for the desolation of the city 
and temple of Jerusalem, the captivity of the people, the miseries of 
famine, the cessation of public worship, and the other calamities with 
which his countrymen had been visited for their sins. The leading 
object was to teach the suffering Jews neither to despise "the chasten- 
ing of the Lord," nor to "faint" when "rebuked of him," but to turn 
to God with deep repentance, to confess their sins, and humbly look to 
him alone for pardon and deliverance. 

No book of Scripture is more rich m expressions of patriotic feeling, 
or of the penitence and trust which become an afflicted Christian. 

The form of these poems is strictly regular. With the exception of 
the last (chap, v.), they are in the original Hebrew alphabetical acros- 
tics, in which every stanza begins with a new letter. The third has this 
further peculiarity, that all the three lines in each stanza have the 
same letter at the commencement. 

As a composition, this book is remarkable for the great variety of 
pathetic images it contains, expressive of the deepest sorrow, and worthy 
of the subject which they are designed to illustrate. 

THE BOOK OF HABAKKUK, B. C. 612-598. 

91. Nothing is known with certainty of tne parentage and 
life of Habakkuk ; but from the fact that he makes no mention 
of Assyria, and speaks of the Chaldleean invasion as just at 
hand, it is concluded that he prophesied in Judah during the 
reign of Jehoahaz and Jehoiakim, shortly before the invasion 
of Nebuchadnezzar (i. 5 ; ii. 3 ; iii. 2, 16-19). He was there- 

* iii. 15-18; xxxi. 31-34 (see Heb. x. 15); xxiii. 5, 6; xxxi. 31-34; 
xxxiii. 8 (Heb. viii. 8-13); 1. 4, 5; xix. 20. 
47* 



558 HABAKKUK. 

fore contemporary with Jeremiah, and it is said that he 
remained amidst the desolation of his country rather than 
follow his brethren into captivity. In the days of Eusebius 
his tomb was shown at Bela, in Judah. 

This book was evidently composed by him (i. 1; ii. 1, 2), and is quoted 
as the work of an inspired prophet by the evangelical writers, Heb. x. 
37, 38: Rom. i. 17: Gal. iii. 11 : Acts xiii. 41, 

Of all the nations who afflicted the Jews, and in them the church 
of God, the chief were the Assyrians, the Chaldaeans and the Edomites; 
and three of the prophets were commissioned specially to pronounce 
their destruction. Nahum foretells the destruction of the Assyrians; 
Habakkuk, that of the Chaldeeans ; and presently we shall find Oba- 
diah foretelling the destruction of Edom. 

The prophet begins by lamenting the iniquities and lawless violence 
that prevailed among the Jews. God then declares that he will work a 
strange work in their days, and raise up the Chaldeeans, then probably 
a friendly nation, who should' march through the breadth of their land 
and take possession of its dwellings. In this description the prophet 
gives the history of the three invasions (in the reigns of Jehoiakim, Jeco- 
niah and Zedekiah) ; foretells the fierceness of their attack and the 
rapidity of their victories ; he then briefly contrasts the scene ; points 
to the pride and false confidence of the victors, and indicates clearly 
••the change" and insanity of Nebuchadnezzar; the prophet humbly 
expostulating with God for inflicting such judgments upon his people 
by a nation more wicked than themselves. 

He then receives and communicates God's answer to his expostula- 
tion, to the effect that the vision, though it tarry, shall surely come, 
that the just shall live by their faith, and are to wait for it. He then 
predicts the judgments that are to befall the Chaldaeans for their 
cruelty and idolatry; their graven images cannot profit; but the Lord 
only "in his holy temple" (2). 

The prophet, hearing these promises and threatenings, concludes his 
book with a sublime song, both of praise and of prayer. He celebrates 
past displays of the power and grace of Jehovah, a supplicates God for 
the speedy deliverance of his people, and closes by expressing a con- 
fidence in God which no change can destroy. This psalm, which was 



a Teman is Edom ; Cushan, part of Arabia (Chusistan) ; see also 
Numb. xiii. 15: Exod. xv. 15 : Numb. xxxi. 2-11 : Judg. iii. 10; vii. L 



HABAKKUK — DANIEL. 



559 



evidently intended for use in public worship, was designed to afford 
consolation to the pious Jews under their approaching calamities. 

Ancient Jewish writers apply ii. 3 to the times of the Messiah, and 
the apostle regards it as having a still future fulfilment, Heb. x. 37, 38. 
In fact, as faith — patient waiting for God, and trust in him — is the 
principle of the divine life, so, in every age, complete salvation has 
been a matter of faith rather than of sight. The Christian character 
is, that 11 he lives by faith;" and in relation to the promised deliver- 
ance from sin and all its fruits his attitude is, " that he waits for it." 

See Rom. i. 17: Gal. iii. 2: Rom. v. 1-3: 1 Cor. i. 7. 

THE BOOK OF DANIEL B. C. 606-534. 

92. Of Daniel, little is known beyond what may be gathered 
from his own writings. He was not a priest, like Daniel's 
Jeremiah and Ezekiel; but, like Isaiah, of the history, 
tribe of Judah, and probably of the royal house, Dan. i. 6, 3. 
He was carried to Babylon in the fourth year of Jehoiakim 
(i. e., B. C. 606), eight years before Ezekiel, and probably 
between the twelfth (Ignatius) or the eighteenth year (Ohry- 
sostom) of his age, i. 4. There he was placed in the court 
of Nebuchadnezzar, and became acquainted with the science 
of the Chaldees, compared with whom, however, God gave 
him, as he records, superior wisdom. By Nebuchadnezzar he 
was raised to high rank and great power ; a position he re- 
tained, though not uninterruptedly, under both the Baby- 
lonish and Persian dynasties. He died at an advanced age, 
having prophesied during the whole of the captivity (i. 21) ; 
and his last prophecy being delivered two years later, in the 
third year of the reign of Cyrus. 

The first event which gained Daniel influence in the court of Baby- 
lon was the disclosure and explanation of the dream of 
Nebuchadnezzar. This occurred in the second year of the SSS'So!? 
sole reign of that monarch, i. e., in 603. Three and twenty 
years later, as Usher thinks (B. C. 580), his companions were delivered 
from the burning furnace (iii.) ; Daniel himself being probably engaged 
elsewhere at the time in the affairs of the empire. Ten years later 
occurred the second dream of Nebuchadnezzar (iv.); and during the seven 
years of his madness, Daniel, it is thought, acted as viceroy. The date 



560 



DANIEL. 



oi' tie events recorded in chap. v. is B. C. 538, towards the close of the 

reig'i of Bulshazzar, when it appears Daniel was in private life, vers. 

12, 13. That night the king was slain and the dynasty changed. The 

dignity which Belshazzar conferred on Daniel in the last hours of his 

monarchy was confirmed by Darius and Cyrus. 

The book, it will be seen, is divided into two parts; the historical, 

, . . . i.-vi., and the prophetic, vii.-xii. Chaps, ii. 4-vii., are 
Divisions. 

written in Chaldee ; the rest in Hebrew. The latter half 
of the book is avowedly written by Daniel. In the former part he is 
spoken of in the third person ; but he is generally admitted to have 
been the author of the whole. Ezekiel speaks of him (B. C. 584) as a 
Sxiining example of uprightness and wisdom, ranking him with Noah 
and Job, xiv. 14, 18, 20; xxviii. 23. Our Lord quotes him as a pro- 
phet, Matt. xxiv. 15. Paul alludes to him in Heb. xi. 33, 34; and 
in the Apocatypse, John takes his language as the model of his own. 
The fullest discussion of the genuineness of this book may be seen in 
the Treatise of Hengstenberg on Daniel, and in the general Introduc- 
tion of Havernick ; the former of which has been published in English, 
and is epitomized in Korne (Introd.) 

The later portion of the book is divisible, like the earlier, into 
periods. The first prophetic vision occurred in the first year of Bel- 
shazzar (555 B. C), vii. ; the second, two years later (553), viii. ; the 
third, in the first year of Darius the Mede (538), ix. ; and the last, 
in the third year of Cyrus (534), x.-xii. The dream of Nebuchad- 
nezzar (ii.) is also prophetic. 

The predictions of this book have much of the distinctness of his- 
P -ed'ct n k 01 T ' and have long formed an important part of the evidence 

of Scripture. From Porphyry downwards, indeed, the only 
resource of infidelity has been to maintain that they were written 
after the events they describe ; a subterfuge, entirely unfounded in 
fact. 

Chap. ii. contains a brief history of the kingdoms which form the 
chief subject of the book. The image represents the Babylonian 
monarchy under the dynasty of Nebuchadnezzar, the Medo-Persian 
empire, the Grecian, and the Roman. The last is seen divided into ten 
kingdoms, and gives way to the kingdom of the Messiah, represented 
by a stone cut out without hands — of mean, yet miraculous, origin ; 
mighty as a mountain, and, finally, superior to the finest metals, the 
most splendid earthly thrones. In later chapters, one or other of 
these kingdoms again and again appears. 

In chap, vii., the first four of these kingdoms are represented by 
beasts, all highly significant. Of the ten kingdoms into which the 



DANIEL — PKEDICTIONS. 



561 



fourth is divided, three are subdued by a little horn, or the papal 
power, ver. 8. That power (of which we read again subsequently) 
exercises its tyranny for 1260 years, and then comes the triumph of 
the saints. This view of the four empires has special reference to their 
religious connexions, as the former view had to their political. 

In chap, viii., we have the history of the Medo-Persian and Grecian 
empires, beginning with Cyrus and Alexander : the ram with two horns, 
the one greater than the other, representing the Persian and Median 
dynasty, with its conquests, ver. 4, and overthrow by Alexander, the 
notable horn : his conquests, and the division of his kingdom into four 
parts, out of which comes a little horn, probably Antiochus Epiphanes, 
a false, crafty tyrant. This view of the "little horn," of chap. viii., is 
sustained by nearly all antiquity ; but there are ilso reasons for con- 
cluding that this application of it was precursive and partial, the com- 
plete fulfilment of the prediction taking place under the Roman power. 

Chap. ix. foretells the coming of the Messiah. In seven weeks, i. e. 
forty-nine years, reckoning from the decree of Artaxerxes, Ezr. vii. 
8-11, B. C. 457; the walls and the city were to be rebuilt, though in trou- 
blous times. In sixty-two weeks (434 years), Christ was to appear, in 
his ministry, and in the midst of one week, i. e., in about three and 
a half years, he was to be cut off. 

Chap. x. represents the opposition of the prince of Persia to the 
decree of Cyrus, in favor of the Jews, and the successful struggle 
against him of Michael, the prince, see Rev. xii. 7. 

In chap, xi., the history of Peesia and Greece is resumed — with im- 
portant additions. Four kings of Persia (Cambyses, son of Cyrus, 
Smerdis, Darius, and Xerxes), are foretold, and the rise of Alexander. 
Then follows the history of his kingdom, and of his successors in Egypt 
(the south), and Syria (the north), till the times of Antiochus Epi- 
phanes, and Ptolemy Philometer, ver. 25. Their character and des- 
tinies are clearly defined. In ver. 30, the conquest of Syria by the 
Romans is foretold; and thence to the end of the book we have a 
series of predictions, of which the fulfilment is found by some few in 
the history of Antiochus, but by most in the history of the church of 
Christ, and of the papacy till the end of time. The later verses of 
chap, xi., are certainly applied in 2 Thess. ii., to Antichrist, and the 
1260 years of chap, xii., are referred to in the Apocalypse, as the time 
after which a great deliverance is to be effected for the church. 

For the fullest literal and restricted exposition of the Book of 
Daniel, see Moses Stuart's Commentary, and Dr. Lee's " Events and 
Times of : he Visions of Daniel." For an extended discussion of its 
application to the events of the Gospel economy, with a full examina- 



662 



DANIEL — EZEKIEL. 



tion of its references to early profane history, see Birks on the " first 
two," and on the "two later" visions of Daniel. For a popular and 
striking exhibition of the visions and their fulfilment, see Bp. New- 
ton, Diss. 13-17, and Dr. Keith's Evidence of Prophecy. To under- 
stand much of the phraseology of the book, and, as most hold, of its 
facts, compare Rev. chaps, xi.-xx. 

Quite apart from the significancy of these predictions, are. many of 
the moral and spiritual lessons of this portion of inspired 
fessons? 1 truth. It was written in the darkness of the most terrible 
captivity of which the people of God had ever known, and 
yet it contains some of the grandest revelations of the future glories 
of the church. . . . Everywhere, moreover, the providence of God is 
seen, working or overruling all for her good. . . . The predictions of 
the book extend from the establishment of the Medo-Persian monarchy 
to the general resurrection, the faith of the believers being confirmed 
by the fulfilment of intermediate predictions, foretelling the speedy 
punishment of two proud and impious kings, and the rebuilding of 

Jerusalem The history of the temptations of Daniel and his 

companions, their constancy and deliverance, is highly instructive, illus- 
trating at once the mystery of the Divine dispensations, and the spirit 

of fidelity and patience with which good men submit to them 

The promise of the rebuilding of the temple was given to a penitent 
and prayerful prophet, the promise more comprehensive than the prayer 
he presented. He asked concerning Jerusalem : the answer told also 
of Messiah the Prince. The clear announcement of Christ's atone- 
ment, and of the time when he was to appear (ix. 24-26) ; his future 
dignity, and his coming in the clouds of heaven (see Acts i. 11), make 
this portion of the book of the deepest interest to the church. 



THE BOOK OF THE PROPHET EZEKIEL, B. C. 595-574. 

93. Ezekiel {God will strengthen, or prevail) was, like Jere- 
miah., a priest as well as a prophet. He was carried captive 
with Jehoiakim by Nebuchadnezzar, B. C. 599, eleven years 
before the destruction of Jerusalem. All bis prophecies were 
delivered in Chaldaea, on the river Cbebar (Khabur) which 
falls into the Euphrates at Carchemish, about 200 miles north 
of Babylon. Here he resided (i. 1 ; viii. 1), and here his wife 
died (xxiv. 18). Tradition says that he was put to death by 
OKe of his fellow- exiles, a leader among them, whose idolatries 



EZEKIEL. 



563 



he had rebuked ; and in the middle ages what was called hia 
tomb was shown, not far from Bagdad. 

Ezekiel commenced prophesying in the fifth year after the captivity 
of Jehoiakim (1 2), that is, in Zedekiah's reign, and continued till at 
least the twenty-seventh year of his own captivity (xxix. 17). The 
year of his first prophesying was also the thirtieth from the commence- 
ment of the reign of Nabopolassar, and from the era of Josiah's reform. 
To one of these facts, or perhaps to his own age (see Numb. iv. 3), he 
refers in chap. i. His influence with the people is obvious, from the 
numerous visits paid to him by the elders, who came to inquire what 
message God had sent through i> .m (viii. 1 ; xiv. 1 ; xx. 1, etc.) 

His writings show remarkable vigor, and he was evidently well fitted 
to oppose "the people of stubborn front and hard heart," to whom he 
was sent. His characteristic, however, was the subordination of his 
whole life to his work. He ever thinks and feels as the prophet. In 
this respect his writings contrast remarkably with those of his contem- 
porary, Jeremiah, whose personal history and feelings are frequently 
recorded. That he was, nevertheless, a man of strong feeling, is clear 
from the brief record he has given of his wife's death (xxiv. 15-18). 

The central point of his predictions is the destruction of Jerusalem. 

Ezekiel's predictions were delivered partly before and partly after 
the destruction of Jerusalem. Before this event his chief object was 
to call to repentance those living in careless security ; to warn them 
against indulging the hope that, by the help of the Egyptians, the 
Babylonian yoke would be shaken off (xvii. 15-17 ; compare Jer. 
xxxvii. 7) ; and to assure them that the destruction of their city and 
temple was inevitable and fast approaching. After this event his prin- 
cipal care was to console the exiled Jews by promises of future deliv- 
erance and restoration to their own land, and to encourage them by 
assurances of future blessings. His predictions against foreign nations 
come between these two great divisions, having been for the most part 
uttered during the interval between the Divine intimation that Nebu- 
chadnezzar was besieging Jerusalem (xxiv. 2), and the arrival of the 
news that he had taken it (xxxiii. 21). The periods at which the 
predictions on these different subjects were delivered are frequently 
noted. 

The book is divided by Havernick into nine sections, and it seems 
probable that the arrangement was made by Ezekiel himself. 

1. Ezekiel's call to the prophetic office, i.-iii. 21. Here <jod appears 
in a cloud, and from between the cherubim gives the prophet a corn- 



564 



EZEKIEL — DIVISIONS. 



mission, shows him a roll inscribed with prophetical characters, an<? 
bids him eat it, that is, digest its contents. 

2. Predictions and symbolical representations, foretelling the ap- 
proaching destruction of Judah and Jerusalem, iii. 22-vii. The 390 
years of Israel's defection, and the forty years during which Judah had 
been specially rebellious, are set forth in the typical siege of chap. iv. 
The threefold judgments of pestilence, sword, and dispersion, are set 
forth by the symbolical representations of chap. v. 

3. Visions presented to the prophet a year and two months later than 
the former, in which he is shown the temple polluted by the worship 
of Thammuz (afterwards Adonis) ; the worshippers turning, like Per- 
sian idolaters, to the East; the consequent judgment on Jerusalem and 
the priests, a few faithful being marked for exemption (ix.); and closing 
with promises of happier times and a purer worship, viii.-xi. Mark 
how the symbol of the Divine presence is gradually withdrawn ; it 
moves from the temple first, and then from the city. 

4. Specific reproofs and warnings, xii.-xix. Here he shows the cap- 
tives by two signs (xii.) what was about to be the fate of the people ; 
exposes the false prophets, who at Jerusalem and at Babylon (Jer. xxiii. 
16; xxix. 8) spoke of peace and rest, Ezek. xiii. 18; repeats his threat- 
enings to some elders who visited him in the hope of getting something 
from him that might contradict Jeremiah, xiv.; sets forth Israel as a 
fruitless vine (xv.), and as a base adulteress (xvi.) " He shows by one 
eagle (Nebuchadnezzar), who had taken away the top of the cedar 
(Jehoiakim), and by another eagle (Pharaoh), to whom the vine that 
was left (Zedekiah) was turning, the uprooting of the whole ; and, di- 
gressing to upbraid Zedekiah for the oath which he was now breaking 
(compare ver. 15 with 2 Chron. xxxvi. 13), he predicts the replanting 
and flourishing of the whole under Messiah the Branch"* (xvii.) He 
shows that this suffering is the consequence of their own acts (xviii.), 
and not only the acts of their fathers. 

5. Another series of warnings, given about a year later, when Zede- 
kiah had revolted to Egypt : Zedekiah to be overthrown, Jehoiakim to 
be raised (xxi. 26 ; see xvii. 15), and all future changes preparing for 
Christ (xxi. 27); xx.-xxiii. 

6. Predictions uttered two years and five months later, on the very 
day when the siege of Jerusalem commenced (xxiv. 1 ; compare 2 
Kings xxv. 1), announcing its complete overthrow (xxiv.) His own 
wife removed on that day ; he weeps not, as a sign to them that the fall 



* Leifchild. 



EZEKIEL — OBADIAH. 



565 



of Jerusalem would be to them a hardening calamity, leaving no time 
or opportunity for mourning. 

7. Predictions against foreign nations (xxv.-xxxii.), extending over 
a period of three years, during which time Jerusalem was besieged, and 
no prophecy was delivered against Israel ; see xxiv. 27. The speedy 
accomplishment of many of these predictions, besides giving evidence 
to all ages of the truth of Scripture, assured the Israelites of the cer- 
tain accomplishment of the rest. 

8. His predictions concerning Israel renewed ; the promised sign (a 
refugee from Jerusalem) having come (compare xxiv. 26 and xxxiii. 21). 
Exhortations to repentance ; a prophecy against Edom ; the triumph 
of Israel and the progress of the kingdom of God on earth foretold 
(xxxiii.-xxxix.) 

9. Symbolic representations of the Messianic times; the gi^ndeur 
and beauty of the new city and temple (xl.-xlviii.) 

These closing chapters are confessedly obscure. Some regard them 
as descriptive of what Solomon's temple was ; others of what the second 
temple should be; and others, still, of a glorious building hereafter to 
be reared. From the description itself, from the analogous language of 
the last chapters of Revelation, and from the general tenor of prophetic 
language, the whole is deemed by most authorities (Havernick, Fair- 
barn, and others) to be descriptive of the vastness, glory, and certain 
prosperity of the kingdom of God. 

THE BOOK OF OBADIAH, B. C. 588-583. 

94. The time when Obadiah delivered his prophecy is some- 
what uncertain, but it was probably between the destruction 
of Jerusalem by the Chaldseans under Nebuchadnezzar (588 
B. C), and the conquest of Edom, which took place five years 
afterwards. Others give an earlier date to this book (time 
of Hezekiah), though with less reason. The personal history of 
the prophet is not known, but several eminent persons of his 
name are mentioned in Scripture. A contemporary of Jere- 
miah and Ezekiel, he treats of the same subjects. Between 
the writings of the three there is an occasional resemblance.* 

Israel had no greater enemy than the Edomites. They were proud 

* Obad. i.-iv.: Jer. xlix. 14-16: Obad. vi. 8 : Jer. xlix. 9, 10: Obad. 
ix. : Ezek. xxv. 13, ver. 12, and Ezek. xxxv. 15 
48 



5G6 



OBAMAH — THE CAPTIVITY. 



of their wisdom, ver. 8, and of their rocky and impregnable position, 
ver. 3. But the prophet foretells the uncovering of their treasures, 
and rebukes their unkind treatment of the Jews, their kinsmen, in 
rejoicing over their calamities, and encouraging Nebuchadnezzar utterly 
to exterminate them (Psa. cxxxvii. 7) ; for all which an early day of 
retribution was to come: "As thou hast done it shall be done unto 
thee," ver 15. 

But the chosen race themselves had just been carried into captivity; 
the holy land was deserted ; and the chastisement denounced against 
the Edomites might therefore appear not to differ from that which had 
already been inflicted upon the seed of Jacob. The prophet therefore 
goes on to declare that Edom should be as though it had never been, 
and should be swallowed up forever (a prophecy which has been re- 
markably fulfilled) ; while Israel should rise again from her present 
fall; should repossess not only her own land, but also Philistia and 
Edom; and finally rejoice in the holy reign of the promised Messiah. 
See Pt. i. I 188. 

Compare Amos i. 11, 12; ix. 11-15: Joel iii. 19, 20: Ezek. xxxv. 
THE CAPTIVITY. 

The Babylonish captivity was a remarkable, and at the time" 
it occurred an unexampled, dispensation of Providence. The 
people of Israel, in the time of the judges, had often been 
brought under their enemies ; and the ark, the symbol of 
God's presence, had once forsaken the tabernacle of Shiloh, 
and had been carried away into the land of the Philistines; 
but the captivity was attended with much heavier calamities. 

The whole land was now desolated, the ark destroyed, the temple 
burned to the ground, and the city of Jerusalem laid waste ; while the 
body of the people were delivered into the hands of barbarous ene- 
mies, and taken out of their own into a distant country. It is not 
easy to describe the feelings of distress and amazement of the faithful 
servants of God whose lot was cast in these dark and calamitous times. 
But in the short book of the " Lamentations" of the prophet Jeremiah, 
who lived in the midst of these scenes, there is a heart-touching memo- 
rial of them, which gives a faithful delineation of this visitation and 
of its results. 

Yet, painful as these events were, they were remarkably overruled 
<br the further development of the purposes of God and the advance- 



THE CAPTIVITY. 



567 



ment of true religion. The captivity of the Jews in Babylon tended 
greatly to cure them of the sin of idolatry, to which they had been 
addicted for so many ages ; a result which all their previous warnings, 
corrections, and judgments had failed to produce. It diffused the fear 
of Jehovah among the heathen, and elicited from Cyrus, from Nebu- 
chadnezzar, from Darius, acknowledgments of his perfections and 
claims. It also prepared the way for the coming of Christ and the dis- 
pensation of the Gospel, by taking away many of those things wherein 
consisted the glory of the Jewish dispensation, and by causing the dis- 
persion of the Jews throughout a great part of the known world. Those 
dispersed Jews, carrying with them the holy Scriptures, containing the 
prophecies of the Messiah, became the means of diffusing some know- 
ledge of the true religion, and of raising, to some extent, a general ex- 
pectation of the coming of the Saviour. 

These events were also of great importance, as presenting a striking 
fulfilment of prophecy. Long before the desolation and captivity of 
the two kingdoms of Israel and Judah, their relative destinies had been 
foretold. When these two kingdoms stood up together at the time of 
their separation, no human calculation could have determined which 
would be the more stable or prosperous of the two. That of Samaria 
seemed rather to have the advantage, considering her greater territory 
and numbers. But the voice of prophecy decided the question. The 
earliest three prophets who refer to this subject, Hosea, Amos and 
Isaiah, all announce the earlier downfall and the utter desolation of 
Israel. Israel was to be "broken within threescore and five years," 
and to "cease from being a people," Isa. vii. 6-8; and the Assyrian 
power was foreshown, by Tlosea's prediction, to be the instrument of 
the Divine judgment, Hos. xi. 5, etc. 

The captivity of Judah was first expressly foretold in the reign of 
Hezekiah, upon the occasion of his displaying to the ambassadors 
from Babylon his treasures and the wealth and splendor of his king- 
dom, Isa. xxxix. 2: 2 Chron. xxxii. 27. And the fullness of the pre- 
dictions on the subject of the Babylonish captivity is very remarkable. 
They not only describe the calamity which was about to overwhelm 
the Jewish people, but they disclose the reasons and purposes of God's 
providence in bringing it to pass. They represent it as a judicial visi- 
tation lor an extent of sin and corruption not otherwise to be purged 
away ; and as designed, not for punishment to their destruction, but 
for discipline to repentance and humiliation. They foretell, also, the 
time of its continuance, which they limit to seventy years, and its issue, 
together with* the penitent state of heart and the course of events on 
which that issue was to depend. The restoration of Judah, an event 



568 



THE RESTORATION EZRA. 



bo little to be expected in the ordinary course of things, was foretold 
as plainly as the captivity. See Isa. xiv. 3; xliv. 26-28; xlv. 1-4, 13: 
Jer. xxv. 9-13; xxix. 10-14, 1. 4, 5; li.: Ezek. xi. 16, 17; xii. 15; xx. 
34, and other passages. 

The characteristic peculiarities of prophecy during this 
period have been already noticed (Part ii.) Its extended 
range and explicit denunciations against the heathen, its 
evangelical disclosures of a coming kingdom, the growing 
spirituality of its precepts, are all deeply instructive, and are 
rendered appropriate, if not necessary, by the depressed con- 
dition of the Jewish church. 

THE RESTORATION. 

Babylon had now fallen, as had been foretold, and Daniel, 
there is reason to believe, stood high in the esteem of the 
conqueror Cyrus. To that monarch he probably showed the 
predictions of Isaiah, and now that at the end of seventy- 
years of captivity Cyrus found the sovereign power in his 
hands, he issued a decree, in which, after acknowledging the 
supremacy of Jehovah, he gave permission to the Jews in any 
part of his dominions to return to their own land, and to rebuild 
the city and temple of Jerusalem. The results of this decree, 
and the subsequent history of the Jews till the close of the 
Old Testament canon, are found in the remaining books of 
the Bible. Attention to the chronological order of the books 
is important. The arrangement will be found in Pt. ii. § 6. 

Sec. 5. — The Books of Ezra, Haggai, Zechariah, Esther, 
Nehemiah, Malachi. 

THE BOOK OF EZRA, B. c. 536-457. 

95. Ezra was one of the captives at Babylon, where he was 
probably born. He was the grandson of Seraiah, the chief 
priest, who was slain at the taking of Jerusalem (2 Kings xxv. 
18-21), and therefore a descendant of Aaron. He was a 



EZRA. 



569 



"ready scribe," or rather instructor, in the law of God. He 
was a man of deep humility (ix. 10-15), of fervent zeal for 
God's honor (vii. 10 ; viii. 21-23), deeply grieving over the 
sins of the people, and sparing no pains to bring them to re- 
pentance (ix. 3 ; x. 6, 10). He joined the Jews at Jerusalem 
many years after their return, going up thither with the second 
large company. 

Fart of the book (iv. 8-vi. 19 ; vii. 1-27), is written in Chaldee, and 
consists chiefly of conversations or decrees in that tongue. Ezra speaks 
of himself as the author in vii. 27, 28; viii. 1, 25-29; ix. 5. The 
whole period comprehended in this book extends from 536 to 457 B. 0., 
or about seventy-nine years.. 

The history in this book consists of two portions, separated from 
each other by a considerable interval of time. The first contains the 
history of the returning exiles, and of the rebuilding of the temple, 
which had been decreed by Cyrus, in the year 536 B. C, and completed 
in the reign of Darius Hystaspes, in the year 515 B. C. The second 
portion contains the personal history of Ezra's journey to Jerusalem, 
with commission from Artaxerxes, in the year 457 B. C. ; and his exer- 
tions for the reformation of the people. 

The contents of this book may be divided as follows: 

(i.) The return of the Jews from their captivity in Babylon, and the 
rebuilding of the triple. 

The proclamation of Cyrus for the rebuilding of Jerusalem and the 
temple, chap. i. The people who returned with Zerubbabel, the grand- 
son of king Jehoiachin, and Joshua, the grandson of Josedek, with 
tneir offerings for the temple, ii. Erection of the altar of burnt-offer- 
ing, and laying the foundation of the temple, iii. Opposition of the 
Samaritans, and suspension of the building, iv. Prophecies of Haggai 
and Zechariah ; recommencement of. the building; letter of the Sa- 
maritans to Darius, v. Decree of Darius; completion and dedication 
of the temple, vi. 

(ii.) Ezra's journey to Jerusalem, and the reformations which he 
effected. 

Ezra's commission from Artaxerxes, and his journey from Babylon 
to Jerusalem, with his companions, vii., viii. Ezra's mourning for the 
sins of the people, and confession and prayer, ix. Eepentance and 
reformation of the people, x. 

The book of Ezra should be read in connection with the prophecies 
of Haggai and Zechariah. 
48* 



570 



EZKA. 



In the return of the Jews from Babylon we see the fulfilment of the 
prophecies of Isaiah (xliv. 28), and Jeremiah (xxv. 12; xxix. 10); the 
former had predicted the name of their deliverer, and the latter the 
exact time of their deliverance, as well as the state of heart with which 
it should be accompanied. This restoration of the Jewish church, tem- 
ple, and worship, was an event of the highest consequence, as tending 
to preserve true religion in the world, and preparing the way for the 
appearance of the Great Deliverer, an ancestor of whom, Zerubbabel, 
or Sheshbazzar, was appointed in the providence of God to lead his peo- 
ple from Babylon. 

This deliverance of the Jewish people is much spoken of by the 
prophets as a most glorious display of the providence of God; and like 
the redemption of their forefathers out of Egypt, it may be viewed as 
a type of the great salvation of Christ, and of the journey of his re- 
deemed people to the heavenly Canaan, under the care and guidance 
of God their Saviour, Isa. xxxii. 2 ; xlii. 16; li. 11. 

Among the remarkable dispensations of Providence recorded in this 
history, we may notice especially how wonderfully God inclined the 
hearts of several heathen princes, Cyrus, Darius, and Artaxerxes, to 
favor and protect his people, and to aid them in the work of rebuilding 
their city and temple, i., iv., vi., vii. Mark, too, how God overruled 
the opposition of the Samaritans, the decree of Darius being much more 
favorable than that of Cyrus (Ezr. i. and v. ; vi.) There is also another 
display of God's special and discriminating providence in the fulfilment 
of his promises to his people. Whilst in the land of Samaria, colonies 
of strangers had been planted, which filled the territory of Israel with 
a heathen race, so as to prevent the return of the ancient inhabitants; 
it appears that in the land of Judah full room was left for the return 
and restoration of the Jews. 

Unlike Nehemiah, Ezra seems to have remained at Jeru- 
salem. He is said to have lived to the same age as Moses, 
120 years, and is esteemed by the Jews as next to him for 
the services he rendered to their religion. He appears to 
have exercised civil authority for nearly twelve years. We 
read of him in the next book as employed in his sa'cred duties, 
and zealously co-operating with Nehemiah, who succeeded 
him in the government, in promoting the reformation of the 
people. 



HAGGAI. 



571 



THE BOOK OF HAGGAI, B. C. 520-518. 

96. Haggai is generally thought to have been born in the 
captivity, and to have returned from Babylon with Zerub- 
babel (Ezr. ii. 2). He is the first of the three prophets who 
flourished among the Jews alter their return to Judaea, and 
was raised up by God to encourage Zerubbabel and Joshua 
the high-priest to resume the building of the temple, which 
had been interrupted for nearly fourteen years by the Samari- 
tans and others artfully attempting to defeat the edict of 
Cyrus (Ezr. iv. 24). Though this interruption was now re- 
moved, the Jews showed no desire to recommence the work. 
The time they said was not come to build the house of the 
Lord. They were more anxious to build and adorn their own 
houses, to cultivate their fields, and multiply their flocks. 
This worldliness, however, brought its own punishment. They 
"looked for much," and "it came to little." Drought and 
mildew were sent to rebuke their neglect of what ought to 
have been their first work, and Haggai and Zechariah were 
raised up to reform and encourage them, i. 4-11 ; ii. 15-19 : 
Zech. viii. 9-12. 

This book contains four prophetic messages (i. 1 ; ii. 1, 10, 20), all 
delivered in aboi i four months. They are so brief, that they are sup- 
posed to be only a nummary of the original prophecies. 

In the first, Haggai reproves the Jews for neglecting the temple, and 
promises that the Divine favor shall attend its erection. Twenty-four 
days alter this prophecy, Zerubbabel and Joshua, and all the people, 
resumed their work, and were encouraged by a gracious message from 
God, chap. i. 

About four weeks afterwards, the zeal of the people appears to have 
cooled ; and many doubts arose in their minds. To remove these, 
Haggai declares that the Lord of Hosts is with them ; and that the 
glory of the new temple shall be greater than that of the former, ii. 1-9. 

Two months afterwards, Haggai addresses them a third time, rebuk- 
ing their listlessness, and promising them the Divine blessing from the 
time of the foundation of the Lord's house was laid, ii. 10-19. And 
on the same day another prophecy was delivered, addressed to Zerub- 
babel, the head and representative of the family of David, and the 



572 



ZECHARIAH. 



individual with whom the genealogy of the Messiah (through both 
Jttseph and Mary : see Matt. i. 12 : Luke iii. 27) be ^an after the cap- 
tivity, promising the preservation of the people of God, amidst the fall 
and ruin of the kingdoms of the world, ii. 20-23. 

These signal predictions, which gained for Haggai the character.of a 
prophet (Ez. v. 1 ; vi. 14), were both referred by the Jews to the time 
of the Messiah, Eph. ii. 14: Heb. xii. 26, 27 (Grotius). The second 
temple was to witness the presence of the Great Teacher himself; and 
though that temple was nearly wholly rebuilt by Herod, this was 
a very gradual work, occupying more than forty-six years ; nor did 
Jewish writers ever speak of Herod's temple in other terms than as 
the second. In the closing prediction, Christ himself is spoken of under 
the type of Zerubbabel ; and the temporal commotions which preceded 
his first coming, and are to precede his second, are represented by the 
shaking and overthrow of earthly kingdoms. 

THE BOOK OF ZECHARIAH, B. C. 520-510. 

97. Zechariali, the son of Barachiah and grandson of Iddo, 
was probably of the priestly tribe (see Neh. xii. 4), and re- 
turned from Babylon, when quite a youth, with. Zerubbabel 
and Joshua. Whether Iddo was himself a prophet is not 
clear (compare Hebrew and LXX). His grandson, Zechariah, 
began to prophesy about two months after Haggai (i. 1 : 
Ezr. v. 1 ; vi. 14 : Hag. i. 1), in the second year of Darius 
Hystaspes, and continued to prophesy for two years, vii. 1. 
He had the same general object as Haggai, to encourage and 
urge the Jews to rebuild the temple. The Jews, we are told, 
"prospered through the prophesying" (Ez. vi. 14), and in 
about six years the temple was finished. 

Zechariah collected his own prophecies (i. 9 ; ii. 2), and is very fre- 
quently quoted in the New Testament. Indeed, next to Isaiah, 
Zechariah has the most frequent allusions to the character and coming 
of our Lord. 

The genuineness of the closing chaps, ix.-xiv., has been doubted. 
Mede and others refer them to Jeremiah, deeming the reading in Matt, 
xxvii. 9, 10, and internal evidence, in favor of this view. Jahn, Blay- 



ZECHARIAH — EXPOSITION. 



573 



ney, Hengstenberg, and others, refer the whole to Zechariah, and sup- 
posed the reading to be, as it easily might be, an error of copyists.* 

While the immediate object of Zechariah was to encourage the Jews 
in the restoration of public worship, he has other objects more remote 
and important. His prophecies, like those of Daniel, extend to the 
" times of the Gentiles ;" but in Zechariah, the history of the chosen 
people occupies the centre of his predictions ; and that history is set 
forth both in direct prophecy and in symbolical acts or visions. 

As Zechariah abounds in symbolical imagery, we shall give, instead 
of a brief summary, an outline of his different visions, with such inter- 
pretations as are approved by eminent commentators. 

98. The book of Zechariah may be divided into three parts: — 
1. Chaps, i.-vi., containing nine visions, in addition to the warnings 
given in i. 1-6. The first showing that, though seventy years had 
elapsed since the ninth of Zedekiah, shortly after which time the temple 
was burned, and all the rest of the earth had rest, the Jews were still 
molested ; the angel of God {i. e., either Messiah or the church) asks 
how long; and good and comfortable words are spoken in reply in the 
hearing of the prophet, i. 7-17. The prophet then sees the horns, or 
four kingdoms, by whom the Jews had been, or were yet to be scat- 
tered ; and also four carpenters, or helpers, by whose aid the horns are 
to be cast out, i. 18-21. The prophet has now a third vision, of a 
man with a measuring line, to imply the rebuilding and enlargement 
of Jerusalem : she shall overflow, or break down her walls, and 
Jehovali will be at once a wall of fire round about her and the glory 
in the midst. He exhorts the Jews still in Babylon to return, and 
foretells yet larger accessions, ii. 1-13. He then predicts the increased 
purity of the priesthood in the person of Joshua, thence he passes to 
the office of Christ, as a Branch out of David's root (Isa. iv. 2 : Jer. 
xxiii. 5 ; xxxiii. 15) ; a Stone for a foundation, having seven eyes, to 
indicate his perfect intelligence, and Divinely engraven or adorned. 
In his day all shall dwell safely and in peace, iii. 1-10. In the fifth 
vision, the prophet sees a golden candlestick, supplied by two olive- 
trees dropping their oil into it; and these show how, by the Spirit of the 
Lord in Zerubbabel and Joshua, the temple and the church should be 
completed, without external help (ver. 6), and against all opposition 
(ver. 7), iv. 1-14 : compare ver. 12 and Rev. xi. 4. He is then taught, 
by the vision of a flying roll, the swift judgments that are to fall upon 

a The name is wanting in some MSS. and in the Syriac; Za^Iov ia 
found in others : and to confound Zpiov with lpw is easy enough. 



574 



ZECHARIAH — EXPOSITION. 



thieves and false-swearers : by another, of an ephah, or measure, and 
a woman sitting upon it with a talent of lead upon her, andVtwo winged 
women carrying the whole to Shinaar, he is taught the heavy judgment 
of some nation that has filled up the measure of her iniquity and is to 
be established and settled in the East, v. 1-4,. 5-11. In the eighth 
vision, mountains — fixed Divine purposes — are seen to send out chariots 
and horses, instruments of Divine providence. They quiet the spirit 
of the prophet (ver. 8 : compare Judg. viii. 3), by inflicting punish- 
ment upon Babylon (ver. 8 ■ compare Jer. i. 14). a In the closing 
vision, b Joshua is seen crowned with two crowns of silver and gold, 
and becomes in that condition a type of Christ, the Branch, who, 
uniting in himself the priestly and kingly offices, is to build the temple 
and bear the glory, vi. 1-15. 

2. Chaps, vii., viii. In the second part, messengers from Babylon 
come to learn from the prophet whether God had sanctioned the new 
fasts instituted at the commencement of the captivity for the destruc- 
tion of the city and temple. The prophet replies that God had not 
sanctioned them, and that what he requires is a return to obedience, 
which the messengers, or people, refuse, vii. 1-14. Prophecies, inter- 
mixed with warnings, follow : fasting seasons are to become cheer- 
ful feasts, and the Jews are to be a universal blessing, viii. 1-23 : 
ver. 13, 23. 

3. Chaps, ix.-xiv. The third part contains the history of the Jews, 
and of the church, to the end of time. Syria, Tyre, and Sidon, are to 
be conquered, though the house of the Lord will be preserved, even 
while heathen armies, and Alexander (ix. 6), pass through the land: 
and at length Messiah is to come and establish a peaceful kingdom, 
which shall finally extend over the earth (ver. 9 : Matt. xxi. 4, 5) : 
ix. 1-17. Idols are to be everywhere abandoned, Judah, and even 
Ephraim restored, (ver. 7) ; x. 1-12. A sad scene, however, is to in- 
tervene. The destruction of Jerusalem is again foretold, in terms 
taken probably from the history of her first overthrow, the prophetic 
office is to be in the lowest repute (ver. 12), the wands or crooks, sym- 
bolical of the shepherd's office, are broken, and false hireling shepherds 
are honored : all which has its fulfilment in the destruction of Jem- 

a Probably the four chariots denote the four empires of Daniel's 
vision ; the red horses, the Babylonians ; the black, the Persians, who 
overthrew Babylon ; the white, the Macedonians, who were peaceful 
to the Jews ; and the spotted bay, the Romans. The general import is 
at least clear. 

b Or symbolical action. 



ESTHER. 



575 



salem by the Romans, in the impious rejection of Christ by the Jews, 
the mean undervaluation of him by Judas, and the powerlessness and 
ignorance of the Jewish rulers ; " the arm dried up, and the right eye 
darkened," (ver. 17): xi. 1-17. Nevertheless, Jerusalem shall be a 
burdensome stone to all nations. The Jews shall mourn over their 
sins, and especially over the sin that destroyed them, the crucifixion 
of our Lord (John xix. 37), and all shall be forgiven, xii. 1-xiii. 1. 
The idols shall be cut off; false prophets shall cease ; the prophetic 
office itself shall bring persecution; the shepherd being smitten, the 
sheep shall be scattered, though a remnant of them shall survive the 
overthrow of the Jewish state, xiii. 2-9. Jerusalem, however, will be 
destroyed, and the people scattered. Christ shall ascend from Olivet, 
and thence shall Jewish Christians be forced out by persecution, and 
extend the church on all sides, the barriers which surrounded the Jewish 
people and state being removed.* Then, and for long after, the church 
is to remain in a state of mingled prosperity and suffering, aad at the 
close, not night, but day mori glorious than ever, shall shine over all 
the earth, and the world shall become " Holiness unto the Lord," xiv. 

It may be added that in the version of the LXX several 
psalms are ascribed to Haggai and Zechariah (cxxxviii., cxlvi.— 
cxlviii.) ; and though nothing can be decided with certainty 
as to these particular psalms, it is highly probable that both 
prophets were concerned in the composition of some of those 
which were produced after the return from captivity. 

THE BOOK OF ESTHER, B. O. 462-452. 

99. But few comparatively of the Jews availed themselves 
of the privilege to return to the land of their fathers. Most 
of the existing race had been born in Babylonia ; they had 
made that country their home, and had gathered around them 
comforts which were not easily abandoned. Not more than 
50,000 persons had gone up under Zerubbabel ; and the sec- 
ond band, under Ezra, more than seventy years later, num- 

a Some, however, regard this prediction on the clearing of Mount 
Olivet, as referring to the coming of our Lord, in his premillenial 
glory (see Part i. \ 447). The view given above, is taken chiefly from 
Leifchild's Help. 



576 



ESTHER. 



bered in all about 6,000 persons. Yet later, otber bands 
probably sought the city and temple of God, but even still 
the great bulk of the people remained in the land of their 
exile. 

Some suppose that this book was written by Mordeeai ; but the more 
probable opinion (and one which may account for the omission of the 
name of God) is that it is an extract from the records of Persia. The 
Asiatic sovereigns, it is well known, caused annals of their reigns to be 
kept. Numerous passages in the books of Kings and Chronicles prove 
that the kings of Israel and Judah had such annals. And this book 
itself attests that Ahasuerus had similar historical records, ii. 23; vi. 1; 
from which it appears probable that this history of the Jews, under 
Queen Esther, might be derived, see chap. x. 2. This supposition ac- 
counts for the retaining of the Persian word Purim, ix. 24-32 : for the 
details given concerning the empire of Ahasuerus, and for the exactness 
with which the names of his ministers, and of Hainan's sons, are recorded ; 
also for the Jews being mentioned only in the third person, and Esther 
being frequently designated by the title of "the queen," and Mordeeai 
by the epithet of " the Jew." .It would also account for those paren- 
theses which occur in the course of the narrative, the object of which 
appears to have been to give illustrations necessary for a Jewish reader; 
and for the abrupt termination of the narrative, by one sentence rela- 
tive to the power of Ahasuerus, and another concerning Mordecai's 
greatness. 

The facts here related come in between the sixth and seventh chap- 
ters of Ezra. The institution of the festival of Purim, and its contin- 
ued observance to the present time, is an evidence of the truth of this 
book. It has always been received as canonical by the Jews, who hold 
it in the highest veneration. 

The contents of this book may be thus stated : — ■ 

It relates the royal feast of Ahasuerus, and the divorce of Vashti, 
chap. i. The elevation of Esther to the Persian throne, and the service 
Tendered to the king by Mordeeai, in detecting a plot against his life, ii. 
The promotion of Haman, and his purposed destruction of the Jews, iii 
The consequent affliction of the Jews, and the measures taken by 
them, iv. The defeat of Hainan's plot against Mordeeai, through the 
instrumentality of Esther ; the honor done to Mordeeai, and the exe- 
cution of Haman, v., vi., vii. The defeat of Hainan's general plot 
against the Jews ; the institution of the festival of Purim, in commemo- 
ration of this deliverance, and Mordecai's advancement, viii., ix., x. 



ESTHER — JEREMIAH. 



577 



The book of Esther shows how these Jews, though scattered among 
the heathen, were preserved, even when doomed by others to destruc- 
tion. Though the name of God is not found in the book, his hand is 
plainly seen, anticipating threatened evil, defeating and overruling it 
to the greater good of the Jews, and even of the heathen, i., ii., iv.-x. 
Nor was it the safety of the Jews in Babylon only that was in peril ; 
if Haman had succeeded, as the power of Persia was then supreme at 
Jerusalem and throughout Asia, the Jews throughout the world must 
have perished, and with them the whole of the visible church of God. 

Mark and admire the providence of God, using what seems the most 
trifling circumstance to accomplish his will (vi.) 'Mark, also, the faith 
of Mordecai, whose fear of the unalterable Persian decree was less than 
his trust in the faithfulness of God (iv. 14). Though he knew not 
how, he foresaw indemnity to Israel; and he asks the aid of Esther, 
rather for her honor than for their deliverance. 

THE BOOK OF NEHEMIAH, B. C. 445-428. 

100. This book was anciently united with Ezra, though 
written or compiled by Nehemiah. Chap. vii. 6-73 was pro- 
bably compiled, ver. 5 ; as was xii. 1-26 (ver. 23). In the 
rest there are clear proofs of Nehemiah's authorship (see 
i.-vii. and xii. 27-43: xiii. 6-31.) 

The book of Nehemiah takes up the history of the Jews about twelve 
years after the close of the book of Ezra ; and it gives an account of 
the improvements in the city of Jerusalem, and of the reformations 
among the people which were carried on by Nehemiah. 

Though the temple had been rebuilt under the administration of 
Ezra, the walls and gates of the city were yet in the state of ruin in b 
which the Chaldseans had left them ; and consequently the inhabitants 
were exposed to the assault of every enemy. Nehemiah was the instru- 
ment raised up for their protection. Though a Jew and a captive, he 
had been, through the overruling providence of God, appointed cup- 
bearer to the king of Persia; an office which was one of the most 
honorable and confidential at the court. Though thus in the midst of 
ease and wealth, yet when he heard of the mournful condition of his 
countrymen, he was deeply afflicted by it. He made it the subject of 
earnest prayer ; and after four months, the sadness of his countenance 
having revealed to the king his sorrow of heart, an opportunity 
was given him of petitioning for leave to go to Jerusalem. The king 



578 



NEHEMIAH. 



(probably influenced by Esther, his queen) appointed Nehemiah gov- 
ernor of Jerusalem, with a commission to rebuild the walls and pro- 
tect the people, i. ; ii. 1-8. 

The rebuilding of the city wall was accomplished in fifty- two days, 
notwithstanding the difficulties created by Sanballat and Tobiah, who 
were leading men in the rival colony of Samaria ; they first scoffed at 
the attempt, then threatened to attack the workmen, and finally used 
various stratagems to weaken Nehemiah's authority, and even to take 
his life. In addition to these dangers from without, Nehemiah encoun- 
tered hindrances from his own people, arising out of the general dis- 
tress, which was aggravated by the cruel exactions of the nobles and 
rulers. These grievances were redressed on the earnest remonstrance 
of Nehemiah, who had himself set a striking example of economy in 
his office. It appears, also, that some of the chief men in Jerusalem 
were at that time in conspiracy with Tobiah against Nehemiah, ii. 9-20; 
iii.-vi. Thus the wall was built in " troublous times," Dan.ix. 23 ; and 
its completion was joyously celebrated by a solemn dedication under 
Nehemiah's direction, xii. 27-43. 

Nehemiah next turned his attention to other measures for the public 
good. He appointed various officers, vii. 1-3; xii. 44-47; and excited 
among the people more interest in religion, by the public exposition 
of the law; by an unexampled celebration of trie feast of tabernacles, 
and the observance of a national fast; and by inducing the people to 
enter into a solemn covenant "to walk in God's law," viii.-x. 

The inhabitants of the city being as yet too few to insure its pros- 
perity, Nehemiah brought one out of every ten in the country to take 
up his abode in the ancient capital, which then presented so few induce- 
ments to the settler that " the people blessed all the men that willingly 
offered themselves to dwell at Jerusalem," vii. 4; xi. 1-19. In all these 
important public proceedings Nehemiah appears to have enjoyed the 
assistance of Ezra. 

After about twelve years (v. 14), Nehemiah returned to Babylonia; 
he subsequently went back to Jerusalem, and exerted himself to pro- 
mote the further reformation of his countrymen, particularly in the 
correction of those abuses which had crept in during his absence, xiii. 
The whole administration of Nehemiah is supposed to have lasted 
about thirty-six years, and with this book closes the History of the Old 
Testament. 

Nehemiah presents a noble example of true patriotism founded on 
the fear of God (v. 15), and seeking the religious welfare of 
the state. His respect for the Divine law, his reverence foi 
the Sabbath (xiii. 18), his devout acknowledgment of God in all things 



MALACHI. 



579 



(i. 11; ii. 18), his practical perception of God's character (iv. 14; ix. 
6-33), his union of watchfulness and prayer (iv. 9, 20), his humility in 
ascribing all good in himself to the grace of God (ii. 12; vii. 5), are all 
highly commendable. In the ninth chapter we have an instructive 
summary of the history of the Jews, in its most important light, show- 
ing at once what God is and what men are. Few books, indeed, of the 
Bible, contain a richer illustration of Divine philosophy — that is, of 
true religion taught by example. 

' THE BOOK OF ^lALACHI, B. C. 420-397. 

101. Malachi ("my messenger") is the last of the Old Tes- 
tament prophets, as Nehemiah is the last of the historians ; 
and the time of his ministry nearly coincides with Nehemiah's 
administration. The second temple was now built, and the 
service of the altar, with its offerings and sacrifices, was 
established ; for it is a profane and insincere spirit in that 
service, especially among the priests, which he labors to cor- 
rect. He complains, also, that divorces and intermarriages 
with idolaters have greatly multiplied — the very evils which 
Nehemiah so earnestly condemns.* He lived between the 
years 436 and 397 B. 0. 

Malachi begins his message by reminding the Jews how God had 
preferred them to Edom, and upbraids them with their ungrateful 
returns; he reproves the priests (i. 6; ii. 1), and the people (ii. 11); 
alludes to the Divine institution that made two one flesh, ver. 15, that 
the seed might be holy; threatens all with punishment and rejection, 
declaring that God will " make his name great among the Gentiles," 
for that he was wearied with the impiety of Isreal, i. ; ii. 

He then proclaims the approach of Christ to that temple, and hia 
purification by doctrine, judgment, and mercy, of both service and 
worshippers, marking the happiness of the select few, who in corrupt 
times take counsel together for religious ends, whom God will preserve, 
manifesting at last to all men, that they are his own, iii.-iv. 1. 

He closes the book, with an assurance of approaching salvation, 
predicts the coming of the harbinger of the Sun of righteousness, and 
enjoins, till that day, the observance of the law, Luke i. 17. 



a Mal. ii. 11, compare Neh. xiii. 23-27: Mai. ii. 8; iii. 8, 10: Neh. 
Shi. 10, 11, 29. 



580 KEIGNS OF KEHOBOAM AND JEROBOAM. 



102. The last predictions of Scripture, therefore, are like 
the earliest. They rebuke corruption and promise deliver- 
ance. They uphold the authority of the first dispeusation 
and reveal the second. The prophet is still the teacher; and 
his last words are of the law and spiritual obedience, and 
again of the Gospel and its healing glory, iv. 2. 

Sec. 6. — The whole Arranged and Epitomized. 

From the Death of Solomon till the close of the Canon. 

103. (1.) HISTORY OF THE TWO KINGDOMS. 



JlJDAH. 

Kehoboam, king (17 years), 

1 Kings xiv. 21, /.p. (Jtidah): 

2 Chron. xii. 13, /. p. 
{resigned). 

Kehoboam, preparing to at- 
tack the ten tribes, is for- 
bidden by Shemaiah, 

1 Kings xii. 21-24: 
2 Chron. xii. 1-4. 
Rehoboam's fortifies his king- 
dom ; the priests and Le- 
vites of Israel resort to him, 
Behoboam's family, 

[2 Chron. xi. 5-23]. 



Behoboam's and Judah's 

idolatry, 1 Kings xiv. 22-24: 

2 Chron. xii. 1. 
Shishak plunders Jerusleam, 

1 Kings xiv. 25-28 : 2 Chron. 

xii. 2-12. 
Character and death of Reho- 

boam, 1 Kings xiv. 21, I. p. 

29-31 : 2 Chron. xii. 13, I p. 

14-16 



B. C. 

976 
[975,_ 
Usher" 



974 



973 



972 
[970, 

Usher" 
959" 
[958, 

Usher" 



ISEAEL. 

JEROBOAM, king (22 years); 
he establishes himself at 
Shechem, 1 Kings xii. 25. 



Jeroboam, having set np 
golden calves at Dan and 
Bethel, is reproved by a 
Man of God, 1 Kings xii. 
26-33: xiii. 1-10. 

Seduced by an old prophet of 
Bethel, the Man of God dis- 
obeys the word of the Lord, 
and is slain by a lion, 

1 Kings xiii. 11-32. 

These calves borrowed from 
Egypt, where Jeroboam had 
resided. 

Twice warned, by the Man of 
God and by Ahijah, yet per- 
sisting in his idolatry. 
The step seemed politic. It seemed 
| a form of worship something like 
j that established at Jerusalem, and 
attracted the tribes, but in the end 
I it proved the ruin of the kingdom. 



Note. — The names of prophets are here printed in bold type, of new 
kings in Roman capitals, and of the first kings of new dynasties in 
Italic capitals. 



ABIJAH — ASA — ^NADAB/ — BAASHA. 581 



Judah. 

Abu ah, or Abijah, king (3 
years), 1 Kings xv. 1, 2, 6 : 
2 Chron. xiii. 1, 2. 
Abijah defeats Jeroboam in 
battle, 2 Chron. xiii. 3-21. 
His heart not perfect. 
Character and death of Abijah. 
Asa, king (41 years), 
1 Kings xv. 3-10 : 2 Chron. 

xiii. 22 : xiv. 1. 



Asa puts away idolatry and 
strengthens his kingdom, 
1 Kings xv. 11-15: 2 Chron. 

xiv. 2-8 : xv. 16-18. 

Asa's victory over the Ethi- 
opians, 2 Chron. xiv. 9-15. 

Moved by Azariah. Asa makes 
a solemn covenant with God, 
2 Chron. xv. 1-15, 19. 

Asa bribes Ben-hadad, King of 
Syria, to attack Baasha, 

1 Kings xv. 16-22. 
Asa, reproved by Hanani for 

applying to Ben-hadad, puts 
hirn in prison, 

2 Chron. xvi. 7-10 
His idolatrous alliance with Syria, 

and his imprisonment of the pro 
phet, after all his reformations 
prove his ruin. In his sickness 
he trusts not in God, but in his 
p&ysicians. 



49* 



B. C. 

959 
[958, 
Jsher' 

958 

957 

956 



955 



953 



951 



944 
942 



941 



931 



930 



926 



ISEAEL. 



Ahijah denounces Jeroboam, 
1 Kings xiii. 33, 34 : xiv. 1-18. 

Very touching is the narrative of the 
visit of the wife of the king of 
Israel to Ahijah, to learn the fate 
of her sick, but pious son, xiv. 

Jeroboam's death. Nadab, 
king (2 years), 1 Kings xiv. 

19, 20 ; xv. 25, 26. 

Nadab slain at Gibbethon. 

BAASHA, king (24 years), 

1 Kings xv. 27-34. 



Baasha, attempting to build 
Ramah is attacked by the 
king of Syria, 

2 Chron. xvi. 

Ver. 1, i. e., the 36th year of Asa's 
kingdom (Lit), or read 24th 
(Hales). 



Baasha denounced by Jehu; 
his death. Elah, king (2 
years), 1 Kings xvi. 1-8. 

Elah slain. Zimri, king (7 
days) ; destroys Baasha's 
house. Omri elected king. 
Zimri destroys himself, 

1 Kings xvi. 9-20. 

OMRI, king (12 years, includ- 
ing 6 years' civil war with 
Tibni). Samaria built, 

1 Kings xvi. 21-26. 



582 



ASA — JEHOSHAPHAT — ZIMRI — AHAZIAH. 



JUDAH. 

Asa's death. Jehoshaphat, 
king (25 years); his piety 
and prosperity, 
1 Kings xv. 23, 24 ; xxii. 41- 
47: 2 Chron. xvi. 11-14; xvii. 
1; xx. 31-33; xvii. 2-19: 
compare ver. 6 and xx. 33. 
His great error is his alliance with 
Ahab, whose daughter, Athaliah, 
his son Jehoram marries. Hence 
his expedition to Ramoth, which 
nearly cost him his life. 



Jehoshaphat visits Ahab, and 
joins with him in battle 
against the Syrians, 

2 Chron. xviii. 

Jehoshaphat reproved by Jehu 
for joining with Ahab. He vi- 
sits the kingdom, and exhorts 
the judges, etc., to be faith- 
ful, 2 Chron. xix : Psa. lxxxii. 

Overthrow of Moab, etc. Je- 
horam regent, 2 Chron. xx. 
1-30 : Psa. cxv. ; xlvi. 

Jehoshaphat joins Ahaziah. 
Being reproved, and his 
ships wrecked, he refuses to 
join in a subsequent expedi- 
tion, 1 Kings xxii. 48, 49 : 
2 Chron. xx. 35, 37. 

Afterwards joins Joram against 
Moab, and is saved only by 
a miracle, 2 Kings iii. 

On the trade between Judah and 
India, see Prid. Con. i. p. 7. 

r On 2 Chron. xx. 13: see Joel ii. 16.] 



B. C. 

917 

915 
[914 
to 

912, 
Usher" 1 
910 
to 
906 



902 
and 
901 
900 



897 



894 



ISEAEL. 

Omri dies. Ahab, king (22 
years). Jericho rebuilt by 
Hiel, who reaps Joshua's 
curse, 1 Kings xvi. 27-34. 
1 Kings xvi. 25, comp. Mic. vi. 26: 
1 Kings xvL 34 : Josh. vi. 26 

Elijah prophesies a famine; 
raises the widow's son ; his 
trial with the prophets of 
Baal. Elisha a prophet, 

1 Kings xvii.-xix. 

Ben-hadad besieges Samaria. 
The Syrians twice defeated. 
Ahab denounced, 1 Kings xx. 

Ahab seizes Naboth's vine- 
yard. Elijah denounces him, 
1 Kings xxi. 

Ahab makes war on Syria, and 
is slain, as Micaiah pre- 
dicted. Ahaziah, king, 

1 Kings xxii. 1-35, 3.6-40, 51-53. 

[Ver. 39 : see Amos iii. 15.] 



Psa. lxxxii. placed here from inter- 
nal evidence, (Towns.) 



Psa. cxv. and xlvi.( Wells, Rosenmul.) 

The schools of the prophets (Naioth), 
1 Sam. x. 10; xix. 20 ; 2 Kings ii. 2, 
seem to have trained at this time 
a large number of religious 
teachers. 



Ahaziah falling sick and send- 
ing to inquire of Baalzebub, 
is denounced by Elijah. 
Jehoram or Joram, his 
Brother, king (12 years), 

2 Kings i. ; iii. 1-3, 

Elijah translated. Elisha ac» 
knowledged as his successor; 
his miracles, 2 Kings ii. 

Joram, joined by Jehoshaphat 
and the king of Edom, de- 
feats Moab, 2 Kings iii. 4-27. 

Elisha multiplies the widow's 
oil ; promises a son to the 
Shuman*., 2 Kings iv. 1-17. 



JEHORAM — . 



•AHAZIAH — JORAM. 



583 



JlJDAH. 

2 Kings ix. 2, 13. Read, therefore, in 
1 Kings xix. 16, grandson; and by 
Elijah anointing Jehu, understand, 
ordering Elisha to do it. Jehu 
■was anointed to exterminate the 
house of Ahab. 

Jehoram begins to reign in 
consort with Jehoshaphat, 

2 Kings viii. 16. 
2 Chron. xxi. 5. Three dates are given 
for the beginning of Jehoram's 
reign : B. C. 897, when he was re- 
gent during his father's absence 
(2 Kings i. 17; iii. 1); 891, (2 Kings 
viii. 16); and 8S9, (Lft.) 
Death of Jehoshaphat. Jeho- 
eam, or Joeam, king (8 
years); his wicked and trou- 
bled reign. Elijah's letter, 
written before his transla- 
tion brought to him, 
1 Kings xxii. 45, 50: 2 Kings 
vii. 17-22: 2 Chron. xx. 34; 

xxi. 1-18. 

Ahaziab begins to reign as 
viceroy to his father, 

2 Kings ix. 29. 
Death of Jehoram. Aha- 
ziah, king (1 year) ; his 
evil reign, 2 Kings viii. 23, 
24, 25-27 : 2 Chron. xxi. 19, 
20 ; xxii. 1-4. 
Ahaziah joins Joram against 
Hazael, and afterwards visits 
him at Jezreel, 

2 Kings viii. 28, 29. 

Ahaziah slain by Jehu, 

2 Chron. xxii. 7-9. 

[.4 THALIAH usurps the throne, 
(6 years). Joash, the son of 
Ahaziah rescued], 2 Kings xi. 
1-3: 2 Chron. xxii. 10-12. 

Jehoash, or Joash, king (40 
years). Athaliah slam, 2 
Kings xi. 4-xii. 2 : 2 Chron. 

xxiii.-xxiv. 3. 



B. C. 

893 
892 



891 



890 



to 
887 



885 



884 



883 



877 



860 



Israel. 

Naaman healed, 2 Kings v. 
Elisha causes iron to swim ; 
discloses the Syrian king's 
purpose, and smites his army 
with blindness, 

2 Kings vi. 1-23. 
Ben-hadad besieges Samaria; 
Severe famine ensues; plenty 
restored by the sudden flight 
of the Syrians, 

2 Kings vi. 24-33 ; vii. 
Elisha raises to life the wi- 
dow's son : other miracles, 
2 Kings iv. 18-44; viii. 1, 2. 
2 Kingsiv.44 This is Elijah's twelfth 
miracle, Elijah having wrought 
six. Townse'nd places iv. 18 after 
iv. 17 ; but there is clearly an in- 
terval of two years or so between 
them. 

2 Chron. xxi. 12. Elijah's letter, Lft. 
thinks was sent to Jehoram in 
897. Hales reads Elisha. Wall 
supposes another Elijah. Patrick 
and others take the view given in 
the opposite column. 



Return of the Shunammite. 
Hazael kills Ben-hadad and 
becomes, as Elisha pre- 
dicted, king of Syria, 

2 Kings viii. 3-16.' 

Joram being wounded in bafc 
tie by the Syrians, retires to 
Jezreel, 

2 Chron. xxii. 5, 6. 

J ehu anointed, 2 Kings ix. 1-13. 

Joram slain by Jehu, 

2 Kings ix. 14-28. 

JEHU, king (28 years); slays 
Jezebel, Ahab's sons, Ahazi- 
ah's brethren, and Baal's 
worshippers, 2 Kings ix. 30- 
37 ; x. 1-31. 



Hazael oppresses Israel, 

2 Kings x. 32, 33. 



584 



JOASH — AMAZIAH — JEHU — JOASH. 



JUDAH. 

Joash repairs the temple, 

2 Kings xii. 4-16 : 2 Chron. 

xxiv. 4-14. 

Death of Jehoiada, 

2 Chron. xxiv. 15, 16. 



Joash and the people fall into 
idolatry ; Zechariah, re- 
proving them, is slain in the 
temple-court (cf. Matt, xxiii. 
35). The Syrians invade Jo- 
ash, 2 Chron. xxiv. 17-22, 23, 
24: 2 Kings xii. 17, 18. 

Joash slain by his servants. 
Amaziah, king (29 -ears), 
2 Kings xii. 19-21 ; xiv. 1-6 : 
2 Chron. xxiv. 25-27; xxv. 
1-4. 



Amaziah hires an army of Isra- 
elites to assist him against 
Edom, but at a prophet's com- 
mand he sends them back, 

2 Chron. xxv. 5-10. 

Amaziah smites the Edomites, 
and worships their gods, 2 
Chron. xxv. 11 : 2 Kings xiv. 
7 : 2 Chron. xxv. 12, 14-16. 

Amaziah provokes the king of 
Israel to battle, and is taken 
prisoner by him, 

2 Kings xiv. 8-14. 



B. C. 
855 



850 

849 

842 
841 

840 



838 



838 



836 



827 



826 



823 



822 



Israel. 

Death of Jehu. Jehoahaz, king 
(17 years), 2 Kings x. 34-36; 
xiii. 1, 2. 
History of Jonah, 

Jon. i.-iv.? [See 808]. 
Israel given over by God to 
ilazael and Ben-hadad, and 
delivered, 2 Kings xiii. 1-7. 
j ehoash begins to reign in con- 
sort with Jehoahaz, 

2 Kings xiii. 10. 



Death of Jehoahaz. Jehoash, 
or Joash, king (16 years). 
He visits Elisha, who promi- 
ses three victories. Hazael 
dies, 2 Kings xiii. 8, 9, 11, 
14-19, 22-24. 

Elisha dies. A corpse thrown 
into Elisha's sepulchre re- 
vives, 2 Kings xiii. 20, 21. 

Jehoash thrice beats the Syrians, 
2 Kings xiii. 25. 



The Israelites, who had been 
dismissed by Amaziah, plun- 
der the cities of Judah as they 
return, 

2 Chron. xxv. 13. 

Jehoash defeats the king of 
Judah and plunders the tem- 
ple, 

2 Chron. xxv. 17-24. 
Death of Jehoash. Jeroboam 
II., king (41 years) ; he reigns 
wickedly, 2 Kings xiii. 12, 
13; xiv. 15, 16, 23, 24. 
Jeroboam restores the coast of 
Israel according to the word 
of Jonah, 

2 Kings xiv. 25-27. 



UZZIAH— JEEOBOAM 



II. — PEKAH, 



585 



JlJDAH. 

Amaziali slain. Uzziah, or 
Azariah, king (52 years). 
During the days of Zechariah 
he reigns well, 2 Kings xiv. 



17-2S 



xv. 1-4: 2 Chron, 



xxv. 25 ; xxvi. 15. 



Amos vii. 10-19, Lightfoot and others 
place after 2 Kings xiv. 28. 



On the increase of Uzziah's ar- 
my, Joel foretells the over- 
throw of Judah, Joel i.-iii. 



Hos. i., ii., iii. So Lightfoot, Gray and 
others: see i. 1. The three chil- 
dren have names given to them, 
indicating the place of the wicked- 
ness of the house of Ahab (ver. 4: 
seel Kings xxi. 1); their punish- 
ment, not finding mercy in calamity, 
and their rejection, no longer the 
people of God. They are, however, 
to be gathered again under Mes- 
siah, their one Head, ver. 11 ; ver. 
7, see 2 Kings xix. 35. 



Uzziah struck with leprosy for 
invading the priest's office. 
Jotham, regent, 2 Kings xv. 
5: 2 Chron. xxvi. 16-20, 21. 

2 Kings xv. 5, several, i. e. lone or 
separate, see 120. 



Isaiah designated in a vision 
to the prophetic office. He 
prophesies of Christ's king 
dom, and of judgment on the 
people for their sins, 

Isa. i. 1 ; vi.; ii..; iii.; iv.; v 

Death of Uzziah, Jotham 
king (16 years); his prosper- 



B. C. 
808 
to 
800 



801 

793 

787 
783 

771 

770 

769 

765 
761 

759 
757 

756 



Israel. 

[Jonah i.-iv. ?] See B. C. 850. 



Hosea makes his first appeal 
to the ten tribes, [Hos. i.-iii.] 

Amos denounces judgment 
against the surrounding na- 
tions, and against Israel and 
Judah, [Amos i.-ix.] 

i. 3, see 2 Kings xvi. 9; ver. 6, see 2 
Kings xviii. 8; i. 8, see 2 Chron. 
xxvi. 6; ver. 11, see Numb. xx. 14; 
v. 27, see 2 Kings x. 32; xvii. 6. 

Death of Jeroboam, 

2 Kings xiv. 28, 29. 

An interregnum for eleven years. 

State of Israel during the in- 
terregnum. Hosea denoun- 
ces judgment, [Hos. iv.] 

Zechariah, fourth from Jehu, 
king (6 months). Shallum 
slavs him, 2 Kings xv. 8-12. 

Shallum, king (1 month). 
Menahem slays him, 

2 Kings xv. 13-15 

MENAHEM, king (10 years), 

2 Kings xv. 16-18. 

Pul, of Assyria, coming against 
Israel, is bribed to return, 

2 Kings xv. 19, 20. 



Death of Menahem. Pekahi- 
ah, king (2 years), 

2 Kings xv. 21-24. 
Pekahiah slain by Pekah. 
PEKAH, king (20 years), 

2 Kings xv. 25-28. 

[Isa. i. 1. On this order see Town- 
send, ii. 230 

Isa. vii.-x. 4. On the order, compare 
vii. 1 with 2 Kings xvi. 5. 

Isa, i. 2-31. On order see ver. 7, 8, 
comp. with 2 Chron. xxviii. 6-9. 

Isa. vi. 1, see John xii. 41. 

Isa. vi. 13, see 2 Kings xxv. 12. 

Isa. ii. 19, see Rev. vi. 15. 

2 Chron. xxvii. 2, see chap. xxvi. 19, 



586 



JOTHAM — HEZEKIAH — HOSHEA. 



JUDAH. 

ity, 2 Kings xv 6, 7, 32-35: 
2 Ohron. xxvi. 22, 23; xxvii. 
1-6. 

Micah reproves the wicked- 
ness of Judah, Mic. i., ii. 

Judah begins to be afflicted by 
Syria and Israel. Death of 
Jotham, 2 Kings xv. 36-38 : 
2 Chron. xxvii. 7-9. 

Ahaz, king (16 years), 2 Kings 
xvi. 1, 2-4; 2 Chron. xxviii.1-4. 

Invasion of Pekah and Rezin. 
Isaiah prophesies on the oc- 
casion, denouncing Ahaz's in- 
tended alliance with Assyria, 
2 Kings xvi. 5 : Isa. vii.-ix. ; 
x. 1-4. 

Isaiah prophesies the ruin of 
Damascus, and of the ten 
tribes, Isa. xvii. 

Judah devastated by Syria and 
Israel; the latter restore 
their captives, by advice of 
Obed, 2 Chron. xxviii. 5-15. 

Ahaz, being assailed by ene- 
mies, hires Tiglath-pileser, 
the king of Assyria, against 
them. Obadiah and Isaiah 
2 Kings xvi. 6-8, 9: 2 Chron. 
xxviii. 16, 21, 17-19, 20: 
Obad.: Isa. i. 2-31; xxviii. 

Sacrilege and idolatry of Ahaz, 
2 Chron. xxviii. 22, 23-25: 2 
Kings xvi. 10-18 : Hos. v., vi. 

Obad. On order see 2 Chron. xxv ii i . 17. 



Death of Ahaz, 2 Kings xvi 
19, 20: 2 Chron. xxviii. 26, 
27: Isa. xiv. 28-32 
Hezekiah, king (29 years), 
2 Kings xviii. 1, 2: 2 Chron, 
xxix. 1. 
Reformation by Hezekiah, 
2 Kings xviii. 3, 4-6 : 2 Chron. 
xxix. 2, 3-36; xxx., xxxi. 
Moab denounced, Isa. xv., xvi. 
Micah supports Hezekiah's re- 
formation, Mic. iii.-vii. 



B. C. 

753 
742 



740 



740 



738 



730 
726 



Israel. 
Isa. vii. 8, see 2 Kings xvii. 24. 

Reign of Ahaz 15 

" Hezekiah 29 

" 2d Manas 21 

65 years. 
Isa. vii. 16, see 2 Kings xv. 29. 
Isa. viii. 1, a man's pen, i. e. common 
writing; see Rev. xiii. 18; xxi. 17. 

Mie. i. 5, see 1 Kings xvi. 32. 
Mic. i. 13, see Jer. xxxiv. 7. 



Isa. xvii., see 2 Kings xvi. 9; xviii. 1L 



Tiglath-pileser ravages Gilead, 
Galilee, and Naphtali, and 
carries captive their inhabi- 
tants to Assyria, 

2 Kings xv. 29. 

Isa. v. 21, see 2 Sam. v. 20. 

Pekah slain by Hoshea, 

2 Kings xv. 30, 31. 

[On date, see 358 c]. 

Anarchy for nine yearn. 

HOSHEA, king (9 years). Shal- 
maneser, king of Assyria, in- 
vades his territory and makes 
him a tributary, 

2 Kings xvii. 1-3. 

Isa. xiv. 28-32, against Philistia, see 2 
Chron. xxvi. 6. Ahab, who sub- 
dued them, was dead ; but a cock- 
atrice out of that nest, Hezekiah, 
was still to bite them, 2 Kings xviii.8, 



Isa. xv. The destruction of Moab by 
Shalmaneser foretold- They are 
exhorted to renew their tribute, 
xvi. 1 ; see 2 Kings iii. 4. 



CAPTIVITY OF ISEAEL. 



587 



JUDAH. 
See Jer.xxvi. 18: Mic 



Hezekiah's prosperity, 

2 Kings xviii. 7, 



Prophecy of the restoration of 
the ten tribes, of the punish- 
ment of Egypt, and conver 
sion of Egypt and Assyria, 
Isa. xviii., xix. 



B. C. 

723 



723 
721 



Israel. 

Hoshea attacked and impris- 
oned by Shalrnaneser for not 
giving the tribute. Hosea 
predicts the captivity of the 
ten tribes, and exhorts to re- 
pentance, 

2Kingsxvii.4; Hos. vii.-xiv. 
Comp. on order Hos xii.. 

Shalrnaneser besieges Samaria, 
2 Kings xvii. 5; xviii. 9. 

The ten tribes carried into cap- 
tivity anto Assyria, 2 Kinga 
xvii. 6-23 ; xviii. 10-12. 



History of Judah, from the overthrow of Israel to the end of 
the Captivity, B. O. 720 to B. C. 536; 184 years. 

104. (2.) HISTORY OF JUDAH TO THE CAPTIVITY, 114 YEARS. 



Date and Place. 



Event or Narrative. 



Tyre denounced, Isa. xxiii. Prophecy concerning the 
invasion by Assyria, Isa. x. 5 ;-xiv. 27. 

The desolation and recovery of Judaea predicted, etc. 

Isa. xxiv. [xxvi. 17, 18] ;-xxvii. 
Isaiah predicts the invasion by Assyria and the de- 
struction of Babylon. Sennacherib comes up against 
Judah, but being pacified by a tribute, retires. 
Isaiah denounces Egypt and warns Jerusalem, 
Isa. xxii. 1-14 ; xxi.: a 2 Kings xviii. 13-16 : 2 Chron. 
xxxii. 1-8: Isa. xxxvi. 1; xx. ; xxix. ;-xxxi. 
Sickness of Hezekiah; his song of thanksgiving. 
Isaiah predicts the blessings of Christ's kingdom, 
and judgments of the enemies of Zion, 
2 Kings xx. 1-6, 8, 9-11, 7 : Isa. xxxviii. 1-6, 22, 
7, 8, 21, 9-20: 2 Chron. xxxii. 24 : Isa. xxxii.-xxxv. b 



a For date, see 



ver. 16. 



b On order, see Towns, ii. 347. 



588 



JUDAK, B. c. 713-612. 



Date and Plaee. 



B. 0. 
713, 
712, 
Jerusalem. 



711, 
Judaea. 



710-699. 
697, 
Jerusalem. 



» Towns, ii. 427. 

678, 
Samaria, 



677, 
Babylon. 

642, 
Jerusalem, 
640. 



628. 

628. 

623, 
Jerusalem. 



Event or Narrative. 



Nineveh denounced by Nahum, Nah. i.-iii. 

irlezekiah showing in pride to the Ambassadors from 
Babylon his treasures, Isaiah predicts the Baby- 
lonian captivity, 2 Kings xx. 12-19: 
Isa. xxxix. : 2 Chron. xxxii. 25, 26. 

Second invasion of Sennacherib ; destruction of his 
army, 

2 Kings xviii. 17-37 [26-28]: xix. 1-37: Psa. 
xliv., lxxiii., lxxv., lxxxvi : Isa. xxxvi. 2 [11, 
12J-22; xxxvii. 1-38: 2 Chron. xxxii. 9-21, 
22, 23. 

Various prophecies of Isaiah, 

Isaiah xl.-lxvi. [lvii. 3-9]. 
Hezekiah's wealth ; his death. Manasseh:, king (55 
years); his awful impiety; judgment denounced 
by God's prophets, 

2 Kings xx. 20, 21 ; xxi. 1-16 : 2 Chron. xxxii. 
27-31, 32, 33 ; xxxiii. 1-10. 
Isaiah predicts the captivity of Shebna, 

Isa. xxii. 15-25.* 

The heathen nations, who had been transplanted to 
Samaria in place of the Israelites, being plagued by 
lions, make a mixture of religions, 

2 Kings xvii. 24-41. 
Manasseh taken captive by the king of Assyria; his 
conversion and restoration ; he puts down idolatry, 
2 Chron. xxxiii. 11^17* 
Death of Manasseh. Amost, king (2 years) ; his im- 
piety, 2 Kings xxi. 17-22: 2 Chron. xxxiii. 18-23. 
Amon slain by his servants. Jostah, king (31 years), 
2 Kings xxi. 23-26 ; xxii. 1,2:2 Chron. xxxiii. 
24, 25 ; xxxiv. 1, 2. 
Josiah vigorously puts down idolatry, 

2 Chron. xxxiv. 3-7. 
Jeremiah called; he expostulates with the Jews, on 
account of their sins, Jer. i. 2 [iii. 1-5]. 

Josiah provides for the repair of the temple. The 
Book of the Law having been found, Josiah con- 
sults Huldah ; he causes it to be read publicly, and 
renews the Covenant, 

2 Kings xxii. 3-20 ; xxiii. 1-3, 4-20 : 2 Chron. 
xxxiv. 8, 28, 29-32,f 33. 



* In Kings, no account is given of Manasseh's repentance, 
f With qualification, see 2 Kings xxiii. 26, and Jer. iii. 10, etc. ; the 
change was chiefly external. 



( 



judaic, b. c. 623-606. 



589 



Date and Place. 



B. C. 

623. 

622, 
Jerusalem. 

612. 
a For order, ; 
sr. 6. 

612. 
611. 

610. 



Megiddo and 
Jerusalem. 



Riblah, 



Mer, i.-xii., in 
Josiah's days : 
Towns, ii. 434-9. 
608. 

606. 



For order, s€ 
ver. 2. Comp. 
Ez. xxix. 17. 



Jerusalem. 
606, 



Event or Narrative. 



Zephaniah exhorts to repentance, [Zeph. i. 2, 3]. 
A most solemn celebration of the Passover by Josiah, 
2 Kings xxiii. 21-23, 24-27 : 2 Chron. xxxv. 1-19. 
Jeremiah reproves the backsliding of the people, 
and bewails the coming captivity, 

Jer. iii. a [6-11], 12-25; iv.-vi. 
Habakkuk predicts judgment, { flab, i.-iii.]. 

Jeremiah exhorts the people to repentance, and la- 
ments their aproaching calamities, Jer. vii.-x. 
Jeremiah reminds the people of the Covenant of 
Josiah, Jer. xi. : [15], 12. 

Josiah slain in battle with the king of Egypt. 
Jeremiah and the people lament him. Jehoahaz 
king (3 months), 

2 Kings xxiii. 29, 30, 28, 30 I. p., 31, 32 : 2 Chron. 
xxxv. 20-27; xxxvi. 1, 2. 
Jehoahaz deposed and imprisoned by Pharaoh-Necho 
and subsequently taken to Egypt. Jehoiakim, 
king (11 years), 

2 Kings xxii. 33, 34, 35, 36, 37: 2 Chron. 
xxxvi. 3, 4, 5. 
J eremiah delivers various predictions, and appeals 
to the Jews respecting the captivity and destruction 
of Jerusalem, Jer. xii:-xix. b 

Jeremiah predicts the fate of Pashur, Jer. xx. : of 
Shallum, i. e., Jehoahaz, and Jehoiakim, xxii. 1-23. 
Apprehension and arraignment of Jeremiah, 

Jer. xxvi. 

Jeremiah predicts the overthrow of the army of 
Pharaoh-Necho, king of Egypt, by Nebuchadnez- 
zar, Jer. xlvi. c 1-12. 

The obedience of the Kechabites to their father con- 
trasted with the disobedience of the Jews, Jer. xxxv. 

Jeremiah predicts the captivity of the Jews for 
seventy years, and the subsequent judgment on 
Babylon, Jer. xxv. 

Jeremiah desires Baruch to write his prophecies on 
a roll, and then to read it publicly in the temple, 
Jer. xxxvi. 1-8 : xlv. 

Nebuchadnezzar takes Jerusalem, and puts Jehoiakim 
in fetters, intending to take him to Babylon, but 
afterwards releasing him, makes him a tributary, 
and spoils the temple, 

2 Kings xxiv. 1 : 2 Chron. xxxvi. 6, 7 : 
Dan. i. 1, 2. 



50 



590 PERIOD OF THE CAPTIVITY. B. C. 605-595. 



Date and Place. 



B. C. 
605. 



Event or Narrative. 



Nebuchadnezzar orders the master of his eunuchs to 
select and send to Babylon some of the royal family 
and nobility, to stand in the king's palace. Daniel, 
Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah (otherwise 
called Beltshazzar, Shadrach, Meshach, and 
Abednego), are taken there, Dan. i. 3, 4, 6, 7. 



105. (3.) FROM THE FIRST CAPTURE OF JERUSALEM, B. C< 
606, TO THE DECREE OF CYRUS, FOR THE RESTORATION 
OF THE JEWS, B. C. 536, 70 YEARS. 



Date and Place. 



Event or Narrative. 



B. C. 

Babylon. 

605. 

603. 
Babylon. 

599. 



597. 
595. 



Events at Jerusalem, with contemporaneous events 
at Babylon 
Daniel meets with kindly treatment, 

Dan. i. 5, 8-17. 

Baruch again reads the Prophetic Roll : Jehoiakim 
burns it, Jer. xxxvi. 9-32. 

Jehoiakim rebels against Nebuchadnezzar, 

2 Kings xxiv. 1 I. p., 24. 
Daniel before Nebuchadnezzar, Dan. i. 18-21. 

Interprets Nebuchadnezzar's dream, Dan ii. ; des- 
cribing the Babylonian 32; Medo- Persian, 32-39; 
Macedo- Grecian, 32-39; and Roman Empires, 33, 
40-43 ; with Messiah's Kingdom, 34, 35, 44, 45. 
Death of Jehoiakim. Jehoiackin or Jeooniah, king 
(3 months), 2 Kings xxiv. 5-9 : 2 Chron. xxxvi 
8, 9 : Jer. xxii 24-30 ; xxiii 
Second capture of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar. 
Jehoiachin is carried to Babylon, with many of his» 
subjects. Zedekiah or Mattaniah, king (11 
years), 2 Kings xxiv. 10-19 ; 2 Chron. xxxvi. 

10-12: Jer. Hi. 1, 2; xxiv. 
Predictions of the duration of the captiritv, 

Jer. xxix. 1-14, 16-20, 15, 21-32. 
Of the restoration of the Jews, Jer. xxx., xxxi 

Predictions against the surrounding nations. Hana- 
niah the false prophet denounced, 

Jer. xxvii., xxviii., xlviii., xlix 



PERIOD OF THE CAPTIVITY, B. C. 595-587. 591 



Date and Place. 



B. C. 

Babylon, 
a On order, : 
fowns. voi. ii. 

594. 

Babylon. 

593. 
Jerusalem. 



590. 



Babylon. 

Jerusalem, 
b See Towns, ii. 



159 



589. 
Babylon. 

Jerusalem. 



c For order, see 
xxxii. 2. 

d On order, com- 
pare xxix. 1, and 
xxvi. 1; ver. 17-21 
written sixteen 
years later. 



587. 



e On order, 
comp. xxx. 20, and 
xxix. 1. 



Events or Narrative. 



Prophecies against Babylon, Jer. 1. ; li. 

Ezekiel's vision in Babylon; his commission,* Ezek. 
i., ii., iii., 1-21. He prophesies of the miseries of 
Jerusalem, _ Ezek. iii. 22-27 [4-7]. 

Visions of the idolatries which occasioned the cap- 
tivity, Ezek. viii. 10 [11]. 
Various predictions against the false prophets, Jeru- 
salem and the Jewish nation, 

Ezek. xii.-xix. [16, xviii. 5-18]. 
Prophecies addressed to the Elders of the Jews, 

Ezek. xx., [xxi.-xxiii]. 
Zedekiah's rebellion and wickedness, 

Jer. xxxvii. 1, 2: 2 Kings xxiv. 20: 2 Chron. 
xxxvi. 13 : Jer. Iii. 3. 
The wickedness of priests and people (the cause of 
the captivity, v. 15, 16), with a summary account 
of the judgments that followed, 

2 Chron. xxxvi. 14-21. 
Nebuchadnezzar lays siege to Jerusalem for the third 
time, 

2 Kings xxv. 1 : Jer. xxxix. 1 ; Iii. 4 ; xxxvii. 3, 4. 
Ezekiel foretells the destruction of Jerusalem, 

Ezek. xxiv. 

Capture of the city foretold. The people, at Jere- 
miah's word, release their Hebrew bond-servants, 

Jer. xxxiv. l-10. b 
Jeremiah shut up in prison ; his predictions there, 

Jer. xxxii. ; xxxiii. c 
Ezekiel in Babylon, prophesies against Egypt, Ezek. 
xxix. 1-16 ; d and against Tyre, Ezek. xxvi. : see 
Isa. xxiii. 

The Chaldssans raise the siege to march against the 
approaching Egyptian army. Jeremiah predicts 
the destruction of the Philistines, 

Jer. xxxvii. ; xlvii. 

On the departure of the Chaldsean army, the people 
recall their bond-servants, for which Jeremiah 
denounces them, and predicts the speedy return of 
the Chaldeeans, Jer. xxxiv. 11-22 ; xxxvii. 6-10. 

Jeremiah again imprisoned, Jer. xxxvii. 11-21; 
continues to denounce Zedekiah, xxi. : he,- is put 
into the dungeon of Malchiaii, xxxviii; xxxix. 
15-18. 

Ezekiel in Babylon, again prophesies against Egypt 
and Nineveh, Ezek. xxx. 20-26 ; xxxi.« 



592 PERIOD OF THE CAPTIVITY, B. 0. 587-556. 



Date and Place. 



B. C. 



a Compare ver. 
5, 7; Towns, ii. 
679. 



Babylon. 
587. 



573. 

572. 

570. 
569. 

668—563. 

561. 

558. 

556. 



Event or Narrative. 



Jerusalem finally taken. Zedekiah carried to Baby- 
lon. Jeremiah delivered, 2 Kings xxv. 2, 4-7: 
Jer. lii. 5-7 ; xxxix. 2-7, 11-14. 
Nebuzaradan burns the temple, and carries away the 
people, leaving a few poor persons to till the land, 
2 Kings xxv. 8-21 : Jer. lii. 12-30 ; xxxix. 8-10 : 
Psa. lxxiv. ; a lxxix ; xciv. 
Jeremiah bewails the desolation of his country, 

Lamentations i.-v. 
Gedaliah appointed governor. Jeremiah and many 
others attach themselves to him, 

2 Kings xxv. 22-24: Jer. xl. 1-16. 
Ishmael slays Gedaliah, and attemps to carry away 
the people to the Ammonites ; Johanan intercepts 
him ; the people, fearing the Chaldseans, flee into 
Egpyt, contrary to the command of God, 

2 Kings xxv. 25, 26 : Jer. xli. ; xlii. ; xliii. 1-7. 
Jeremiah prophesies against Egypt and the idola- 
trous Jews, Jer. xliii. 8-13 ; lxvi. 13-28 ; xliv. 

Remainder of the History of the Jews in Captivity — • 
Babylon. 

Ezekiel predicts the utter desolation of Judaea, 

Ezek. xxxiii. 21-33. 
Predictions against Ammon, Moab, Edom, Philistia, 
Tyre, and Egypt, Ezek. xxv. ; xxvii. ; xxviii. ; xxxii. 
Ezekiel appeals to the captives, 

Ezek. xxxiii. 1-20. 
Evil rulers denounced ; restoration of the Jews pro- 
mised ; predictions of Messiah's kingdom, 

Exek. xxxiv. ; xxxvii. [17, last clause]. 
Prophecies of the church and its enemies, and of the 
conversion of the Jews, Ezek. xxxviii. ; xxxix 
Ezekiel' s vision of the future temple, 

Ezek. xl.-xlviii. 

Last prediction against Egypt, 

Ezek. xxix. 17-21 ; xxx. 1-19. 
Nebuchadnezzar sets up an image, Dan. iii. 

Daniel interprets Nebuchadnezzar's second dream, 

Dan. iv. 1-27. 

The fulfilment of Nebuchadnezzar's dream, in his 
madness, and subsequent recovery, Dan. iv. 28-37. 
Evii-Merodach, king of Babylon, releases Jehoiachin, 
2 Kings xxv. 27-30 : Jer. lii. 31-34. 
Daniel's first vision of the Living Creatures, 

Dan. vii. 

Belshazzar's Feast. Babylon taken, Dan. v. 



THE RESTORATION, B. C. 538-519. 



593 



Date and Place. 



Event or Narrative 



B. C. 

538. 

537. 
536. 



Jerusalem and 
Babylon. 



Daniel's vision of the Earn and He-goat, Dan. viii. 
Daniel's prayer for the restoration of Jerusalem. 

Prophecy of the Seventy Weeks, Dan. ix. : Psa. cii. 
Daniel cast into the den of lions, Dan. vi. 

Decree of Cyrus for the rebuilding of the temple, and 
restoration of the Jews to their own country, 

2 Chron. xxxvi. 22, 23: Ezra i. 1-4: 
Psa. cxxvi. ; lxxxv. 
Psalms written during the distresses and afflictions 
of the church, chiefly in the Babylonish captivity, 
Psa. x., xiii., xiv., xv., xxv., xxvi., xxvii., xxxvi., 
xxxvii., xlix., 1. liii., lxvii., lxxvii., lxxx., 
lxxxix., xcii., xciii., cxxiii., cxxx., cxxxvii. 



106 (4.) FROM THE DECREE OF CYRUS, B. C. 536, TO THE 
FINAL PROPHECY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT, B. C. 420-397; 
ABOUT 139 YEARS. 



Date and Place. 



B. C. 



536, 
Jerusalem. 



535, 
Jerusalem. 
534. 

Babylon. 

520, 
Jerusalem. 



619, 



Event or Narrative. 



1. From the return of the Jews, to the Dedication of 

the Second Temple. 
Return of the Jews. Cyrus restores the vessels of 
the temple. An altar set up. 

Ezra i. 5-11 : [ii. :], iii. 1-7 : Psa. lxxxvii., cvii., 
cxi., cxii., cxiii., cxiv., cxvi., cxvii., cxxv., 
cxxvii., cxxviii.. cxxxiv. 
Foundation of the second temple, under the direction 
of Zerubbabel, Ezra iii. 8-13 : Psa. lxxxiv., lxvi. 
The building of the temple interrupted by the Sama- 
ritans, Ezra iv. 1-5, 24 : Psa. cxxix. 
The last vision of Daniel, Dan. x.-xii. 
Building of the temple resumed. Haggai and 
Zechariah incite the people to the work, and 
exhort them to repentance, 

Ezra iv. 24; v. 1: Hag. i. 1-11: Ezra v. 2: 
Hag. i. 12-15; ii. 1-9: Zech. i. 1-6: Hag. ii. 
10-23: Zech. i. 7-21; 2:-6 [ii. 5]. 
The building of the temple again interrupted, and 
resumed, Ezra v. 3-17 ; vi. 1-13: Psa. cxxxviii. : 

Zech. vii. 8. 



594 



THE RESTORATION, B. C. 516-397. 



Date ar.d Place. 



B. C. 
516. 



486. 
464. 

462, 
Susa. 
458. 
457. 
Jerusalem. 



Susa. 
453, 452. 



445, 
Susa. 
Jerusalem. 



Susa. 
444, 
Jerusalem. 

433. 



-428. 
397. 



Event or Narrative. 



Dedication of trie second temple, 

Ezra vi. 14-22: Psa. xlviii., lxxxi., cxlvi., 
cxlvii., cxlviii., cxlix., cl. 

2. From the opposition to the Jews in the reign of 

Xerxes, to the Death of Haman. 

Opposition in the reign of Xerxes, Ezra iv. 6. 

Opposition in the reign of Artaxerxes Longimanus, 

Ezra iv. 7-23. 

Artaxerxes (or Ahasuerus) divorces Vashti, his queen, 

Esth. i. 

Ezra commissioned to visit Jerusalem, Ezra vii. [2-14.] 
Artaxerxes makes Esther queen, Esth. ii. 1-20. 

Ezra comes to Jerusalem ; causes the people to put 
away their heathen wives, Ezra viii.-x. [18-44]. 
Concluding prophecies of Zechariah, Zech. ix.-xiv. 
Mordecai discovers the conspiracy against Ahasuerus, 

Esth. ii. 21-23. 

Plot of Haman to destroy the Jews, and its defeat. 
The feast of Purim, Esth. ii.-x. 

3. From the first commission of Nehemiah, to the 

closing of the Canon. 

Nehemiah receives a commission from Artaxerxes to 
visit it, and rebuild the wall. Neh. i. ; ii. 1-8. 
Nehemiah arrives at Jerusalem. Sanballat strives to 
hinder the work ; the builders work under arms, 
Neh. ii. 9-20: [3:], iv, 
Nehemiah relieves the Jews oppressed by usury ; his 
own genorosity, Neh. v. 

The wall completed by the Jews and dedicated, 

Neh. vi.: [xii. 27-43]. 
Nehemiah returns to Persia, Neh. vii. 1-4. 

Second commission of Nehemiah, and reformation, 
Neh. vii. [6-73] ; viii.; ix. ; [x.] ; xi. ; [xii. 1-9, 
44-47] ; xiii. 1-3: Psa. i. cxix. 
Malachi prophesies against the corruptions intro- 
duced during the second absence of Nehemiah, 

Mai. i. ; ii. ; iii. 1-15. 
Further reformation by Nehemiah, Neh. xiii. 4-31. 
Final prophecy of the Old Testament, 

Mai. iii. 16-18 ; iv. 
Detached Genealogies, etc., inserted probably at the 
completion of the Canon, 

1 Chron. i.-ix. : Neh. xii. 10-26. 



EARLY PROFANE HISTOY, EGYPT, ETC. 



595 



Sec. 7. Chronology of Scripture, and Early Profane 
History. 

107. The chronology of the early history of Assyria and Egypt, — 

the most ancient of the nations mentioned in Scripture, 
noYo^y^drf- i nv0iVes difficulties, which, in the present state of our know- 
ficulties. ledge are inextricable. Ctesias and Herodotus (the two 

profane historians on whom we rely for information on 
Assyria), differ in chronology by 800 years, and proportionably in 
their dynasties ; Herodotus fixing the duration of the Assyrian domi- 
nion in Upper Asia at 520 years ; and Ctesias (whose historical autho- 
rity is very low), at 1305 (Diod. Sic. ii. 21). Semiramis is supposed, in 
one account, to have lived B. C. 2017, and in another (Dr. Hales), B. C. 
747. The mode of solving these, and some other difficulties, is to 
assume the existence of two Assyrian empires ; an assumption sup- 
ported by some passages in Herodotus (i. c. 95, 102, 106, 185). The 
difficulties in the case of Egyptian History, arise from the fact, that 
many contemporaneous dynasties are given by ancient authorities, and 
the same king has often several names. 

In the Tables of Egyptian History, we adopt the chronology of the 

English Bible. For the facts, we use the Tables of Mr. 
followed 163 Cory, Polished by Pickering; for Assyrian History, the 

Tables of Dr. Russell. 
It may be observed, that from the date of Solomon's temple (B. C. 
1012), downwards, there are no serious discrepancies between com- 
petent authorities, except in relation to Assyria (1012 to 771). For 
the whole of this later period, we adopt the date of " Clinton's Fasti," 
which seldom differ more than a year from those of the authorized 
version. 

Tabular History of Egypt, etc., from the Deluge to the 
days of Solomon. — From Usher. 



Egypt. 



The Deluge. 

Foundation of kingdom of Egypt* 
16th, or 1st earthly dynasty, 

1. Menai. Menes (H.) Misor (S.), Mizraim 
(S. S.) 

2. Thoth I. Athothes (E), Tosorthus 
(M. M.), inventor of letters and medi- 
cine, iEsculap. 

3. Thoth II. Athothes (E.), Kenkeres 
(M. T.) 



b a 

2234 



2147 
2124 



Palestine, etc. 



Nimrod establishes 

regal government 

(Hales 2554). 
Babylon founded. 
Asshur (or Kimrod? 

or Ninus?) founds 

Nineveh. 
Death of Nimrod. 

Ninus? or Belus? 



* In this xable the following abbreviations are used: — (D.) Diodorus Siculua. 
(E.) EratoSthenes. (H.) Herodotus. (M.) Manetho. (M. J.) Manetho according 
to Josephus. (M. M. and M. T) Mem phi te and Thinite list of Manetho. (S.) 8an- 
choniatho. (S. S ) Bible. Champollion, Wilkinson, Syncellus, and ancient classic 
authors are also quoted. 



506 



EARLY PROFANE HISTORY — EGYPT, ETC. 
Tabular History of Egypt, etc. — Continued. 



Egypt. 



4. Diabies (E.)- Messochris (M. M.) 

5. Pcmphos (E.). Sonthis (M. M.) 
Pyramids begun? 

Invasion of shepherds: not fully expelled 

for 511 years. 
Native kings, 17th dyn. 



Shepherd kings. 

1. Salatis. 

2. Beon. 

3. Apachnas. 

6. Keres. 

7. Osirtesen I. Tosertasis (M. M.). Misar- 
tesen (Pliny) ; several obelisks and 
monuments left by him. 

4. Apophis. 
Osirtesen breaks the power of the shep- 
herds 

8. Amun Muthah I. 

9. Amun Muthah II. 

10. Osirtesen II. 

5. Janias. 

11. Osirtesen III. 

12. Amun Muthah III, left several monu- 
ments. 

6. Kertos. 

13. Hakor? Acheres (M. M.), Alisphrag- 
muthosis (M. J.) 

7. Aseth. 

14. Amos. Siege of shepherds in Avaris. 
Expulsion of shepherds; death of Azeth. 
14 Amos alone. 18th dyn., Amosis (M.), 

Cheops (? Her.) 

15. Amenoph I. 

Regency till Thothmos III. Joseph (S S ), 
Chebron (Hebrew t M.), Amenenthe 
(Champ), Amun-neit-gori (Wilk.), Am- 
nuth (Hierogl.) 

Appearance of the Phoenix, or 2d Hermes, 
supposed to be Joseph the Hebrew. 

16. Thothmos I, and Amesse. Maeris (H.), 
Mephres (M. J.) 

Regulation of Calendar. Phoenix. 
Thothmos alone. 

17. Thothmos II. Mephra Muthosis (M. J.) 

18. Thothmos III. Mseris (H.), Thmosis 
(M. J.) 

Cessation of Regency; great architectural 
works. 

19. Amenoph II (M ) Anouphis (E.) 

20. Thothmos IV. Orus (M J.), Soris (M.); 
Persecution of Israelites. 

Recent Achencheres. Chnubus Gneurus 
(E.) 

21. Amenoph III., and Amun Toohn. 
Rathek(Hierog.), Danaus (Gr.), Rathoti's 
M. J) 

Danaus expelled by Amenoph. 

Danaus and his son drive Amenoph into 

Ethiopia. 

22. Amun me Anamek. Achencheres II. 
(M. J.). Choncheres (Syn.), Bocchoris 
(Tac), Busiris £Grks.) 

Death of Amenoph. 



Palestine, etc. 



B. 0. 

2069 



2059 
2017 



1<J9G 
1978 



1975 



1836 



1577 
1571- 



1531 



Ninus, the beautifier 
of Nineveh. 

The Assyrian empire. 

Babylon taken. 

Semiramis succeeds 
Ninus. 

Abraham born. 

Victories of Semi- 
ramis. 

Ninyas succeeds Se- 
miramis. 

Abrah. visits Egpyt. 

Now follow the reigng 
of three-and-thirty 
kings, according to 
Eusebius, or "six- 
and-thirty accord- 
ing to Syncellus, 
ending with Sarda- 
napalus (see p. 533, 
536) 

Jacob born. 



Joseph sold; inter- 
prets Pharaoh's 
dream; his eleva- 
tion. 



Jacob goes to Egypt 



Joseph dies. 



Israelites multiply. 
Birth and early life of 
Moses. 



Moses in Midian. 



The Exode. 



EARLY PROFANE HISTORY — EGYPT, ASSYRIA, ETC. 597 

Tabular History of Egypt, etc. — Continued. 



Egypt. 



B.C. 
1491 



1491 
1490 



1486 



1418 



1366 



1331 
1323 



1321 

1263 
1223 
1222 



1209 
1194 
1179 

1164 
1149 

1134 

1119 

1101 

971 



Final expulsion of shepherds and Danaus; 
the mixed multitude (M.); Exode; 
Bocchoris drowned. Syn. says this oc- 
curred 700 years after Menes, and after 
twenty-five reigns. 

23. Ramesses I. Sethos (T.), Suphis (M.M.) 

24. Amun, or Phthah me Phcenicheen, or 
Armeen. Annais (M.), Hermeeus (M. J.) 

25. Ramesses II. Sethos (T.), Souphis 
(M. M ), Sesostris (Grks.), Sesoosis (D.), 
Great warrior. 

26. AmenophlV. Phthahmen(Wilk.), Me- 
nephtha (Champ.). Mencheres (M. M.) 

27. 19th dynasty. Phthahmen Se Phthah, 
Sethos (M.), Musthis (E.) 

28. Osiri men Phthah. Rapsaces (M.), 
'Phius (M. M.) 

29. Osiri ta Remerrer. Ammenemes (M.) 

30. Ramesses III. Aphrops (M.) Sesoosis 
II. (D.), Sesostris II. (M.), Mseris (Her.) 
adorns Thebes. 

The Cycle of Maeris begins. 

31. Ramesses IV. Ammenephthes (M.) 

32. Ramesses V. Menthe Suphis (M. M.) 

33. Nitocris and Ramesses VI. Nitocris 
and Thuoris (M. M.), Nitocris (E.), Pro- 
teus (D.), 20th Dyn. 

34. Ramesses VII. (Syn.), Rhemphis (D.) 

35. Ramesses VIII. Ousiomares (Syn.) 

36. Ramesses IX. Rhamsinitus (H.), Nileus 
(D.). Sethos Nilus (E.) 

37. Ramesses X. (Syn.), Semphucrates (E.) 

38. Ramesses XI. (Syn.), Chuthen Taurus 
(E.) 

39. Amun Mai Poue&y Rhamesse Jubasse 
(Syn.) 

40. Amunmeses. Rhamesse Vaphris (Syn.) 
The ceptre now passes to Lower Egypt. 

There are in the 21st dyn., nine Theban 
kings, and seven known Tanite, reign- 
ing 130 years. 

22d dynasty. Sheshonk or Shishak. 



Palestine, etc. 



B. C. 
1491- 
51 



1466 
1451 
1444 

1433? 
1402 



13831 



1313 
1283? 



1261 

1225? 

1213 

1198 

1192 
1183 
1176 
1116 
1112 
1106 
1056 
1045 
1044 
1016 



976 



Israel in the wilder- 



Danaus (Eratos.) 
Charge to Joshua. 
Conquest of Canaan 

completed. 
Deucalion (Eratos.) 
Judges. 
Othniel. 
Ehud. 

Erectheus (Eratos.) 
Shamgar. 
Deborah. 
Cadmus (Eratos) 
Pelops (Eratos.) 



Hercules (Eratos.) 

Gideon. 

Arogonauts (Eratos.) 
1st Theban war. 
2d Theban war. 
Je phthah. 

Troy besieged (Erat.) 
Trojan war ends. 
Orestes at Argos. 
Death of Samson. 
Samuel. 
Heraclidse. 
David, king. 
Death of Codrus. 
Ionic migration. 
Solomon, king. 



Division of kingdom. 



Assyria. 



From 841-773. Thonus Concholerus and Sardanapalus reign. 
In 800, Jonah visits Nineveh ; in 773, the governors of Media and 
Babylon rebel. Nineveh is besieged, and in 771, Sardanapalus 
perishes in his palace by fire. Three kingdoms are formed, of 
which, at first, Assyria is chief. 



Assyria. 



Babylon. 



Media. 



Pul reigns over all ; makes Israelites pay tributes, ' 
Gives his kingdom to 



Tialath Pileser. 
Victories in 
Syria. 

2 Kings xvi. 



B. C. 
766 
747 

733 



Belesis, or 
Nabonassar. 



Nadius. 



B. C. 
776 



Arbaces, who 
conspired 
against Sar- 
danapalus, 



Egypt, etc. 



B. C. 

972 



812 



776 

773 



753 



Shishak (Sesos* 
tris?) invades 
Judsea, 2 Chrca. 
xii. 9. 

Bocchoris. 



[Era of Olymp.] 
So (or see below.) 

[Decennial Ar- 



598 EARLY PROFANE HISTORY — EGYPT, ASSYRIA, ETC. 

Chronology of Scripture, etc. — Continued. 



Assyria. 



Assyria. 



Shalmanezer, 
2 Ki7:gsxvii. 

Samaria sub- 
dued. 

Sennacherib. 

Sennacherib in- 
vades Judrea. 

Sennacherib in- 
vades Judfea a 
second time, 
2 Kings xix. 

Sennacherib as- 
sassinated in 
the temple of 
Nisroch. 

Esarhaddon. 
j Other kings 
mentioned, 
but doubtful. 

Esarhaddon 
takes Baby- 
lon. 

Esarhaddon 
carries Ma- 
nasseh to Ba- 
bylon. 

Ninus III., or 
Saosduehinus. 
fChinalada- 
| nus, Nabu- 
}»chadonoser, 
| or Sardana- 
L i alus II. 



B. C. 

731 
720 
721 



625 



Babylon. 



Porus. 
Jugaeus. 
Merodach Bal. 
Isa. xxxix. 



Babylon inde- 
pendent un- 
der Merodach 
who sends to 
Hezekiah ; 
again depend- 
ent till 



Nabopolassar, 
father of Ne- 
buchadn' 
the Great. 



B.C. 



753 
743 



720 



710 

672 
657 



641 



Media. 



forms a Me- 
dian republic, 
Phraortes 
chief. 
[Rome found- 
ed.] 

[First Messe- 

nian war.] 
[First recorded 

eclipse of the 

moon, 19th 

March.] 



Dejoces king, 
slain. 

[Tullus Hos- 

tilius.] 
[Byzantium 

built. • 



Phraortes. 



Cyaxares I. 



Babylon and Persia. 



Nabopolassar, king of 
Babylon, asserts inde- 
pendence of Assyria. 

Nebuchadnezzar, his son, 
marries the daughter of 
Cyaxares of Media. 

Nineveh besieged by Ba- 
bylon and Media, under 
N e b u c h adn e zzar. 

Taken and added to Media 

Takes Jerusalem. 

Nebuchadnezzar defeats 
Necho. 

Nebuchadnezzar reigns 
alone; founds Babylonian 
empire, etc. 

Nebuchadnezzar conquers 
Judaea. 

Nebuchadnezzar take 
Shusan. Dan., Ezek. 

Nebuchadnezzar takes 
Tyre, after thirteen years 



Media and Persia. 



B. C. 
641 



621 
619 



601 

595 



572 



Dynasty of the Kaianites, 
Kair-Kobad or Cyaxares 
I., subject to Scythians, 
expels them, and takes 
Nineveh. 

Previous to this time, 
there is no credible his- 
tory of Persia, Kal-Kans, 
or A sty ages. 

[Draco," Athens.] 

[Tarquin I., Rome.] 



Birth of Kai-Khosru 

(Cyrus). 

[Sappho, Solon, Thales.] 



[.ffisop flou.] 



Egypt, etc 



B. C. 



725 



713 



711 



685 



670 



647 



616 
610 



594 



571 



chons at Ath.] 



So, the Ethiopian, 
invades Judaja, 
2 Kings xvii. 4. * 

Usurpation of 
Sevechus, the 
priest. 



Tiraea the last 
Ethiopian, fights 
with Sennache- 
rib, 2 Kings xix. 
9: Isa. xxxvii. 9. 

Egypt governed 
by twelve kings, 
for fifteen or 
twenty-five 
years. 

Psammitichus L 
overthrows 
them, and rules; 
takes Ashdod, 
see Isa. xx. 

Memphis made 
capital; Psammi- 
tichus intro- 
duces Greek. 



Pharaoh-Necho 
II., 2 Chron. 
xxxv., xxxvi. 

Navy ; canal to 
connect Medit. 
and Red Seas at- 
tempted, fails. 

Necho invades 
Asia. 

Defeated by Ne- 
buchadnezzar. 

Psammis suc- 
ceeds Necho. 

Apries, or P. 
Hophra. con- 
spires with Zede- 
kiah, against Ne- 
buchadnezzar 

A pries deposed by 
Nebuchadnezzar, 
Jer. xliv. 30; 
xlvi. : Ezek.xxix. 
30, 32. 



EARLY PROFANE HISTORY — EGYPT, ASSYRIA, ETC. 599 

Chronology of Scripture, etc. — Continued. 



Babylon and Persia. 



B. C* 

570 
561 

559 

65S 

656 



651 

or 
55:* 
540 
588 



529 
525 
522 
521 
618 
508 
499 

492 
4JD 
481 
480 
465 

457 j 
454 
445 | 
425 | 
424 j 
414 I 
405 | 



siege. 
Golden image set up. 
Evil-Merodaeh succeeds. 
Evil-Merodaeh slain by 

Cyrus. 

Neriglassar (Belsh.), sue. 
Babylon besieged; the 

'•writing on the wall." 
Darius, king of Babylon 

and Media. 

) Nabonadius rules; as- 
Y pires to be indepen- 
) dent. 

Babylon again besieged. 
Babylon taken by Cyrus, 

and annexed to Persian 

empire. 



B. C. 



500 
559 



551 



538 
,"35 



Media and Persia. 



[Peisistratus, Athens.] 
Cyaxares II., (Darius). 
Cyrus general, and rules. 
Pers aii monarchy founded 
by Cyrus. 



Zoroaster. 
Cyaxares dies. 
Cyrus reigns alone. 
Conquers Croesus and Asia 
Minor. 

Takes Babylon. 
And Egypt. 

Death of Cyrus in battle (Her.), in peace (Xen.) 
Cambyses, his son, succeeds ; conquers Egypt. 
Smerdis the Magian. 

Slain, and succeeded by Darius Hytaspes, Dan. xi. 2. 
Babylon revolts, and is destroyed. 
Egyptian canal completed (see 610, Egypt). 
Macedon and Thrace tributary. Ionians revolt, and Athenians 
assist. War against Greece. 
Two expeditions against Greece defeated. 
Egypt revolts. 

Xerxes succeeds Darius ; subdues Egypt, Dan. xi. 2. 
Expedition against Greece fails. 

Xerxes murdered; Artaxerxes L; Longim. succeeds, Neh. 
ii. (i; Themistocles in Persia. 
Esther queen. 
Ezra visist Jerusalem. 
Nehemiah. 

Xerxes II. succeeds, and is assassinated; Sogdianus. 

Darius II.; Nothus. 

Egypt regains her independence. 

Artaxerxes Mnemon. See p. 53 . 



Egypt, etc. 



B. C. 



»54 



536 
535 



4SG 



484 
460 



44S 



350 



Amasis made king 
by Nebuchadnez- 
zar; Egypt very 

I prosperous. 

Solon visits 
Egypt 



Pythagoras visits 

Egypt made tribu- 
tary by Cyrus. 

Psammenitus 
revolts, and is 
defeated, Isa. 
xix.; Egypt a 
Persian pro- 
vince ; end of 
dynasty of Pha- 
roah. 

Egypt revolts 
(and is again) 

Subdued. 

Again rebels un- 
der Inarius, aid- 
ed by Athens. 

Herodotus visits 
Egypt. 

Indep. Amyrteus; 
nine kings suc- 
ceed; Pausiris, 
Psammitichus 
II., etc. 

Subdued by Oc- 
chus the Persian. 
See p. 53S. 



CHAPTER IV. 

civil and moral history of the jews from malachi 
to john the baptist. 

Sec 1. Sketch of the Civil History of the Jews 
during the period between the old and new 
Testaments. 

108. Although we have no account of this period in Scrip- 
ture, its events are frequently referred to in prophecy, and 
many of them throw light upon the New Testament. The 
following sketch is founded chiefly on Josephus and the 
books of the Maccabees. 



COO OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS CONNECTED. 



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OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS CONNECTED. 



603 



110. After Nehemiah (B. C. 420), Judaea continued subject to the 
kings of Persia for nearly a hundred years. It ceased, ^ ^ 
however, to form a distinct government, and was annexed under the 
to the satrapy of Syria; the administration of affairs being Persian^, 
entrusted to the high priest, subject only to the control of the Syrian 
governor. This union of the civil government and the pontificate 
soon made the office one of high ambition to the different members of 
the family of Aaron, and gave occasion to many violent and disgrace- 
ful contests. 

111. Upon the overthrow of the Persian army by Alexander, Syria 
fell under his power ; and Tyre was taken after an obstinate 
resistance. Alexander then marched into Judaea, to punish ^^ er ' 
the Jews, who, out of respect for their oath to the king of 

Persia, had gr*anted the Tyrians supplies of provisions and refused 
tbem to him. But (it is related) as he approached Jerusalem, and saw 
a solemn procession of the people coming to meet him, headed by the 
high priest Jaddua, and all the priestly race, in their robes of office, 
God turned his heart to spare and favor them. He continued to them 
the free enjoyment of their laws and religion; granted them exemp- 
tion from tribute during their sabbatical years ; and when he built the 
city of Alexandria, placed a great number of Jews there, and gave 
them the same privileges as his Greek subjects. On the division of 
Alexander's empire, Judaea ultimately fell to the share of 
Ptolemy Lagus, and formed part of the monarchy of Egypt, ^ns"^^ 
That prince removed many of the people to Alexandria, 
confirmed their privileges, and even advanced some of them to offices 
of authority and trust. By successive deportations and voluntary re- 
movals, Egypt became, and long continued, an important seat of the 
Jewish population. The moral influence of this change will be noticed 
below. 

During the time of Ptolemy Lagus, the prosperity of the Jews was 
much promoted by the internal administration of an excellent high 
priest, Simon the Just. He repaired and fortified their city and temple 
with strong and lofty walls, and made a spacious reservoir of water 
"in compass as a sea." Pie is said to have completed the canon of the 
Old Testament by the addition of the books of Ezra, Haggai, Zecha- 
riah, Nehemiah, Esther, and Malachi. The Jews also affirm that 
Simon was "the last of the great synagogue," which is described as 
having consisted of 120 individuals, among whom were Ezra, Haggai, 
Zechariah, Nehemiah, and Malachi. They appear to have been a 
succession of devoted and patriotic men, who distinguished themselves 
aftei the captivity by their labors in collecting and revising the sacred 



604 OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS CONNECTED. 



books, and in settling and improving the civil and religious institutions 
of their country. Simon died in the year 291 B. C. 

After the Jewish nation had been tributary to the kings of Egypt 
for about a hundred years (during the last sixty of which it enjoyed 
almost uninterrupted tranquillity under the shadow of their power,) 
it became subject, in the reign of Antiochus the Great, to the kings oi 
Syria (B. C. 198). They divided the land into five provinces; three 
of which were on the west side of Jordan, namely, Galilee, Samaria, 
and Judaea (though the whole country was frequently called Judcea 
after this time) ; and two on the eastern side, namely, Trachonitis and 
Pereea: but the Jews were allowed to be governed by their own laws, 
under the high priest and council of the nation. 

Judrea, being situated between Syria and Egypt, was much affected 
by the frequent wars in which those countries were engaged. The evils 
to which it was thus exposed were aggravated by the corruption and 
misconduct of its high priests and chief men, and the increasing wicked- 
ness of the people. 

112. God saw fit to punish the Jews for this defection by the hand 

„ of Antiochus Epiphanes, king of Syria, who came and 

The Syrians. 

plundered the city and temple of Jerusalem with every 
circumstance of cruelty and profanation, and slew or enslaved great 
numbers of the inhabitants (B. 0. 170). For three years and a half 
they were altogether deprived of their civil and religious liberties. 
The daily sacrifice was taken away; the temple itself was dedicated by 
Antiochus to Jupiter, whose statue was erected on the altar of burnt 
offering; the observance of the law of God was prohibited under the 
severest penalties; every copy of the sacred writings which could be 
seized was burned; and the people were required, under pain of death, 
to sacrifice to idols. Never before had the Jews been exposed to so 
furious a persecution. Numerous as were the apostates, a remnant 
continued faithful: and these events were doubtless made instrumental 
in calling the attention of the heathen around to those great principles 
for which many of the Jews at that time were willing to peril their 
lives. 

113. At length God raised up a deliverer for his people in the noble 

family of the Asmoneeans. Mattathias, a priest eminent 
n*ans Sm °" * or n ^ s V^7 an( ^ resolution, and the father of five sons, 

encouraged the people, by his example and exhortations, 
"to stand up for the law;" and having collected around him a large 
number of faithful men, he undertook to free the nation from the 
oppression and persecution of the Syrians, and to restore the worship 
of the God of Israel ; but being very old when engaged in this arduous 



OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS CONNECTED. 



605 



work, he did not live to see its completion. At his death, his eldest 
son, Judas, succeeded to the command of the army (B. C. 163), in 
which he was assisted by his four brothers, especially by Simon, the 
elder of them, who was a man of remarkable prudence. The motto 
on his standard was, Exod. xv. 11, " Who is like unto thee among the 
gods, Jehovah?" The Hebrew words being Mi CamoJca Baelim 
Jehovah; and from the initial letters of these words M B I was 
derived the word Maccabi, or Maccabee, and became the surname of 
the family, and was applied also to all who joined their cause. 

After several victories over the troops of Antiochus, he gained pos- 
session of Jerusalem and the temple. His first care was to purify both 
from all traces of idolatry. The temple was consecrated anew to the 
service of God, and the daily sacrifices were resumed. This reconsecra- 
tion of the temple s-ud revival of worship was ever after celebrated by 
an annual feast of eight days. It occurred at the time of the winter 
solstice, and was called the feast of the dedication, John x. 22. 

114. Under the Maccabean princes, Judsea became a free state, sup- 
ported by regular troops, strong garrisons, and alliances with other 
powers, including even Rome itself. The country began to enjoy its 
former fertility and peacefulness ; and the boundaries of the state were 
extended in the direction of Syria, Phoenicia, Arabia, and Idumsea. 
This prosperity, however, was but of short duration. The decline of 
Egypt and Syria, and the gradual extension of the Roman power, soon 
led to the overthrow of the Jewish commonwealth. Pompey marched 
his army into Judsea, besieged and took Jerusalem, and made Judsea 
tributary to the Romans, though it was still governed by the Macca- 
bean princes. The last of that family was conquered and deposed by 
Herod the Great, an Idumcean by birth, but of the Jewish religion ; a 
favorite of Rome, and connected, by his marriage to Mariamne, with 
the AsmonaDan family. He enlarged the kingdom, but reduced the 
power of the high-priesthood, which, instead of being an hereditary 
office held for life, was now granted and held at the pleasure of the 
monarch. He was a cruel tyrant to his people, and even to his own 
children, three of whom he put to death ; a slave to his passions, and 
indifferent by what means he gratified his ambition. But, to preserve 
the Jews in subjection, and to erect a lasting monument to his own 
name, he repaired the temple of Jerusalem at a vast expense, and 
greatly added to its magnificence. 

115. In the thirty-sixth year of the reign of Herod, while Herod. 
Augustus was emperor of Rome, the Saviour of the world 

was born. 



51* 



606 



MORAL CONDITION OF THE JEWS. 



Herod was succeeded in the government of part of Palestine by his 
son Archelaus, who acted with great cruelty ; and in the tenth year of 
his government, upon a complaint being made against him by the Jews, 
he was banished by Augustus to Vienne, in Gaul, where he died. Pub- 
lius Sulpitius Quirinius (who, according to the Greek way of writing 
the name, is by Luke called Oyrenius), the president of Syria, was then 
sent to reduce the countries over which Archelaus had reigned to a 
Koman province ; and a governor of Judtea was appointed, under the 
title of procurator, subordinate to the president of Syria. During our 
Saviour's ministry, Judaea and Samaria were governed by a Roman 
procurator, who had the power of life and death ; while Galilee was 
governed under the authority of the Romans by Herod Antipas, a son 
of Herod the Great, with the title of tetrarch. 



Sec. 2. — Sketch of the Moral and Religious History 
of the Jews, during the period between the Old 
and New Testaments. 

116. Between the close of the Old Testament canon and the 
time of our Lord, the Jews appear in a somewhat new light. 
Their intercourse with Gentiles in Babylon and elsewhere, 
and the severe chastisements they had undergone, checked 
their tendency to idolatry, and confirmed them in their own 
faith.. The Scriptures were also more frequently consulted 
than under the earlier monarchy, and synagogues were estab- 
lished in most of the cities of Palestine. 

The intercourse of the Jews with other nations had become during 
the same period more general. As early as the time of the 
^flrcoiirse captivity a colony was formed in Egypt, thus violating the 
heathen ^ aw (-^ eu ^ x ^-)> an( i weakening the ties which bound them 
to the holy city. Their earlier connection with Egypt had 
been a scourge, and now it became a snare. From choice or necessity, 
settlers established themselves in Asia Minor, in Greece, in Africa, and 
in Italy, so that when our Lord appeared, there was scarcely a country 
in the whole Roman empire in which a Jewish colony might not be 
found. It was well nigh literally true that Moses had in every city 
those that preached him, Acts xv. 21. 

As a consequence of this intercourse, the original language of Pales- 
tine, which had been subject, as we have seen, to various influences 



RELIGIOUS CONDITION OF THE JEWS. 



607 



(Pt. i. \ 34), was forgotten by many of the Jews, and Greek became aa 
familiar in the towns of Judaea as Aramaean. Hence the translation 
of the Old Testament into Greek, the admission by the Jews into their 
purer faith of some of the absurdities of heathen philosophy. Hence, 
also, an extensive acquaintance among the Gentiles with the Jewish 
"Scriptures, and a general expectation throughout all the East of the 
coming of the Messiah. 

117. Other influences were also at work, of a directly reli- 
gious kind. 

Most of the rites of the law derived their significance from their 
symbolical character. They were doctrines in action ; and other iu- 
though some were intended merely to preserve the Jews fluences. 
distinct from neighboring nations, most were intended to teach lessons 
of piety and morality, or to point attention to the office and work of 
the Messiah. 

Towards the close of this period, however, all that was spiritual in 

the law was overlooked, the ritual alone being regarded. Hence arose 

a variety of sects, a knowledge of whose tenets helps us to appreciate 

the allusions of our Lord. This knowledge, moreover, is highly 

instructive in illustrating the deceitfulness of human nature, and its 

tendencies in our own age. We may notice, in fact, in Judrea, the 

direction which the mind of man everywhere takes as true religion 

decays. There was the first traditional tendency, under Pharisaism, 

whose influence foreign human elements were mingled with Sa< l ducee- 

° ° ism, jijs- 

the Divine. Forms which compressed and destroyed the senes. 

substance of piety were substituted for such as grew of it : the law waa 

made void through traditions. In the place of the real essence there 

came the dead ceremonial. This was Pharisaism, or legal Judaism. 

But extremes confirm one another. The foreign additions introduced 

by one sect were disowned by others; and with the rejection of the 

additions came the rejection of much that was true. Hence arose Sad- 

duceeism, or rationalistic Judaism, ending often in infidelity. In time, 

it was earlier than Pharisaism, but it never flourished till that system 

became prevalent. Neither error met the wants of men of warmer 

devotional feeling. The Pharisee believed too much, the Sadducee too 

little. Both failed, in the opinion of this third sect, to see the import 

of Scripture, which is not on the surface, but beneath, and must be 

reached by profound meditation and allegorical interpretations. Hence 

arose the JZssenes, the representatives of the monasticism of all ages. 



608 



JEWISH SECTS — TRADITION. 



How easy to avoid the errors of others, and yet have errors no less 

fatal of our own ! 

It is worthy of remark that the three Grecian sects — the Stoics, the 
Epicureans, and the Pythagoreans — did not widely differ from these 
Jewish sects. Sir John Malcolm has also shown that the 
ding Greek three chief Mohammedan sects fell into the same errors, 
sects, etc. ^ Q g un i s are the traditionists ; the Sheas adhere to the 
Koran ; and the Sufis sought their religion in what Mohammed called 
"internal divine sensation," (History of Persia, chap xxii.) 

Later than the time of our Lord, these sects were known by different 
names. The Pharisees were called successively, Rabbinists (disciples, 
that is, of the rabbis, or great teachers); Cabalists {%. e. traditionists); 
and Talmudists. Those who held the doctrine of the Sadducees on the 
supremacy of the literal text of the Pentateuch, though not holding 
their other errors, were called Karaites, or Scripturists. The Essenes, 
also, are known in history as Therapeutas {i. e. soul-physicians); though 
some think that this name was given to a distinct but similar sect. 
(Burton's Bampton Lecture, Note 32; and Neander's Church History, i.) 

118. It is instructive to observe, that while the Pharisees- 
used tradition for the discovery of truth, the Sadducees used 
rationalistic logic for the same purpose, as did the schoolmen 
in later times ; and that these sects owed their origin to the 
tendencies of human nature, and the decay of spiritual religion. 
The great question between them, moreover, was on the extent 
and authority of tradition. The Sadducee, though willing to 
compare it with so much of Scripture as he believed, denied 
its authority : The Pharisee received it as Divine. 

119. The body of tradition referred to in these disputes, 
Jewish was co ^ ec ^ e( ^ i n ^he second century, or later, by 
tradition. Jewish doctors, and especially by E. Judah, the 
Holy, a descendant of Gamaliel (Lightfoot), and a favorite of 
one of the Antonines. 

The collection is called Mishna, or the repetition. 1 Later doctors 
added to it various comments, under the name of Gemara (a comple- 
tion) ; and the two works — Mishna and Gemara — are together called 

11 SiUTiponcng. 



MISHNA — GEMARA — TALMUD. 



609 



the Talmud, from a Hebrew word signifying to teach. The Jewish 
Mishna, with the comments collected by Jerusalem rabbis tradition, 
in the fourth or fifth century, has the name of the Jerusalem 
Talmud. The comments of the Babylonish Talmud were collected in 
the sixth century by rabbis residing at Babylon. The Mishna, or text, 
is the same in each. The traditions which compose it arose about 300 
years before Christ, and interpolations excepted, were no doubt such as 
met our Lord in the days of his personal ministry. 

In the Talmud are found many critical and grammatical comments 
on the texts of Scripture. These comments, with others which tradi- 
tion had handed down, were brought together into one book, under the 
title of Masora (or tradition). When these Masoretic comments origi- 
nated is not agreed. Some Jewish writers maintain that many of them 
are p.s old as the days of Moses. Kimchi and others think that they 
commenced with the revision of the MSS. of Scripture effected by Ezra; 
ana others still (among whom is Eben Ezra, 1150), that they had their 
origin in the school of Tiberias, between the third and the sixth centu- 
ries after Christ. Eichhorn thinks it demonstrable that they are not 
the production of any one age, but were written at long intervals, and 
some of them in comparatively modern times. The whole were pub- 
lished in Bombcrg's Rabbinical Bible (Venice, 1518-36). They are 
printed on the side of the text and at the end of each book. Extracts 
from this Masora (under the title of the lesser Masora) have been fre- 
quently printed, and portions of these are found in nearly all editions 
of the Hebrew Scriptures. 

To the Masorites, probably, we owe the points, accents, and most of 
the corrections of the printed text, together with a large mass of curious, 
though unimportant information, on the words and lett ers of Scripture. 
Some of their corrections are critical: they suggest the right division 
of words, Psa. lv. 16; cxxiii. 4; the transposition, alteration, and 
omission of consonants, 1 Kings vii. 45: Ezek. xxv. Amos viii. 8; 
grammatical or orthographical, as in various passages of the Penta- 
teuch (see Pent.) and Ez. xxvii. 5 ; and euphemistic or explanatory, 
1 Sam. v. 6; vi. 4: Deut. xxviii. 17: 2 Kings xviii. 27: Isa. xxvi. 12. 

The Masorites notice seven passages in which words are read (keri) 
in the Hebrew which are not written (kethib), 2 Sam. viii. 3; xvi. 23; 
five, where words are written, but not read, 2 Kings, v. 18, etc. 

They made it their business, also, to count the words and letters of 
each book, as well as unusual constructions and forms, and to mark 
many facts of no importance, except that the care thus exercised in 
accumulating them, tended to guard the purity of the sacred text. 
They note, for example, that the middle letter of the law is in Lev. xi. 



610 



PHARISEES — SADDUCEES. 



42; the middle words in Lev. x. 13; the middle verse, Lev. xiii. 13 
Of the Psalms, the middle letter is in lxxx. 14, and the middle verse, 
lxxviii. 36. They also state how often each letter occurs in each book 
and in all the Bible. 1 

The middle letters were written, and are still printed, in an unusual 
position, or of unusual size, and are said by the Cabalists to have a 
deep spiritual meaning. 

120. The Cabala (or received) was the mystical interpretation of 
Scripture, said to have been received from God by Adam, Abraham 
and Moses, and to have been handed down through Joshua to the 
seventy elders and their successors, the rabbinical doctors. The term 
is also applied to the whole system of philosophy in vogue among the 
Kabbins, who supposed that each letter of Scripture contained some 
mystery (see examples, Pt. i. \ 428). 



121. The Pharisees formed the most 
numerous sect among the 
Pharisees and Jews.b Their name sig- 
Sadducees. nifies expounders, or se- 
parated, either because 
they expounded the law by tradition, or 
because they deemed themselves more 
holy than otliers,c John vii. 49. They 
represented the legal spirit of Judaism, 
and reflecting most truly the national 
character, they were the favorite sect 
among the people. They were among 
the bitterest enemies of our Lord. 

Such was their general character; in 
some few, however, religion was the ex- 
pression of honest, but misguided zeal, 
Rom. x. 3. 



The Sadducees take their name either 

from. Tsedek, righteousness, or from 
Sadok, the pupil of Antigonus Soch;eus, 
the first Mishnical teacher, and president 
of the great Sanhedrim (B. C. 250). They 
deniedlhe authority of tradition, and re- 
garded with suspicion all revelations 
made later than Moses. They objected 
to all development of Divine truth, even 
of such truth as was plainly implied in 
the Pentateuch ; so that they olitn mis- 
understood the very books they pro- 
fessed to receive. On this ground, they 
denied the doctrines of the resurrect: op 
and the immortality of the soul. Their 
denial of the existence of angel and 
spirit is hardly explicable on any princi- 
ple, except that when 



once men have 

become skeptical their unbelief is closely allied to credulity. The precepts of the 
law were the only parts they regarded as clear; all else they thought uncertain. 
Without formally denying a Providence, they made God. as far as possible, an idle 
spectator of the affairs of* the universe, and were led by this view to a system of 
deism, which all but set aside the authority of revelation. Their doctrines were 
favorably received by the young men of Judsea, and produced (as Josephus has 
affirmed) dispositions cold and repulsive. The Sadducees were mostly persons of 
wealth, who lived a life of ease and earthly enjoyment, without opening their minds 
to any higher aspirations. From their position, they gained some of t he most im- 
portant posts in the country. Caiaphas, who condemned our Lord, was a Sad- 
ducee;'! and Josephus says that Herod, who felt John's preaching so keenly, be- 
longed to this sect e He thus furnishes an illustration of the power of conscience 
over a system of infidelity which his heart, rather than his head, had embraced. 



122. Closely akin to the Pharisees in 
their religious views were 
Galila?ans, the Galilceans, though dif- 
Herodians. fering in their political 
tenets. They sprang from 
Judas of Galilee (Gamala), who, in "the 
days of the taxing," taught that all for- 



The Herodians were chiefly Sadducees 
in their religious tenets ( compare Mark 
viii. 15 with Matt. xvi. C).butwere rather 
a political than a religious sect. They 
took their name and' their views from 
the family of Herod, who derived their 
authority from the Roman government. 



a De Wette's Intr. i. 256; Walton's Proleg. viii. 8; Buxtorf's Tiberias. 

b Josephus reckons them at 6,000, chiefly of the priestly order. Founded B. C.135. 

c See Lightfoot's Hor. Heb. on Matt. xv. % £4. 

* Acts iv. C ; v. 17. e Matt. xiv. 2. 



ESSENES — SCEIBES — PROSELYTES. 



611 



eign domination was unscriptural, and 
that God was the only king of the Jews. 
Deeming it unlawful to pray for foreign 
princes, they performed Iheir sacrifices 
apart. As our Lord and his discipies 
were from Galilee, the Pharisees at- 
tempted to identify him with this sect. 

Of this party, the most violent pro- 
bably were called zealots. They occur 



It was their principle to promote inti- 
macy with Borne by flattery and un- 
limited submission, but especially by in- 
troducing into Juda?a the usages of the 
conquerors. This union with idolatry, 
on the ground of worldly policy, was 

Erobably the leaven against which our 
ord cautioned his disciples 



just before the destruction of Jerusalem, and are perhaps referred to in Acts xxi. 38. 
A better class of zealots are mentioned in Acts xxi. 20; xxiii. 3. 

123. The Essenes are reckoned by Philo at 4,000, and probably owe 
their origin to Egypt. They renounced the pleasures and 
conveniences of life, and were in their creed unqualified 16 ^ senes ' 
fatalists. Matt. xix. 12: Col. ii. 16-19, and some parts of John are 
supposed to refer to their doctrines ; but as they had seceded from the 
body of the Jewish people, they are not formally noticed in the narra- 
tives of our Lord's ministry. 

124. The scribes were a learned profession and not a religious sect. It 
was their business to make copies of the law and to expound 

it. Hence they were called lawyers a and doctors of the law. b 
As religionists, they generally favored the Pharisees, and are therefore 
often mentioned with them (Matt, xxiii.), though all sects had their 
friends in this profession. 

The scribes of the people were probably members of the Sanhedrim, 
not of the priestly order. This body, the Sanhedrim, consisted of 
seventy-two members, of whom twenty-four were priests, and twenty- 
four elders (Rev. iv. 4) ; and probably the scribes of the people were 
the rest (see 1 Chron. xxvii. 32). 

125. The Proselytes were, in the time of our Lord, a very numerous 
body. The name was given to those Gentiles who took upon 
themselves the obligations of the Mosaic law. They joined Prosel y tes 
in offering sacrifices to the God of Israel in the outer court of the temple. 
The Pharisees took great pains to make these proselytes, and were 
aided in their efforts by the fading authority of the old religions, and 
the reverence in which the God of the Jews was held by the heathen. 
As these teachers had no true idea of their religion, they could impart 
none; their converts, therefore, only changed their superstition, hushed 
the accusations of conscience, and became twofold moie than before 
"the children of hell." These were callecT Proselytes of Righteous- 
ness, and were often among the bitterest enemies of the Christian faith. 

126. There was also a large body of Gentiles called (in later times) 



a Matt. xxii. 35, compared with Mark xii. 28. 
" Luke v. 17, 21. c Matt, ii; 4. 



612 



SAMAKITANS. 



Proselytes of the Gate, a who simply pledged themselves to renounce 
idolatry, to worship the true God, and to abstain from all heathenish 
practices. They had generally heard of the coming of the Messiah, 
and were free from most of the prejudices of the Jews. Hence the new 
religion made great progress among them. 

They are called in the New Testament ''devout persons, fearing God," 
and religious proselytes, Acts xiii. 16, 43, and seem to have been 
numerous in Damascus and Thessalonica (xiii. 50 ; xvii. 4 : see, also, 
x. 2). 

127. The Samaritans claimed an interest in the Mosaic covenant, 

but our Lord distinguishes them from the lost sheep of the 
Samaritans. . ° ,'«.■,,,»■ . 

house oi Israel, and from the Gentiles (Matt. x. 5, 6). 

Those of the time of our Lord sprang from the colonists with whom 

the king of Assyria peopled Samaria after the ten tribes were carried 

away (2 Kings xvii.) A captive priest was sent to teach them, and 

though at first they regarded God as a kind of tutelary Deity, and 

much of their religious system was corrupt, yet they afterwards sought 

to be united with the Jews. With this view, Sanballat, the Cushite 

(not the Sanballat of Neh. xiii. 28), obtained the aid of a Jewish priest, 

Manasses, whom the Jews forced into banishment. With him, a 

numerous train of followers settled in Samaria. They then erected on 

Mount Gerizim an independent temple, which remained till the days 

of John Hyrcanus, B. C. 109, and established what they deemed a more 

orderly observance of the Mosaic law. Their faith and practice they 

founded on the Pentateuch alone, and rejected the whole of the other 

inspired writings. 

This division was overruled for the general good. The Samaritan 
copy of the law has been carefully preserved, and the enmity between 
the Jews and themselves has made both parties the more jealous for the 
purity of their respective texts. The Samaritans were free, also, from 
the pride and narrowness too prevalent among their neighbors. Of 
spurious descent themselves, and despised by those around them, they 
had probably a more just appreciation of the comprehensiveness of the 
Gospel. They regarded all nations as entitled to an interest in its 
blessings. They accordingly received from our Lord one of the earliest 
express intimations that he was the Messiah (John iv.), and were other- 
wise frequently noticed by him in the course of his ministry. 

As they received only the Pentateuch, it is peculiarly interesting to 

* This name was unknown to Christians before the 14th century 
(LaTdner). It is given, however, in Ma\monides (A. D. 1200), and it is 
certain that the class existed in the days of our Lord. 



THE GOSPELS. 



613 



notice the passages on which to this day, they rest their belief on the 
coming of a Saviour. They point to Deut. xviii. 15-19 ; and conclude 
that he is the Saviour of the world from Gen. xii. 3; xxii. 18; xxvi. 4; 
xxviii. 14, etc. 

After the time of our Lord three sects sprang up among them ; of 
which two, founded by Simon Magus and his pupil Menander, survived 
for centuries, and were often, confounded by heathen writers with 
Christians. 

128. These sects, it may further be observed, are not isolated pheno- 
mena, confined to the countries or times in which they 

These sects 

appeared They exhibit human nature throughout all exhibit the 
time ; and the precepts and truths which were adapted to Mnm\aa 3 
their condition are not less adapted to ourselves. nature. 



CHAPTER V. 

THE GOSPELS. — INTRODUCTORY. 

129. We now come to the New Testament, the fullest and 
latest revelation of God. The ancient dispensation id Testa- 
made nothing perfect. Apart even from the abuses ^eV by"* 
by which it had been corrupted, it was in itself in- the life of 

J . . 1 our Lord. 

complete, Gal. iii. 21 : Heb. vii. 18 ; ix. 9, 11. 

x . . ' He came to 

Whatever was wanting, however, m the ancient be the sub- 
institution, is supplied by the incarnation, the life Gospel, 
and death of our Lord : facts which form the theme of the 
Gospels, as the explanation of them forms the theme of the 
Epistles. He is himself, in truth, the Gospel. His coming 
and work, apart even from all he directly taught, constitute 
the glad tidings of great joy unto all people. Did men need 
52 



614 



TRUTH — HOW EEVEALED. 



a real sacrifice for sin, in which the rites of the law should 
find their explanation and end? That sacrifice he offered. 
Did men need a perfect rule of life ? That rule he gave when 
he dwelt among us ; and immortality he brings to light, not 
so much by teaching it, or promising it, as by the actual fact 
of himself rising from the dead in our nature, and on our 
behalf. There is, indeed, no question in religion which it is 
essential for us to know, which the life of Christ has not solved.. 
In Him we see God himself revealed, his mercy, justice, faith- 
fulness and power ; and in Him we see no less clearly oui 
own nature ; its sinfulness in his sufferings ; its duties in his 
example ; its dignity, if we are united with him, in his ascen- 
sion and glory. 

This double purpose of our Lord — to fulfil the ancient in- 
Uc r\r>& TV**- stitute, and to be himself the foundation of a new 

culiarities 
of his 



one — explains peculiarities in the Gospels which 



teaching. would otherwise be inexplicable. 

Hence, for example, the substance and even the form of his teaching. 
Types and predictions which had served in ancient times as a deposi- 
tory of spiritual truth he fulfilled. His lessons are often given in 
parables, testing the hearts of the uneandid and indifferent, and remind- 
ing all of the true character of their own dispensation. His acts were 
often symbolical on the same ground. He washed his disciples' feet; 
he took and set little children in the midst of them ; and in all his 
miracles he carefully looked to this double end — to suggest the true 
rale of interpreting the ancient law, and to teach the mysteries of his 
own kingdom. 

130. To this cause, too, it may be attributed that our Lord's revela- 
^ lations were gradually disclosed, and never fully till after 
gradual dis- he had risen. Other reasons there were also. The preju- 
his S truth° f dices of his disciples were strong, and a gradual disclosure 
of truth was on that account desirable ; for they were not 
at first able to bear it. It was his rule, moreover, to reward faith in a 
little, by imparting more, as he himself taught them. But the chief 
reason seems to be that the doctrines of Christianity spring out of the 
facts, and could not, therefore, be revealed till the facts had been accom- 
plished. Hence peculiarities such as the following. He first hints at 
some doctrine, or event, then repeats the lesson more explicitly, and 



TRUTH — HOW REVEALED. 



615 



then either clearly reveals it, or refers his disciples to the teaching of 
the coming Spirit. He avoids everywhere a full disclosure of his char- 
acter, even forbidding others to declare it. His ministry he confines 
to a small district and a despised people. Doctrines he seldom or never 
propounds ; but he does the works that are at the foundation of them. 
He suffers, and hence the doctrine of atonement. He pleads, and hence 
the doctrine of spiritual influence. He rises from the grave, and hence 
our resurrection and glory. The truth is, as Macknight has remarked, 
our Lord came from heaven, not so much to teach the Gospel as to be 
himself the subject of it, leaving the Spirit to be its chief interpreter. 
We study, therefore, the law in the Gospels; the Gospels in the Epis- 
tles ; and all in Christ. 

"All in Christ" we repeat. For a personal Saviour is the glory of 
ihe Gospel, and the study of a personal Saviour the great A11 trntll 
instrument of our holiness. Religion is not merely the con- ? ' n Christ. 
templation of truth and the practice of morality ; it is fellowship with 
God through his Son. We are to love not moral beauty only, but 
Christ; to believe not so much in it, as in Him Hence the peculiarity 
of all apostolic teaching. In place of inculcating virtue, they bid us 
"walk in his steps," and do what is "well pleasing" in his sight. 
Death they represent as union with him, and to "follow the Lamb 
whithersoever he goeth" is given as the sum of Christian duty and of 
Christian blessedness. To understand even the morality of the New 
Testament, much more its doctrines, we resist study the Gospels. 

131. The recorded discourses and parables of our Lord, are 
to us with the Bible in our hands, sufficiently Import of 
clear. The rules that teach their meaning and kismiracies; 
application may be gathered from Part i., Sec. 7, etc. The 
significancy of his miracles is perhaps less obvious. They 
have clearly an outward and inward meaning. 

Outwardly, they are expressions of power (Swapac). They excite 
surprise, and so, as "wonders" (t^xt«.), they prompt inquiry: they 
give evidence of a Divine mission, and are therefore signs (a-H/utia). In 
each of these characters they are important. The constancy of the 
process of nature had been converted into an argument against an 
active Providence. In miracles, the perpetuity and extent of provi- 
dential government are vindicated and proved. They show that a 
natural law is one thing, and a living agent another. Nor are they, 
as evidence, less significant. Inwardly, in the moral lessons they 



616 



MIRACLES — THEIR IMPORT. 



teach, they are even more important. As a whole, they may be called 
redemptive, as those of the older dispensation were chiefly judicial: 
the earlier illustrating a state of law; the later, a state of grace. 
Each miracle, moreover, has its own essential characteristic, teaching 
some truth or duty, and often foreshadowing a glorious future. The 
miracles, in fact, of our Lord are as parabolic as his parables, and 
should be studied for the same ends. His own work, his kingdom, and 
our duty, are revealed in both. 

132. If the truth of miraculous interference create a difficulty in the 

, mind of an inquirer, it mav be well to remind him that a 
Miracles not , , . , 

contrary to miracle, though above nature, is not contrary to it, and 

nature: ma y even foe said to be in the strictest harmony with it, 

"What we call natural laws are nothing more than uniformities of 

existence or of sequence, and really imply at some stage Divine power. 

They account for nothing ; and after we have reached the highest law 

we say, " Here God himself seems to interpose : second causes can be 

traced no further." A natural law, therefore, is but a theory (as of 

motion, for example); it is not a living force. It is only the plan on 

which some agent works, and that agent works miraculously — that is, 

supernaturally — though with constancy. The miracles of the Gospel, 

therefore, suppose no greater interference than may be found already 

in any department of physical science. 

133. The supernatural interference of malevolent beings referred to 
^ g ^ . in the Gospels has also created difficulty, but admits of a 
agency in satisfactory interpretation. Some have said that such in- 
disease. terference was peculiar to the time of our Lord, and is now 
withdrawn. And it was natural, it is added, that the manifestation 
of God in the flesh should be accomplished with unusual activity on 
the part of the powers of evil : their design was the defence of their 
own cause; God's design, in permitting it, his glory. Others have 
supposed that Scripture, when speaking of disease as the result of 
Satanic agency, lifts up a veil and reveals a secret which is still true. 
Devils, it is implied, are the first causes of suffering ; though second 
causes are also permitted to work ; and in our own time, it is added, 
they act with power as real, and with results as seemingly natural, as; 
in the days of our Lord. Either interpretation is consistent with 
physical facts. What men call causes of disease are either second 
causes or symptoms. The agent that originates them is not seen. 
In ascribing them, therefore, to an extraneous cause, Scripture is in 
harmony with philosophy ; and in ascribing them to a spirit of evil, it 
•s not otherwise than in harmony with the indications of even natural 
reason. 



THE GOSPELS. 



617 



134. ^One remark more, on the nature of our Lord. The 
Gospels give the life of One, who was both God and c ^ V i st G 0( i 
Man; and we must not be surprised to find him and Man. 
spoken of now in the one character, and now in the other. 

Sec. 1. The Gospels in their mutual relation. 

135. The word Gospel means good news, and corresponds 
exactly to the Greek term* by which this portion of Gospel 
sacred Scripture is distinguished. 

The Gospels were written at different times, under the guidance of 
the Holy Spirit, by the men whose names they bear. They give not a 
complete history of the Saviour's life, but such facts and discourses as 
explain the nature, and prove to different readers the Divine origin 
of the Christian system. The four books make really not a biography, 
but a memoir, and only one. They form one Gospel — a " four-sided 
Gospel," as Origen called it — and by their marvellous unity and 
diversity are adapted to interest and instruct every class of character 
in every age. 

136. The first Gospel (by Matthew), was intended for Jews. He 
therefore gives no explanation of Jewish customs or topo- ^ 
graphy. The genealogy of our Lord he traces through his teiisticsof 
reputed father to Abraham, and shows how the New Testa- each- 
ment is the fulfilment of the Old. The second Gospel (by Mark), was 
written for the instruction of Roman converts. Jewish customs and 
places have consequently explanations appended. Narrative is pre- 
ferred to discourse, and the writer dwells rather on the actions than on 
the teaching of our Lord. His Gospel is thoroughly practical, and 
though he has added but twenty-four verses which are not found in 
the Gospels of Matthew or Luke, the whole is admirably adapted to 
the energetic business habits of the Roman people. The third Gospel 
was written by Luke, for the use of the Gentiles generally. Here 
again, Christ appears under a new aspect, not as the minister of cir- 
cumcision — his character in Matthew — nor yet as the Lion of the tribe 
of Judah, " Ijord of all power and might" — his character in Mark — ■ 
but as the Saviour of the world. His genealogy is traced through his 
mother to Adam, the head of the whole human family. While Mat- 
thew tells of the twelve apostles who were sent to Israel, Luke speaks 
also of the seventy disciples who were sent as to the nations of the 

» tuxy}haov t see Luke ii. 10. 

52* 



618 THE GOSPELS — THEIR PECULIARITIES. 



earth. Several parables are found in this Gospel alone, and among 
them, the good Samaritan and the prodigal son — the one humbling to 
Jewish pride, the other cheering to the Gentile penitent. Jewish cus- 
toms and chronological statements are made intelligible to a foreigner, 
while the fulness of his record of the discourses of our Lord meets the 
curiosity of the Grecian character. In the fourth Gospel, we have 
something meets the higher speculative tendencies of men ; correcting 
what was false in the Jewish and heathen systems of religious philoso- 
phy, and completing what was deficient in previous relations. None 
has spoken so fully of the Divine character of our Lord, or of the 
inward spiritual life which springs from union with him. As Mat- 
thew's Gospel was called the material one, so John's was called the 
spiritual, or Divine. a 

Thus it is that the Gospel stands " four-square," with a side fronting 
each side of the spiritual world : Matthew, addressing the Jew, reveals 
the Messianic king; Luke, the Greek, reveals the man; Mark, show- 
ing the power and vital force of truth; and John, its attractive and 
subduing love. Matthew exhibits chiefly the Jewish and subordinate; 
John, the spiritual and Divine, in our Redeemer ; Mark, his authority 
over nature and devils ; Luke, his personal history as man. In all 
combined, Jesus is represented as the Messiah, the Teacher, the Pat- 
tern, the Brother, and the God. 

Sec. 2. The Genuineness op the Gospels. 

137. The general evidence of the genuineness of the New 
Testament lias been already given. Evidence of 

aess of the genuineness of particular books of Scripture 
we shall briefly- sum up in a tabular form. The 

authors referred to belong to the first two centuries and a half 

of our era. 

The passages on which the table is formed may be seen referred to 
in Less' Treatise on the Authenticity, etc., of the New Testament. 
For passages marked thus f , see Davidson's Introduction to the New 
Testament, vols, i.-iii. The testimony of the later witnesses may be 
seen in Lardner's Credibility. Several of the earlier testimonies may 
also be seen there, but Less' list is more carefully prepared than his. 



By Clement, 



THE GOSPELS — THEIR GENUINENESS. 



619 





j Barnabas. A, D. 122. | 


| Clement of Rome. 98. | 


| Ignatius. d. 107. 




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| Julius Africanus. 210. | 


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All the Books examined 
by Eusebius. 


Churches at Lyons and 
Vienne. 170, 


| Valentinians. 140. | 


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, Horaeleon. 140. | 


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Matt, 


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Mark 




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The testimonies marked % are less decisive than those marked 1 or f , 
though most of them would be deemed quite satisfactory in a case of 
ordinary criticism. A few other passages may be seen in the work3 
of Davidson and Lardner. They are not included above, because not 
decisive. 

Evidences of authenticity may be seen in Part i., Sec. 4. These 
testimonies on the genuineness of the Gospels apply to the whole, with 
Blight exceptions. The 1st and 2d chaps, of Matt., the last eleven 
verses of Mark, the 1st and 2d chaps, of Luke, the last two verses of 
John, John vii. 53 :-viii. 1, and John v. 34, have been questioned; 
though now they are all generally admitted to be genuine. The least 
certain are the last two passages. 

Sec. 3. Introductions to the Gospels. 

THE GOSPEL ACCORDING TO MATTHEW. 

138. Matthew was a native of Galilee, and held the office 
of receiver of customs under the Koman govern- __ - 

o Matthew, 

ment at the sea of Tiberias (Matt. ix. 9). By Mark his history, 
and Luke he is called Levi (Mark ii. 14 : Luke v. 27-32), 
which was probably his Hebrew name, as Matthew was pro- 
bably the name he assumed on obtaining a Koman office. At 
the call of Christ, he left his business, and became one of the 
disciples a short time before the delivery of the sermon on 



620 



THE GOSPEL BY MATTHEW. 



the mount. In enumerating the apostles, he speaks of him- 
self as Matthew the publican (x. 3), anxious to magnify the 
grace of Grod in his call. The language in which he describes 
the abandonment of his worldly prospects for Christ is a re- 
markable instance of humility, and illustrates one principle 
on which the Gospels are composed. The writers never make 
themselves prominent, nor do they give any details respecting 
their personal history. Their theme is — not themselves, but 
Christ Jesus their Lord. 

The exact date of this Gospel is not known. By some it is placed, as 
early as A. D. 37 ; a by others as late as 63. The weight of 
evidence, however, is in favor of a few years later than the 
earlier date (i. e. about A. D. 42), and it was certainly written before 
the destruction of Jerusalem. 

It was a general tradition in the early church that there was a Gos- 
pel, written by Matthew, in Syro-Chaldaic. That he did 
language write some notices of our Lord's life in the vernacular lan- 
wruten. guage of Palestine, is probable. But the originality and 
genuineness of the Greek Gospel are sustained by the strongest evi- 
dence. No trace of any Hebrew Gospel now remains. In Palestine, 
moreover, Greek was the language of books, of business, and of com- 
mon life, Looking, therefore, to the habits of his countrymen, and to 
the approaching dissolution of the Jewish State, he had every induce- 
ment to employ that tongue. 

His Gospel may be thus divided : 
^ Chaps, i., ii. Contain a brief notice of the infancy and 

childhood of our Lord. 
Chaps, iii.-iv. 12. A record of his entrance on his public ministry, 

and of events preparatory to it. 
Chaps, v.-vii. An exhibition of Christ as a public teacher, illus- 
trated in the sermon on the mount. 
Chaps, viii., ix. An exhibition of Christ as a worker of miracles, 
giving in one view several miracles of different kinds performed 
in various places. 
Chap. xiii. An exhibition of Christ as a teacher by parables, in 

some of which there are also prophetic intimations. 
Chaps, x -xx. We have instruction, miracle and narrative in more 
regular order, and in 



* Tillemont, Owen and Tomline, 38 ; Irenaeus later than 60. 



THE GOSPEL BY MARK. 



621 



Chaps, xx.-xxviii. "We have a record of the last sufferings, death, 
and resurrection of our Lord. 
The intention of the writer is clearly, by a simple record of what 
our Lord did and suffered, to redeem his Master's memory 
from reproach, to disarm the prejudices of his countrymen, ^™ gospel 
and to set forth for future ages the true character of the 
Messiah. Hence his frequent appeals to the prophets (i. 23 ; ii. 6, 15, 
18; iii. 3; iv. 15; viii. 17, etc.), his accounts of the refutation of the 
various Jewish sects, his care in narrating such parts of our Lord's 
discourses as were best suited to awaken his own nation to a sense of 
their sins, to correct their hopes of an earthly kingdom, and to pre- 
pare them for the admission of the Gentiles to the church. For the 
special instruction of Jewish Christians, he gives the predictions of our 
Lord in relation to Jerusalem, and the arguments by which he sought 
to reconcile his disciples to opposition and persecution for their adhe- 
rence to him. 



THE GOSPEL ACCORDING TO MARK. 



139. Mark, who, besides his Latin name of Marcus, appears 
to have had the Hebrew one of John, was the son , , 

Mark's 

of Mary, a pious woman at J erusalem, who received history, 
in her house the assemblies of the primitive church, and wel- 
comed the apostle Peter after his deliverance out of prison by* 
t\e angel, Acts xii. 12. Mark was the nephew of Barnabas, 
Paul's companion in his travels, Col. iv. 10. These two be- 
ing at Jerusalem about the time of Peter's deliverance, took 
Mark with them upon their mission, Acts xii. 25. He accom- 
panied them to Antioch; and thence, on their first journey, 
as far as Perga, in Pamphylia ; where he left them and 
returned to Jerusalem, Acts xiii. 5, 13. We afterwards find 
him at Antioch, with Paul and Barnabas, desiring to accom- 
pany them on a second journey; but Paul, regarding him ag 
unfit for the work, since he had left them on the former occa- 
sion, was unwilling to take him. This decision caused a warm 
dispute and a temporary separation between the two apostles ; 
and Barnabas, influenced probably by. his affection for his 
kinsman, "took Mark, and sailed unto Cyprus." There can 
be no doubt that Mark afterwards acknowledged his error, 



622 



THE GOSPEL BY MAKK. 



whatever it was — whether he was wanting in the courageous 
self-denial of the missionary, or had misgivings on the exten- 
sion of the Gospel to the heathen — for the apostle Paul ap- 
pears to have given him his confidence and affection, and com- 
mends him to the churches. See Col. iv. 10 : 2 Tim. iv. 11 : 
Philem. 24. 

To these notices, gathered from the sacred writers, others 
add that Mark afterwards went to Egypt, and, having planted 
a church at Alexandria, died there. 

Thus it appears that Mark, though not himself one of the 
twelve, was a friend and companion of the apostles ; and 
living at Jerusalem, was upon the spot where the most impor- 
tant events in our Lord's life occurred, and where many of his 
miracles were performed. But, in addition to these means of 
knowledge, it is the concurrent testimony of the early Chris- 
tian writers that Mark attended Peter (by whom he was pro- 
bably brought to a knowledge of the truth, see 1 Pet. v. 13), 
during a considerable portion of his ministry ; and having for 
some years enjoyed the intimate friendship of that apostle, 
wrote this account of our Lord's life under his immediate di- 
rection. So that Justin calls his Gospel "the Gospel of St. 
Peter." Some commentators suppose this fact to be referred 
to in 2 Pet. i. 15, 16. 

The internal evidence is in favor of Peter's superintendence. 
Scarcely an action or a work of Christ is related at which 
Peter was not present; and those events in our Saviour's 
life are related in detail which must have made the deepest 
impression upon Peter. Many things honorable to Peter are 
omitted by Mark, which are mentioned by the other evange- 
lists ; whilst, on the other hand, the failings of Peter are fully 
recorded. Comp. Mark viii. 29, with Matt. xvi. 17. See, 
also, Mark viii. 33 ; xiv. 31-71. 

The time when this Gospel was written is uncertain. Various dates 
have been assigned to it, between A. D. 48 and 65. Some 

Date. 

suppose it written at Rome, others at Cassarea; but all agree 
that it was intended for Roman converts. 



THE GOSPEL BY LUKE. 



623 



The chief peculiarities of Mark as a writer are, (1.) That he relates 

rather the works than the discourses of our Lord. His „ 

... . „ , , , Peculiarities, 

descriptions are more graphic than those oi Matthew and. 

Luke. He frequently employs the present tense, introduces persons 

as speakers, and is often minute in his descriptions of persons and 

localities. In many instances where the same events are related by 

Matthew and Mark, the latter fills up the outline of the former, giving 

greater distinctness to the picture. Compare Mark v. 22-43, and 

Matt. ix. 18-26: Mark ix. 14-29, and Matt. xvii. 14-21. 



THE GOSPEL ACCORDING TO LUKE. 

140. Luke, the writer of the Gospel which bears his name, 
is generally allowed to have been the "beloved phy- Luke , s 
sician" mentioned by Paul, Col. iv. 14. According history, 
to the testimony of some of the Fathers, he was a native of 
Antioch. He would appear, from his intimate acquaintance 
with the Greek language, as well as from his Greek name, 
AovxoLq, to have been of Gentile extraction. But, from the 
Hebrew terms occurring in his writings, and from his accurate 
knowledge of the Jewish religion, ceremonies and customs, 
it is highly probable that he was in early life a Jewish prose- 
lyte ; and having afterwards embraced the Gospel, he became 
a faithful and zealous companion of Paul in many of his labors 
and travels, Acts xvi. 10 . xx. 5, etc. We learn from Acts 
xxviii. 15, and Philem. 24, that he was with the apostle-at the 
time of his first captivity at Eome ; and from 2 Tim. iv. 11, 
that during his second imprisonment Luke alone remained by 
his side. 

Luke is generally supposed to have been a scholar. His 
style is more classical than that of the other evangelists. 
Being a physician, his descriptions of diseases, and his accounts 
of cures wrought by the Saviour and his apostles, have more 
of technical definiteness than the other Gospels. 

With regard to the questions when and where this Gospel was writ- 
ten, there is no certain information. Some suppose that it 
was written during the time that Luke was in Paul's com- 



624 



THE GOSPEL BY JOHN. 



pany, probably during his confinement at Rome, about the year 62 or 
63, A. D. Others give it an earlier date, and suppose it to have been, 
written at Philippi, about 57, A. D., see 2 Cor. viii. 18-21. But, how- 
ever that may be, it is evident that it was originally written for Gen- 
tile readers, as that of Matthew was originally designed for Jews. He 
Peculiarities before his e 7 es the "salvation prepared for all 

people;" — "a light to lighten the Gentiles" (ii. 31,32), 
and, as writing for heathen who had departed so widely from God, he 
has been careful to record the Lord's declarations concerning the free 
mercy of God to the greatest sinners (vii. 36-50; xv.; xviii. 10-14; 
xix. 5-10; xxiii. 40-43, etc.) 

The Gospel of Luke is generally considered to be more of a regular 
biography than any of the others. He appears to have preserved the 
chronological order of his main facts; closing the various periods of 
his history with a number of incidental circumstances and discourses, 
which belong to that division of time, but the exact sequence of which 
he is not careful to specify. 

• The numerous and important additional facts which Luke has 
supplied, give to hie Gospel a peculiar value. He relates with remark- 
able clearness the conversations of Jesus, with the incidents which gave 
rise to them, the remarks of those who were present, and their results. 
Though containing information supplementary to that given by Mat- 
thew, his Gospel has not the character of a supplemental document: 
but is evidently an independent and original work. Generally, the 
parable and discourses of Luke's Gospel, are less full than those of 
Matthew. 

THE GOSPEL ACCORDING TO JOHN. 

141. John, the younger brother of James, who with him 
John's his- was ca ^ ec ^ ^° the apostleship, was the son of Zebe- 
tor y- dee and of Salome. His father was a fisherman, 

living at Bethsaida in Galilee, on the borders of the lake of 
Gennesareth. The family appear to have been in easy cir- 
cumstances ; at least we find that Zebedee employed hired 
servants, Mark i. 20 ; and that Salome was among the women 
who contributed to the maintenance of Jesus, Matt, xxvii. 56. 

Having been brought up in the knowledge and the love of 
the true God by a pious mother, he appears to have early 
become a disciple of our Lord's forerunner, and to have been 
directed to him by Jesus, whom he followed ; it being gene- 



THE GOSPEL BY JOHN. 



625 



rally considered that he was one of the two disciples mentioned 
in chap. i. 37—41. He was soon admittted, with his brother 
James, and Peter, fco particular intimacy with the Saviour, 
who selected them as witnesses of the most important and 
solemn events of his life, Mark v. 37 : Matt, xviii. 1 ; xxvi. 37. 

It appears that, of all the apostles, John was especially 
favored with our Lord's regard and confidence, so as to be 
called "the disciple whom Jesus loved." He was devotedly 
attached to his Master ; and though he fled, like the other 
apostles, when Jesus was apprehended, he recovered his firm- 
ness, was present during the trial and crucifixion of our 
Saviour; and was intrusted by Him with the care of his 
mother (xix. 26, 27). 

John is said to have remained at Jerusalem till the death 
of Mary, about the year A. D. 48. After Paul had left A^sia 
Minor, John went to labor there, residing chiefly at Ephesus, 
and founding several churches in that country. Shortly 
afterwards, during the persecution under Domitian (or accord- 
ing to others, towards the end of the reign of Nero), he was 
banished to Patmos, an island in the iEgean Sea ; where he 
received the visions of the Apocalypse. On the accession of 
Nerva he was liberated, and returned to Ephesus, where he 
continued to labor during the rest of his life. He died in the 
hundredth year of his age, about A. D. 100. 

According to the general testimony of antiquity, John wrote his 
Gospel at Ephesus, about the year 97, long after the de- 
struction of Jerusalem. He therefore makes no mention of 
our Lord's predictions of that event, and the dispersion of the Jews; 
those prophecies having at that time received their accomplishment. 

It is generally considered that John had the other three Gospels 
before him when he wrote ; inasmuch as he omits all that 
had been described in them with sufficient minuteness. He ties 011 *"" 
supposes the great events of our Saviour's life and his 
principal instructions, to be already known to his readers. If at any 
time he relates what had been mentioned by the other evangelists, it is 
generally with a view to introduce some important discourse of our 
53 



626 



CHRONOLOGY OF THE GOSPELS. 



Lord; or because it was particularly connected with the main object 
of his Gospel. 

The object which this evangelist had in view is very clearly stated 
^ in chaps, i. 1-18; xx. 31. His design appears to have been 

to convey to the world just and adequate notions of the 
real nature, office, and character of the Divine Redeemer. For this 
purpose are especially recorded those passages of our Saviour's life, 
which most clearly displayed his Divine power and authority ; and 
those of his discourses in which he spoke most plainly of his own 
nature, of the work given to hirn by the Father, and the efficacy of 
his death as an atonement for the sins of the world. And it is from 
this Gospel that the most numerous and decisive proofs of our Lord's 
deity are derived. Yet no evangelist has portrayed the softer linea- 
ments of our Lord's humanity with more delicacy and beauty, or 
disclosed more of the inmost affections and feelings of the Saviour's 
heart. The other evangelists give the history of our Lord in Galilee 
chiefly ; in John he is seen generally in Judaea. Here we find him 
attending three passovers at least, the others giving the history of but 
one. Two-thirds of this Gospel are new; the most important addi- 
tions being in chaps, xiii.-xvii., and in chap. xi. He records but six 
miracles, and omits most of the parables, and the sermon on the 
mount. 

This Gospel was probably the last written of all the books of the 
Bible ; and while proving the Divine nature of Christ, it corrected 
several of the heresies which sprang up in the first age of Christianity, 
and supplies an answer to some that prevail in our own. 

Sec. 4. The Chronology of the Gospels. 

142. The chronology of the Gospels is a subject of much 
interest and considerable difficulty. It will be sufficient to 
indicate the evidence and results which have been ascertained 
by recent and protracted inquiry. 

1. The present Christian era A. D. 1, is A. U. C. 754, and was fixed 
in the 6th century by Dionysius Exiguus. It came into use in the 8th 
pentury, and was adopted by Bede. Shorly afterwards we find it em- 
ployed in public transactions by Pepin and Charlemagne. Now Herod 
the Great died A. U. C. 750, just before the Passover (i. e. between the 
latter part of March, and the latter part of April): a statement made 
by Josephus, and confirmed by astronomy, which shows that an eclipse 
qf the moon, said to have taken place just before his death, did take 



CHRONOLOGY OF THE GOSPELS. 



627 



place in that year. Allowing, then, four or six months for the visit of 
the Magi, and the flight into Egypt, the birth of our Lord cannot be 
later than January, 750, or October, 749, see Matt. ii. 1-6 : Jos. Antiq. 
xvii., xviii. 1 ; xvii. 9, 3. The Christian era, therefore, is wrong by 
at least four years, and in this decision nearly all ohronologers agree. 

The conclusion to which the testimony of Josephus leads us, is con- 
firmed by other evidence. ... From Luke iii. 1, 2, 23, we learn that 
John entered upon his ministry in the 15th year of Tiberius, and that 
Christ was about thirty years of age at his baptism. Both probably 
entered upon their work when they were thirty (see Num. iv. 3, 35, 
39, 43, 47). Tiberius was associated with Augustus (and the original 
of Luke implies that he dates from that time), A. U. C. 764 ; so that 
the 15th year of Tiberius begins A. U. C. 779. Christ, therefore, was 
born in A. U. C. 750, or 749. . . . Again, from John ii. 20, we learn 
that then the temple had been forty-six years in building (Greek). 
Josephus states that Herod began this work in the 18th year of his 
reign (which is reckoned from the death of Antigonus, A. U. C. 714). 
Hence, when our Lord spoke (the time being the date of his first Pass- 
over, when he was probably thirty and a half years old), the 65th year 
from the commencement of Herod's reign was in progress, or A. U. C. 
7T9. On this reckoning, therefore, Christ must have been born A. U. 
C. 749. The Latin fathers, moreover, had a tradition, that Christ was 
put to death in the consulate of the Gemini, Rubellius and Fufius, i. e. % 
A. U. C. 782-3, and reckoning his ministry at three and a half years, 
we are again brought to A. U. C. 749, as the date of his birth. 

2. This view represents our Lord as entering upon his ministry when 
he was thirty. Usher overlooking part of the evidence, and misunder- 
standing Luke iii., supposes our Lord to have commenced his ministry 
in the 34th year, i. e., A. D. 30. The conclusion is now generally ad- 
mitted to be an error. 

3. On the duration of his ministry, there is also a difference of 
opinion. The first three evangelists seem to give events connected 
with only one Passover ; the last mentions three, and probably four 
(see next Sec.) Usher supposes that three only are mentioned, and 
hence he makes the duration of our Lord's ministry two and a half 
years. Greswell and Robinson suppose that four are mentioned, and 
make his ministry three, or three and a half years. 

4. The date of our Lord's death is of course known ; the day of his 
birth can be only conjectured. Lardner reckons that Christ was born 
between August and November, 748, or 749 ; and Greswell maintains 
that he was born April 5, 750. As early as the 3d and 4th centuries, 
the 6th of January and the 25th of December were celebrated as the 



628 



HARMONIES OF THE GOSPELS. 



festival of his birth and baptism, by the two chief sections of the 
church. 

Sec. 5. The Gospels Harmonized. 

143. While the Gospels as they lie before us are a precious 
importance recor( ^ °f our Saviour's life, it is highly interesting 
ticaivlew^f ^° com P are them, and to ascertain the chronological 
theGospeis, order of the events they describe. The evangelists 

and of a _ J o 

chronoiogi- ar e their own best interpreters. Each narrative is 

cal har- x 

mony. supplementary to the rest, in minute as well as in 
important particulars. The characteristic of their testimony 
is unity in diversity. And these advantages appear only on 
comparison of the narratives themselves. 

144. This process is easy. A precise chronological arrange- 
,. . ment of the events and discourses is more difficult, 

A synoptical ^ _ ' 

view easy : though also instructive. A synoptical view of the 

chronoiogi- ° J x 

ment'Sffi 6 " ^ 0S P e ^ s mav ^ e f rame d by a ^ I a chronological 
cult. harmony requires much learned research. The 

order adopted in the Harmony of the Religious Tract Society, 
which is founded on Dr. Robinson's, carefully compared with 
the Harmonies of Greswell and Wieseler, is perhaps the best. 

145 In fixing the order of the events of the Gospels, the first ques- 
First ques. tion to be decided is, the number of passovers that occurred 
ber of™?" during our l jOF ^' s ministry. One only is mentioned by the 
sovers. first three evangelists ; three at least by the last (John i i. 13; 
vi. 4; xiii. 1), and probably four (v. l). a Some, as Sir I. Newton and 
Dr. Macknight, have supposed even a fifth, but of this there is no satis- 
factory evidence. A few maintain but one; many, as Lardner, BengeT, 
Benson, three; but most, including Grotius, Lightfoot, Newcome, Heng- 
stenberg, four. 

146. An extreme view, in opposition to all attempts to frame a har- 
mony of the Gospels, was once common on the continent, and was 
maintained by Osiander (1537), and other Lutherans. In this view, 
each Gospel was held to preserve a strictly chronological order, and all 

» See on the grammar of this passage, if read without the article, 
Winer, \ xix. 4: Matt, xxvii. 15 : Mark xv. 16 : and on the whole ques- 
tion, The Harmony of the Gospels, Religious Tract Society. 



CHRONOLOGY OF THE GOSPELS. 



629 



events, however apparently identical, which occupied in any two Gos- 
pels different places, were deemed distinct. Elsewhere, and in later 
times, sounder views prevailed, especially through the expositions of 
Calvin and Bengel. It is now generally admitted that the evangelists 

do not profess to adhere to a chronological order, and that 

t. , j . , -i , i t Which Gos- 

no harmony can be made without some transposition. In pel is on the 

this principle all modern harmonists concur, and they differ most^hron- 
only in. the importance which each attaches to the order of ological. 
some one evangelist. In the chronological tables given by Dr. Rob- 
inson, the order of John is never altered, though between the events he 
records, large portions of the other evangelists are introduced. Mark's 
order is only twice inverted, Luke's not much oftener, Matthew's most 
of all ; though in no case are the alterations very serious. The first 
three Gospels are sometimes called synoptical, from the fact that their 
narratives are parallel to a much larger extent than those of John. 
147. Two things are very obvious on comparing the Gospels. They 

contain many verbal agreements so marked as not'to admit 

. . . Verbal 

the supposition that they are accidental ; a and they contain agreements 

some apparent discrepancies. The first fact has been vari- Qo^ef^ 1 .*' 16 
ously explained. A common opinion was, that the Gospel origin of 
first written was freely used by subsequent writers; and 
each of the first three Gospels has been regarded as the Gospel which 
was used in this way. Now, however, this theory has few advocates. 
The inspired writers themselves say nothing of such dependence as this 
practice would imply. The passages and expressions in common, more- 
over, are few, compared with those which are peculiar ; so that this 
theory creates more difficulties than it explains. A second opinion 
maintains that all the evangelists used some common Gospel now lost; 
but the absence of all traditional support for such a theory, and the 
difficulty of applying it so as to explain the admitted facts, have 
induced most critics to reject it. The latest suggestion is, that all the 
Gospels are founded on narratives already familiar, through frequent 
repetition, to the inspired writers. The chief facts of our Lord's life 
and teaching had certainly been promulgated for many years before 
the Gospels were written, and many expressions and descriptions must 
hare been, from this circumstance, familiar to the inspired writers. 
Olshausen combines the first and the last of- these views ; Matthew and 
Luke were written, as he thinks, independently, and Mark had the 

a The English version does not always give a full idea of the remark- 
able sameness of expression to be found in the different Gospels : see 
Dr. Stroud's Harmony of the Gospels, 

53* ^-V 



630 



CHRONOLOGY OF THE GOSPELS. 



Gospel of Matthew before him. These theories are important chiefly 
as they serve to remove objections founded on the marked verbal agree- 
ment of the inspired writers. This last theory, it will be noticed, ex- 
plains the facts without adding materially to the difficulties. 

148. The apparent discrepancies of the Gospels are not numerous, 
Apparent but they are obvious, and have created probably more diffi- 
cies- Tow cu lty than their marked agreement. Examples are the fol- 
reconciled. lowing. 

The genealogies, Matt. i. 1-17: Luke iii. 23-32. The solution of the 
difficulty is found in the fact that Matthew traces our Lord's descent 
through Joseph, and Luke through Mary. 

The call of Peter, Matt. iv. 18-22: Mark i. 16-20: Luke v. 1-11. 
Greswell supposes two transactions ; Eobinson but one, maintaining, 
with Spanheim, that one evangelist supplies what another omits, and 
that there is no discrepancy. 

The sermon on the mount, Matt. v. 1 : Luke vi. 20. Greswell thinks 
the sermon was delivered twice; Robinson but once, the narrative of 
Luke ending vi. 19. A third solution explains "in the plain" (tvt, vi. 
17) as meaning on a level spot upon the mountain, Matt. v. 1. 

The two demoniacs, Matt. viii. 28 : Luke viii. 26 : Mark v. 2. Mat- 
thew says there were two ; Mark and Luke mention but one. Le 
Clerc remarks that the fuller account includes the briefer, and the 
briefer does not contradict the fuller. Matthew reads Gergesenea, 
though there is a difference of reading. Gergesa, however, was com-, 
prehended in the district of Gadara. 

The centurion's servant, Matt. viii. 5-12: Luke vii. 1-10. Some sup- 
pose these to have been two transactions, but they occurred in the same 
city and about the same time. What Matthew says the centurion did, 
Luke says was done by the elders of the Jews and his friends ; not an 
uncommon mode of speech: compare Mark x. 35, and Matt. xx. 20. A 
third explanation supposes both the centurion and the elders to have 
gone to Christ; he later than they. 

The two blind men near Jericho, Matt. xx. 29-34: Mark x. 46-52: 
Lake xviii. 35-43. Here are several difficulties. Matthew spefiks of 
two, Mark and Luke of one. Matthew and Mark say the occurrence 
took place as Christ departed from Jericho ; Luke says it took place 
when he was come nigh. Greswell, after Lightfoot, regards these 
miracles as distinct; the one occurring as Christ entered Jericho, the 
other as he left it. The word used by Luke, however, may mean (hel- 
lenistically) to be'near, answering to our phrase "in the neighborhood," 
1 Kings xxi 2: Deut. xxi. 3: Ruth ii. 20: Phil. ii. 30. De Wette and 



CHRONOLOGY — LESSONS. 



631 



several others translate, when Christ was drawing near to Jerusalem, 
at Jericho, etc., see ver. 31 ; xix. 29, 41. 

These instances illustrate the difficulties of the narrative, and explain 
the various modes adopted in removing them. On any interpretation, 
the moral lessons of the narrative are unimpaired. 

149. The study of the Gospels synoptically, and in ^JJ^jJjJJ 6 
the order of time, will often suggest important les- * he Gospels 

DO r m this way; 

Sons. illustrated 

in events. 

Look, for example, at the record of Christ's early life. The first aot 
of worship was paid to him by Gentiles, whose gifts proved a provi- 
dential supply to his family when escaping from the jealous hatred of 
Herod. The history of the subsequent youth of our Lord, till he was 
twelve years old, is given in one sentence: " he grew, and waxed strong 
in spirit, filled with wisdom, and the grace of God was upon him." 

He was not in haste to enter upon the more public duties of his 
office. After his baptism even, there is an interval of several months 
before he reveals himself (at the Passover at Jerusalem) as a " Teacher 
sent from God." That interval he spent (in part) in the wilderness, 
conquering temptation, and enduring mysterious suffering. He thus 
learned, at the outset, to succor the tempted. These temptations pre- 
ceded his public ministry, and followed the public recognition of him 
by the Father, at his baptism. The same voice was again heard on the 
eve of the crucifixion. Tokens of peculiar favor often precede severe 
suffering, and both prepare for the discharge of onerous duties. 

The threefold recognition of sonship is instructive : first, at his birth, 
to indicate his Divine nature (Luke i. 35); the second, at his baptism, 
to indicate the divinity of his mission; the third, at his transfiguration, 
to indicate his regal dignity and authority, "Hear ye him." At his 
resurrection all were confirmed, and he "was declared to be the Son of 
God with power." 

The first announcement of Christ refers to his kingdom, Matt. hi. 2\ 
the second to his sacrifice, John i. 29. 

The first miracle of our Lord was performed in Galilee, and taught 
that, in his official character, no earthly relationship could be acknowl- 
edged (John ii. 4); that he came, not as John, austere and unsocial, but 
sympathizing with man in every condition of joy as well as of sorrow. 
It taught, also, that the water of purifying under the law was to give 
place to the wine of his kingdom • the richest revelation being reserved 
to the close. 



632 



CHRONOLOGY — LESSONS. 



The first yf his public acts (John ii. 15), and one of the last, was to 
purity the emple, showing that he was its Lord, and fulfilling a pro- 
phecy of JVlalachi (chap. iii. 1). He also intimated that thenceioith his 
own body (as afterwards his church) was to be the true tempie (John 
ii. 21), wherein God himself would dwell. 

His first recorded discourse was with Nicodemus, on regeneration, on 
salvation by faith, on God's love to the world in the gift of his Son. He 
announced at the same time that he was the Son of God and the Son 
of Man; that his kingdom was to be established in human hearts ; that 
he himself was to be lifted up, not on an earthly throne, but on the 
cross. The first scenes of his life, therefore, in Jerusalem, shadowed 
forth the truths which were embodied in terrible reality in I he last 
His second discourse was with the Samaritan woman, and ended in the 
conversion of many of the Samaritans. The earliest extensive success 
of our Lord's mission was witnessed in a district that was the most 
despised, and where he had wrought no miracles. He -was first rejected 
at Nazareth. 

How instructive to observe, that though " the whole multitude of 
the disciples" had rejoiced and praised God, on their way to Jerusalem, 
"for ali the mighty works which they had seen," within a week, one 
had denied our Lord, others had slept during his agony, and all had 
forsaken him. "He trod the wine-press alone," though, but a few 
days before, that prophecy did not seem likely to be lulfilled. 

The day after he delivered the parable of the wicked husbandmen, 
asserting his own dignity as "the Son," and foretelling his death. 

The contention among the disciples who should be greatest seems to 
have been settled by our Lord taking a towel, girding himself, and 
washing their feet; thus teaching them that the chief among them was 
to be as he that did serve. Compare Luke xxii. 24-30, and John xiii. 
1-20. 

Careful attention to the order of the narrative will show that, while 
Pilate declared that he found no fault in Him, and Herod acknow- 
ledged that there was no charge against him worthy of death, he was 
crucified on tl^e charge of blasphemy, making himself equal with God. 
That was his true character, or he was justly condemned. 

It will be se.en that it was after Judas Iscariot had left the company 
that our Lord gave his disciples the new commandment, instituted the 
last supper, and delivered the tender farewell discourse recorded in 
John xiv.-xvi. 

Nearly one-third of the Gospels is occupied with the events of the 
last seven days of our Saviour's life, including his crucifixion. The 



TOPICS IN BEADING- THE GOSPELS. 



633 



prominence given to these scenes he himself explains. " The hour is 
come when the Son of Man shall be glorified. Verily, verily, I say unto 
you, except a corn of wheat fall into the ground and die, it abideth 
alone ; but if it die, it bringeth forth much fruit." 



150. The connnection of miracles and parables is no less 
instructive. Tn parablea 

and mira- 
cles. 

For parables, see Part i. § 418. For miracles, we may 
take the 8th and 9th of Matthew. Christ first heals with a touch the 
man whom the law had pronounced unclean (viii. 2-4), and then pro- 
ceeds to assert practically his power over disease (14-17), over devils 
themselves (16), over physical nature (23-27), over even brute creatures 
(28-34). What can be more complete than this view of his reign? 
In chap, ix., we see him in his spiritual kingdom, forgiving sin (1-8), 
and answering prayer, direct (20-22), intercessory (23-26), united 
(27-31), unuttered (32, 33). Whether these are precisely the charac- 
teristic features of this group may admit of a question, but there are 
characteristic features, and our wisdom is to ascertain and examine 
them. 

So, again, of the cases in which Christ raised the dead. Three only 
are given, but each is characteristic. In the case of Jairus's daughter, 
the spirit had but just quitted the body ; the son of the widow of Nain 
was being carried to the grave; and the summons to Lazarus was 
addressed to one who had been dead " four days already." Christ 
therefore raised the dead from the couch, the bier, and the sepulchre ; 
an ascending series of difficulties, but all possible with him. Each 
miracle, moreover, had in other respects its appropriate lessons. 

Sec. 6. Topics to be Noticed in Reading the Gospels. 

151. In the study of the New Testament, and of the Gos- 
pels especially, we need to inquire and compare. The in- 
spired writings are infinitely rich in truth, and each verse is 
so connected with the rest that an intelligent inquirer may 
easily extend his investigations from one passage over the 
whole of Scripture. Without attempting to exhaust topics 
of inquiry, we mention the following. The letters may be 



634 



GOSPELS — METHOD OF STUDY. 



prefixed to each verse, or not, according to the taste of the 
reader. 



A. What analogies between sensible and 
spiritual things may be here traced ? 

a. What prophecy is here accomplished? 
where found? when written? what 
rule of interpretation is illustrated ? 

J5. What blessing is here sought or ac- 
knowledged, or promised, and why? 

C What custom is here referred to? 

C. What trait of character is here given? 

good or bad? belonging to our na- 
tural or our renewed state? what 
advantages are connected with it? 

D. What doctrine is here taught? how 

illustrated? what is practical in 
fiuence ? 

d What duty is here enforced, and how? 
from what motives? 

Z). What difficulty is here found in his- 
tory or in doctrine? how explained? 

E. What evangelical or other experience 

is here recorded? 
e- What example is here placed before 
us? of sin or of holiness? lessons? 

F. What facts are here related? what 

doctrine or duty do they illustrate? 
do you commend or blame them, 
and why? 

Q. What is the geographical position of 
this country, or place? and what 
its history? 

E. What facts of natural history or of 
general history are here referred to 
or illustrated? 

J. What institution or ordinance is here 
mentioned? on whom binding? 
what its design? what its connec- 
tion with other institutions? 
t. What instructions may be gathered 
from this fact, or parable, or 
miracle? 



K. What knowledge of human nature, or 
want of knowledge, is here dis- 
played? 

L. What lofty expressions of devotional 
fervor? 

I. What Levitical institute is here men- 
tioned? why appointed? 
M. WTiat miracle is here recorded? by 
whom wrought? in whose name? 
what were its results? what 
taught? 

N. What is worthy of notice in this 

name? 

P. What prohibition is here given? is it 
word, or thought, or deed, it con- 
demns? 

p. What is the meaning of the parable 
here given ? what truth as to God, 
Christ, man, "the kingdom" is 
taught? 

P. What promise is here given? to 

whom? 

R. What prophecy is here recorded t is 

it fulfilled? how? when? 

S. What sin is here exposed? 

s. What sect is here introduced? men- 
tion its tenets? 

T. What type is here traced? 

t What threeiteninq? when inflicted? 

U. What unjustifiable action of a good 
man? what unusual excellence in 
one not pious ? 

W. What woe is here denounced? what 
warning given ? against whom, and 
why? 

X. What" is here taught of the work; 
character, person of Christ? 

x. What sublimity of thought or of lan- 
guage is here? what inference 
follows? 



LESSONS TO BE GATHERED FROM A COMPARISON OF PASSAGES. 

152. Sometimes, instead of marking the lessons taught in 
single verses, it is useful to compare, in order to ascertain and 
contrast the duties or truths involved. The following (Taken 
from Nichols' Help) are specimens. Many more might be 
added. 

Give instances of our Lord's attendance on public worship, at the 
temple, and in the synagogue ; his submission to the rites and cere- 
monies of the Mosaic law (Luke iv. 16: John vii. 37); his retirement 
for private prayer, and under what circumstances (Matt. xiv. 23; 
xxvi. 36: Mark i. 35; Luke vi. 12); his prayers for others (Luke 
xxii. 32, for Peter: John xvii., for his church ; Luke xxiii. 34, for hia 
enemies) ; his prayer with others (Luke ix. 28). 



GOSPELS — METHOD OF STUDY. 



635 



Give instances of his submission to the will of his heavenly Father 
(John iv. 34; v. 30; xviii. 11); his zeal (John ii. 17 ; iv. 31-34: Lake 

ix. 51, etc.); his giving an improving turn to events and circumstances 
(Matt. ix. 27: Lukexii. 15: John iv. 32; vi. 27; vii. 37), his humility 
(John viii. 50; xiii. 1, etc.); and his self-denial. 

Give illustrations how our Lord acted as a son (Luke ii. 51 : John 
xix. 26); as a friend (John xi.) ; as a subject (Matt. xvii. 24); as a 
teacher (Matt. xi. 29). 

Give instances of his reproof, and show the grounds of it in the 
following cpses (his apostles, as Peter, Matt. xvi. 23: Luke xxii. 61: 
John xxi.; James and John, Luke ix. 55; Thomas, John xx. 27; 
Judas, John xii. 7, 8 ; other disciples, Luke xxiv. 25). What sins 
seemed to call forth his severest reproof (John viii. 44: Matt, xxiii.)? 

What does our Lord say of unbelief (Matt. xi. 21 : John iii. 36) ; of 
covetousness and other vices; and of particular virtues? 

Who were particularly the objects of our Lord's commendation, and 
for what (Matt. viii. 10; xv. 28; xxvi. 13 : Luke x. 42: xxi. 3)? 

When did our Lord give offence, and what occasioned it (Mark vi. 3 : 
John vi. 66; xix. 7)? 

What charges were brought against our Lord ? By what oppro- 
brious names was he called ? Collect the different reasons which were 
given by individuals for not following, or for rejecting him (Mark 
vi. 3; x. 22: John vii. 41). What reason does he give? 

Give instances of our Lord's command of temper under circumstances 
calculated greatly to irritate it (Matt, xxvii. 14: Luke xxii.: John xiii); 
and of his condescension to the infirmities of others (John xx. 27: 
Matt. xxvi. 41). 

Under what circumstances did our Lord turn away from those who 
applied to him, or refuse to comply with their request (Mark viii. 11, 12 ; 

x. 35, etc. : Luke xxiii. 8), or seem to check their coming (Matt. viii. 
19, 20 : Mark v. 19 : Luke xiv. 25, etc.) ? 

Isa. Iii. 13, speaks of his dealing prudently. Observe his prudence 
in declining all interference with civil affairs (Luke xii. 13 : John vi. 15); 
and in the use of means for the preservation of his life (Matt. iv. 12: 
Mark iii. 6, 7: John vii. 1-10; x. 39; xi. 53, 54); as also his wisdom 
in suiting his instructions to his hearers. 

What does our Lord say as to the great principle which influenced 
him in all he did (John iv. 34)? also as to his object in coming into 
the world (Matt. xx. 28: Luke xix. 10: John ix. 39; x. 10; xviii. 37)? 

How does odr Lord describe a future state of happiness and of 
misery? How does he describe his kingdom and his second coming? 



636 



THE GOSPEL AND THE GENTILES. 



CHAPTER VI. 

the book of acts. 
Sec. 1. The Gospel and the Gentiles. 

153. And now the Gospel is about to be diffused among the nations. 
The Book of Acts gives us the history of its progress in Judaea (i.-vii.), 
in Samaria (viii.), and then " to the uttermost parts of the earth" 
(x.-xxviii.) How far did the Gentiles need the Gospel? and what 
new truths did it reveal to them ? are therefore instructive questions. 

Some reply, by affirming, that to the Gentile world, the Gospel was 
welcomed chiefly as a code of perfect morality ; others 
Go?pel to affirm with Paley, that its chief excellence was its revela- 
che Gentiles. t ^ Q Q f e t e rnal life; and others still, that it is essentially a 
revelation of religion, the morality of the heathen being political or 
secular, not spiritual or religious. It tells nothing, they say, of man's 
relation to God, nor did it base moral sentiment on his character or 
will. This peculiarity, it is added, Josephus pointedly marks. Other 
nations, says he, have a morality without religion; among the Jews 
alone is religion made the basis of virtue. 

Unsatisfactory as these statements are, each of them contains a por- 
tion of the truth. The whole truth we reach only by combining them, 
and adding others which they do not include. It may indeed be sum- 
med up in one sentence — the Gospel is the revelation of Jesus Christ, 
and of God in him, — but this summary involves particulars, which 
must be stated in detail, before we can understand its significancy and 
beauty. 

154. (1.) Apart from the Gospel, men had a very imperfect know- 
ledge of their nature and guilt. The fact that they were 
Man igno- s - nners was obvious to all. But the extent of their sin, 
extent of needing as it did to be compared with a perfect law ■ the 
his guilt. a gg re g a te of it, springing from a depraved nature ; the guilt 
of that very depravity, itself the result, not of chance or of circum- 
stances, or of any corrupt tendency in the matter (i7a.»), of which man 
was formed, least of all of an act of God, but of man's own voluntary 
transgression, they did not know, or had forgotten. A law to test the 
measure of our guilt, a history to trace our ruin to ourselves, and 
evidence to prove that man's nature is not better than his practice, are 



STATE OF THE GENTILES. 



637 



therefore strictiy revelations ; and they seem as essential to our 
penitence as to our restoration. Once all men possessed the knowledge 
of these truths, but now it can be regained from the Bible alone. 

155. (2.) Of God himself, the heathen were no less lamentably igno- 
rant. Whether he were one or many, or as most held, both of God's 
many and one : whether, as the Stoics maintained, God was character, 
everything, and everything God, matter itself being but the remotest 
emanation of Deity ; or, as the Platonists limited the doctrine, God 
was all spirit, and all spirits were God, emanating from him, and ulti- 
mately absorbed into him; or, whether he were not a being who took 
no interest in earthly concerns, as Epicurus taught, none knew. All 
did know, however, that the objects of popular worship embodied the 
vices of their worshippers, and that easy indifference, virtuous con- 
tempt, or guilty fear, were the feelings with which they were regarded. 
A God of holiness, of providence, and of love, guided by integrity, 
was either altogether unknown, or, if made the theme of discussion, was 
regarded with dismay. "This," says Cicero, "is the common principle 
of all philosophies, that the Deity is never displeased, nor off. "'28 
does he inflict injury upon men," a principle involved no 

less in the moral character ascribed to the divinities, than in the apa- 
thetic indifference thought essential to their dignity. 

156. (3.) The influence of the evils already named on the moral sys- 
tems of the heathen, is obvious. The relations and truths ^ ^ ^ 
on which morality is based, were imperfectly perceived, and system r of Ct 
the obligations thence arising, still more imperfectly felt. rnoralit y- 
In Greece, religion was devotion to external nature, and at last to art: 
in Rome, devotion to country, and then to power : in each respectively, 
it was energy and taste. Political virtues both recognised ; and at first, 
Rome prized as the highest political virtue, domestic fidelity ; but in 
neither nation had religion any good moral tendency, and in both, re- 
ligion became the chief servant of licentiousness and vice. 

157. (4.) Nor was this tendencjr checked by any belief of a personal 

conscious immortality. A resurrection of the dead was uni- 

. Of iti© '-er- 

versally rejected as ridiculous. An immortality of the soul, tainty of a 

properly so-called, none admitted. That the souls of men future llfe - 
might survive, in some shadowy, semi-conscious state, or even enjoy 
for a time, the company of their deities, a few were disposed to main- 
tain ; but the evidence was so faint, and the difficulties were so serious, 
that even the greatest of heathen philosophers, Socrates, was con- 
strained to confess, that whether it were better to live or die was known 
only to the 
54 



638 



STATE OF THE GENTILES. 



158. (5.) It is not intended by these statements to deny that there 

may not be found in the writings of some ancient philoso- 

a system' phers, both classic and oriental, glimpses of diviner truth, 

that shall m0 ral and speculative. Such glimpses there are. Plato 
reconcile r r 

his hopes attempted, as the founder of Buddhism did, to bring back 
himself ' the faith of man from innumerable visible deities (6ssi yiwroi), 
and God. to the Great Invisible (wv) ; Socrates discourses eloquently 
on "the good," "'the beautiful." But, on the other hand, both Plato 
and Socrates, when speaking most justly, confess that they are but 
guessing at truth, and that whether their conclusions are sound, cannot 

be told till seme Divine teacher appear The real difficulty in all 

these inquiries remained, a difficulty which drew thousands to results 
which their better principles condemned. If man is thus guilty ; if 
this be virtue; if God is just: if another life be a reality: 
irian be just how is man to attain the purity and blessedness of which 
with God! 1 we £| lug (j ream ? in the absence of light, they denied the 
truths they dreaded; or in spite of light, followed the evil they loved, 
till they reaped the fruit of their practice, in diminished knowledge 
and grosser sin. 

159. (6.) The moral condition of the nations to whom the Gospel 

came, was just such as their ignorance and the corrupt ten- 
at condition. dencies i' n which that ignorance originated might lead us to 

expect. Paul has described it in the Epistle to the Romans; 
and Wetstein, Tholuck, and others, have shown from ancient authori- 
ties that the picture of the apostle has not one touch too many, or too 
dark. 

These were the evils with which the Gospel had to contend; and these 
evils' it subdued. To the wants which these evils indicated the Gospel 
was adapted. These wants it relieved, and these wants it will at length 
for ever remove. 

160. Such everywhere is nature without revelation, man without 

God. The evils thus traced in Greece, re-appear in India, 
unhr & ersal.' S anc * ^ n ^ e m ^ st °f our Western civilization. Man without 

the Bible, and man rejecting the Bible, tend (the latter most 
rapidly) to the same condition ; and it is that condition which the 
Gospel is intended to relieve. Its essence is the life and work of our 
' Lord. He was Man; sinless and holy, as man once was. 
moved by He obeyed the law which we had broken, and in obeying, 
the Gospel. eX p 0un( j s an( j enforces it. He died in our stead, showing 
what our sins deserved, and how they all may be cancelled In our 
nature, and as our representative, he conquered death and ascended to 



GOSPEL ADAPTED TO THE GENTILES. 



639 



God, a pledge and proof of our ascension. In heaven he forms the 
bond of union between God and man, blending with his Divine nature 
our own, and ready to employ the fruits of his ministry, both his 
power with God, and his fellow-feeling with our infirmities, for our 

profit He was God, the brightness of the Father's glory, the 

express image of his person, the Eternal God in human form, thus 
realizing the yearnings of many for some object of reverence and of 
love. In his acts he showed what God is, how tender, how holy; 
revealed those relations which we already know that he sustains to 
man, and disclosed others even more adapted to impress our hearts. 
That he was Creator and Preserver, men had gathered from his works; 
that he might become Judge they feared. But here he is seen as 
our Brother, our Kedeemer, our Friend. The Lawgiver becomes obe- 
dient to his own law, and bears its penalty ; his position assuring to 
us the sufficiency of his sacrifice. None knew so well man's guilt, and 
none knew so well the requirements of his own government: the first 
is cancelled; the second honored by his suffering. In effecting the great 
end of this mission, he has moreover performed a work that has in it 
the elements of all power; over man and with God. "Lifted up," he 
"draws all" unto him ; and ascending on high he receives gifts for men, 
repentance and remission of sins, holiness and eternal life. The Gospel 
is, in one word, a revelation of man, and of God ; of new relations, and 
of a perfect morality ; of eternal life, demonstrated not by argument, 
but by facts, and above all, of a system of reconciliation, which har- 
monizes, enforces, and explains all its other disclosures, and fits it to 
become "glad tidings of great joy unto all people." It is the utter- 
ance at once of infinite sufficiency, holiness and love. 

161. It may be convenient to mark here the distinction between the 
different books of the New Testament. In the Evangelists Re]ationof 
we have the Gospel incarnate : Christ came to be the Gospel, Gospels, 
and to do what should form the basis of his church. In the EpisV^^to 
Gospels, therefore, though much is revealed, much is wrapped one another, 
up in dark sayings. His death, his resurrection, the gift of his Spirit, 
the nature of his kingdom, the call of the Gentiles, his second coming, 
are all hinted at, or foretold, or done ; but in the Gospels we look rather 
for the facts which are to give significance to some future disclosures on 
these topics, than for explicit teaching. There is no spiritual truth 
which may not be found in the narrative, but for the full meaning of 

that narrative we need the later revelations of the Spirit In 

the book of Acts, we learn the meaning of much of our Saviour's teach- 
ing from the characters and lives of Christians, and the dealings cf the 



640 



THE BOOK OF ACTS. 



providence of God. In the Epistles, we see doctrine and duty in their 
connections and tendencies, the whole explained and enforced as com- 
pletely as the Spirit of God has deemed it necessary for our present 
state. In Revelation, we trace the history of these doctrines embodied 
in the church, till the end of time. The Epistles explain and apply 
what the Gospels describe; Revelation completes what the book of Acts 
begins ; and each part is the complement of the rest, the facts of the 
life of our Lord being the foundation of the whole. 

Sec. 2. — Introduction to the Book of Acts. 

162. This book continues the early history of the Christian church, 
in two principal sections: the first relating to the spread of Christianity 
in Palestine, chiefly by the instrumentality of Peter, chaps, i.-xii.; and 
the second, its diffusion through other countries, mostly by the labors 
of Paul (xiii.-xxviii.) While the book is thus divisible into two por- 
tions, it describes a threefold condition in the church. The first is 
described in chaps, i.-xi. 18, in which the church is entirely Jewish, 
though at Ctesarea a Roman convert had been baptized by Peter, A. D. 
30-41. The second period is found in chap. xi. 19, to chap. xv. The 
Jewish element still prevails, but Gentile converts are numerous, A. J_). 
42-50. The third is given in chaps, xvi.-xxviii., and here we find the 
position of the Gentiles defined, and many churches formed from among 
the heathen, A. D. 51-63. 

It is not, however, to be considered as a regular or complete history 
of the church. Many important transactions, referred to elsewhere, 
are omitted. It gives no account of the church at Jerusalem, after the 
imprisonment and deliverance of Peter, or of the introduction of the 
Gospel at Rome, or of many of Paul's voyages and shipwrecks men- 
tioned in 2 Cor. xi. 25 ; while, respecting the extensive labors of the 
other apostles, besides Peter and Paul, there is hardly any information. 

As the Gospels are far from being a full account of all that our blessed 
Lord said and did, but are rather histories describing his character, 
works, and the chief events of his life, and the first introduction of the 
Christian dispensation ; so the Acts are not a complete record of the 
labors of his apostles, but rather a narrative of facts, confirming the 
truth of the Christian religion, and illustrating its power and opera- 
tion ; and proving the claim of the Gentiles to admission into the 
church, objections to which were interposed by the Jewish converts. 

Some account of Luke, the author of this book, has been given in the 



ACTS — LESSONS. 



641 



preface to his Gospel, of which this hook is evidently a continuation, 
as both are inscribed to the same person, and the history is taken up 
at the very point to which it had been conducted in the Gospel. From 
his frequent use of the word we, it is clear that he was present at many 
of the transactions which he relates. He accompanied Paul from Troas 
to Philippi (xvi. 11); and probably remained there till the apostle's 
second visit, two years afterwards, when he left that city in his com- 
pany (xx. 6); and from that time to the close of the narrative he 
appears as the companion of the apostle. He went with him to Jeru- 
salem, and afterwards to Rome ; where he remained with him at least 
the first part of his confinement, as appears from two Epistles written 
by Paul from that city, Col. iv. 14: Philem. 24. As his name does 
not appear in the Epistle to the Philippians, written not very long 
afterwards, it has been supposed that he had then quitted Rome. 
But on Paul's second imprisonment at Rome, Luke is again by his side, 
2 Tim. iv. 11. 

Wliere, or at what time precisely, this book was written, is not cer- 
tainly known. As, however, the history is continued to the second 
year of Paul's first imprisonment at Rome, and there breaks off, without 
mentioning the issue of his trial, or his release, it may be supposed 
that it was written about A. D. 63 ; and the concluding words of the 
narrative would rather indicate that the writer was then at a distance 
from the apostle, and not i?. direct communication with him. Antioch 
has therefore been assigned as the place where it was written, and 
Theophilus has been supposed, with much reason, to be a resident in 
that place (see Birks' Horas Evan.) 

The narrative of this book is highly instructive. 

163. (1.) Mark how the Divine nature of our Lord is acknowledged. 
Prayer is offered to him by Stephen (vii. 59, 60), and such prayer is 
affirmed by Peter and Ananias, to be descriptive of a Christian (ii. 21; 
ix. 14; see 1 Cor. i. 2). Peter speaks of Christ as Lord of all (x. 36; 
so again, xiv: 23 ; xx. 35), and this title is applied indiscriminately 
throughout the book, to the Father, and to the Son (x. 36 ; ix. 34, 35, 
42; xi. 16, 20-23; xiii. 2, 7, 10-12,48). Such is the teaching of a 
system which denounces idolatry, and claims for Ood alone suprene 
regard. 

His office and work are no less clearly revealed. He formed the 
theme of apostolic teaching. Immediately after the ascension, Peter 
pointed to him as fulfilling the promise made to the fathers, as the seed 
id whom the nations were to be blessed (iii. 20-26). And this truth 
they proclaimed daily from house to house (v. 42). When Paul was 

54* 



642 



ACTS — LESSONS. 



converted "straightway he preached Christy Five-and- twenty yean 
later, the last record which the book contains is, that he taught " thos6 
things which concern the Lord Jesus" (ix. 20 ; xxviii. 31). See, also, 

ii. 22-40; x. 34-43; xiii. 16-41; xvii. 18, 22-31 Examining 

the inspired narrative on this topic more closely, we find that every- 
where, at Jerusalem to the Jews, in the desert to the Ethiopian, to the 
devout Cornelius at Csesarea, to the proud Greeks at Athens, there is 
but one message, and everywhere it is delivered fully, and without 
reserve (compare ii. ; viii. 35; x. 42, 43; xvii. 31), faith in it being 
essential to salvation (iv. 11, 12). Salvation involves the remission of 
sin, full justification before God, and holiness (ii. 38; xiii. 39; xxvi. 18), 
the whole purchased by the sufferings and death of Christ (xvii. 3; 
xx. 28), and given through the Spirit (v. 31 ; i. 4 ; ii. 33) ; and as Christ 

is their Saviour and Lord, so is he Judge (x. 42 ; xvii. 31) If 

these be called Pauline doctrines, and not Peter's or Christ's, we answer 
the misrepresentation by appealing to the facts recorded especially in 
this book (x. 43: John iii. 16, etc.) 

(2.) Nor less clearly is the nature and office of the Holy Spirit revealed. 
Peter calls him God (v. 3, 4), and regards the sin of Ananias as a denial 
of his omniscience. He who is called by Isaiah, Jehovah, is called by 
Paul the Holy Ghost (xxviii. 25 : Isa. vi. 8, 9), while his personality, 
(that is, his existence as an individual intelligent agent), is distinctly 
and repeatedly implied (viii. 29; x. 19; xiii. 2; xvi. 7; xx. 28). 

His office was either miraculous, communicating gifts of healing, of 
tongues, etc. (ii. 17: 1 Cor. xii. 10), or ordinary. On the apostles, his 
power was seen in opening their minds, removing their prejudices, em- 
boldening them for their work, and enabling them to confirm their 
testimony, with miracles such as none could question or explain (iii. 
1-11 ; iv. 31 ; v. 12-16). On the Jews who heard the Gospel, he dis- 
played his power, by convincing them of sin (ii. 36, 37 ; see John xvi. 8), 
and changing the very murderers of our Lord into patterns of excel- 
lence. To the same power we are taught to ascribe the union of the 
first Christians (iv. 31, 32); their consecration and liberality (ii. 45); 
their joy in the conversion of the Gentiles, though it seemed a myste- 
rious arrangement (xi. 23, 24); their steadfastness and faith. Stephen's 
wisdom and love, his zeal and peace, had the same origin; "he was 
full of the Holy Ghost" (vii. 55), and even whole churches shared the 
blessing (xiii. 52). How instructive and consolatory, that the dispen- 
sation of the Spirit should be introduced, not only with peculiar pro- 
mises (Luke xi. 13 : John xvi.), but with a history of rich manifestations 
of grace. If in the Gospels we see the work of our Lord, in the Acts 



THE EARLY CHURCH. 



643 



we see the work of that blessed Agent, to whom, so far as man is con- 
cerned, the first owes all its success. We need but more of His influ- 
ence to complete the triumphs which this history begins. 

(3.) As we have the characters of individual believers described in 
this book, so we gather from it the character and order of the first 
churches of Christ. As the apostles gained converts, they taught them 
to meet statedly in Christ's name, on the first day of the week, in- 
structed them in Christian ordinances, and appointed suitable ministers 
to feed and guard the flock, Acts ii. 42; vi. 1-6; xiv. 23: xx. 7. 18, 
28-32. Compare on the character of those who were to compose the 
churches, the descriptions given of them in each Epistle, and on the 
character of the officers, the pastoral Epistles to Timothy and Titus. 
The church, it must never be forgotten, is a Divine institution, and 
combines the advantages of every form of society into which men have 
been gathered. It is not a caste, for it despises none, and rejects none; 
yet like caste, it preserves amidst human change a sacred order ; all, 
kings and priests unto God. It is not a secret society, for it makes no 
reserve, and yet its members have a hidden life, and a joy with which 
the stranger intermeddleth not. It is not a nation, for it selects indi- 
viduals from among each of the nations, and will ultimately include 
all; yet is it as clearly defined, though more extensive. It is not a 
family, and yet its bonds are equally tender, only they are incompa- 
rably more expansive. One design of the Gospel was to reveal Christ; 
another design, no less marked, was to form a people for his praise. 
Both designs illustrate the wisdom and love of God. 

(4.) Mark, as the Gospel extends, the influences that oppose it, and 
the excuses framed to justify opposition. The Jews resisted it as "con- 
trary to their law." Among the Gentiles, as at Thessalonica, they 
affirmed it to be unfriendly to Caesar. Elsewhere they charged it with 
turning the world upside down. And though all of these charges were 
excuses only, they had in some measure the coloring of truth. The 
real reason of the opposition — of the Jew, was that the Gospel taught 
a righteousness, not of works, but of faith, Rom. x. 3 : 1 Cor. i. 21-25; 
— of the Greek, that it pronounced the folly of much, and the insuffi- 
ciency of all, his boasted wisdom ; — of the Roman, that it claimed ex- 
clusive homage, revealing not many gods, but one; and of all, that it 
required humility and holiness. 

These influences, alas, differ but in form from those with which the 
Gospel has still to contend. 

In the Epistles, as in our own day, we trace them at work, not 



644 



CHRONOLOGY OF THE ACTS. 



only in opposing the Gospel, but in corrupting and perverting it (Pt 
ii., chap, vii.) 

Sec. 3. — The Chronology of the Acts and Epistles. 

Arrangement of the Whole. 

164. The chronology of the Acts and Epistles is second in interest 
^ j only to that of the Gospels. The whole period included in 
of the Acuf the Acts is about thirty-three years ; a reckoning in which 
til? ptfiod Winer, 1)6 Wette, Eichhorn, Davidson and Birks concur, 
included in Usher and Michaelis make it thirty-two ; Greswell and 
Schott thirty-one; and a few, two, or even four, years less: 
The evidence, however, is strongly in favor of the highest number ; 
though, as the dates depend chiefly on facts of profane history and 
minute coincidences, to which different weight will be given by differ- 
ent inquirers, certainty can scarcely be attained. 

From Gal. i 18 ; ii. 1 : Acts ix. 26, we gather that there elapsed 
between Paul's conversion and his first visit to Jerusalem, a period of 
three full years (see Greek), and that in the fourteenth year (see Greek), 
after the same event probably, he visited it a third time (Acts xv. 2); 
a second visit being paid just before the death of Herod Agrippa (xi 
30 ; xii. 23). After the third visit, we read of other two visits (xviii. 
18, 22 ; xx. 6). In the interval, he had spent nearly three years in 
Ephesus (xx.'31), a year and a half at Corinth (xviii. 11), three months 
in Greece (xx. 3), and twice he had gone through a large part of Asia 
Minor, Macedonia, and Greece. After the fifth visit to Jerusalem, he 
was imprisoned two years. Felix was then recalled, and Paul was sent 
to Rome, where he lived and preached two whole years in his own 
hired house, "no man forbidding him" (xxviii. 30, 31). 

These facts, with others of a minute and apparently trivial kind, fix 
the dates of the whole narrative. Herod Agrippa died, aa 
howfixed Josephus states, A. D. 44. Felix lost his procuratorship, as 
may be gathered from the narrative of Josephus, in A. D. 
60. Paul, moreover, must have reached Rome about the year 61 ; for 
in A. D. 64 the persecution of the Christians, under Nero, began (Tac. 
An., xiv. 65); and after that time no such security as Luke speaks of 
could have been possible. 

^ ^ 165. Reckoning backward, therefore, from A. D. 61, we 

obtain the following rosults: 



CHRONOLOGY OF THE ACTS. 645 



Paul reaches Rome, leaving Syria in 

60. 

Paul visits Jerusalem, Acts xxiv. 27, 
being at Philippi at the Passover, 
xx. 6. 

Paul spends the close of the year in 

Greece, xx. 3, after leaving Ephe- 

sus, xx. 1. 
Paul spends nearly three years in 

Ephesus (two years, three months, 

or more), xix. 8, 10; xx. 31. 
Paul visits Jerusalem, xviii. 22. 
Paul spends a year and a half at 

Corinth, xviii. 11. 
Paul makes a second journey 

through Asia and Greece. 
Paul visits Jerusalem, xv. 2. 
Paul's first journey to the Gentiles, 

xiii. 14. 

Paul at Antioch and at Jerusalem, 

xi. 30; xii. 
Paul at Antioch a year, xi. 26. 
Paul at Tarsus. 

Paul visits Jerusalem for the first 

time, ix. 26: Gal.i. 18. 
Paul converted, Gal. ii. 1. See above^ 

A. D. 50. 
Death of Stephen. 
The Crucifixion. 



The last of these columns, which we deem on the whole the most 
satisfactory, is taken from the Hora3 Evangelicae, and does not materi- 
ally differ from Davidson and the author of the Literary History of 
the New Testament. The two principal dates, 44 A. D. and 61, are 
agreed in very generally; the other dates are dependent on the gover- 
norship of Aretas (ix. 24, 25), the presence of Gallio at Corinth (xviii. 
12), the decree of Claudius (xviii. 2), and other similar questions ; the 
whole too minute for specific inquiry in this place. The evidence may 
be seen briefly stated in Davidson's Introd., vol. ii. ; and more fully in 
the Literary History of the New Test., chap. vi. ; or in Birks's Horaa 
Evan., p. 146. The general results are given in the dates of the ap- 
pended tables. 

166. Chronology of the New Testament, from the crucifixion of our 
Lord (30 A. D.) to the close of the canon (97 A. D.), sixty-seven years. 



p 

A. D. 
63 

fin 
59 
56 
56 


A. D. 
61 

Oo 

57 


Lardner. 


Wieseler. 


Lit. Hist. 


Davidson. 


Birks. 


Time 

of 
Year. 


A. D. 
61 

58 
57 


A. D. 
61 

58 
57 


A. D. 
61 

58 
56 
54 
53 


A. D. 

61 
58 

57 

54 

53 
52 


A. I>. 

61 

58 

57 
55 

54 

52 

51 

50 
45 

44 

43 
41 
40 

37 

36 
30 


Spring. ... 




January... 


53 


53 


54 












50 

50 
45 

43 

42 
41 
40 

37 

37 
30 




52 


51 


50 


50 


51 


Summer.. 


A_A 


AA 
44 


44 


45 


44 


Passover.. 














38 
35 

33 

33 


37 
34 


39 
36 


43 

40 

39 
30 


41 
38 








33 






Passover.. 



646 CHRONOLOGY OF ACTS AND EPISTLES. 



Year of Rome, 
of Emperor, 
andA.D. 



30-35? 
35-40. 
40-43. 
43-46. 
46-54. 



55-60. 



61. 

Jerusalem, 
62, 
Rome. 



63, 
Rome 

63, 

Italy, while 
waiting for 
Timothy. 

63, 
Babylon. 
64. 



64, 
Syria. 
Rome. 



65, 



Rome. 



75? 
Syria. 

96, 
Patmos. 

97, 
Ephesus. 



Events. 



Introduction to the Acts, i. 1-14. 

Events, till the appointment of deacons, i. 15-vi. 6. 

Events till the conversion of Cornelius, vi.7-10. 

Events till the spread of the Gospel in Antioch, xi. 1-26. 

Events till the end of first missionary journey, xi. 27-xiv. 28 

Events till the end of second missionary journey, xv.l-xviii. 

22. 1 Thess. (A. D. 52), 2 Thess. (53), Gal. (53, so Tate, etc.), 

written during this iourney. 
Events till end of third missionary journey, and Paul's appeal 

to Caesar, xviii. 23-xxvi. 1 Cor. (57), 2 Cor., Gal. (57, so Hug, 

etc.), Rom. (58). written during this journey. 
Paul's voyage to Rome, and residence there, 27, 28. 
James writes to Jewish Christians generally, i.-v. 

Paul writes his Epistle to the Ephesians, i.-vi. Shortly after 
this Epistle was written, Timothy and Epaphroditus arrive 
at Rome; the latter bringing tidings from Colosse. See 
Col. i. 1-7. 

Paul writes to the Collossians, i.-iv. 

Paul writes to Philemon on behalf of Onesimus, who, fleeing 

from his master to Rome, had been converted, Philem. 
Paul writes to the Philippians, i.-iv. 

Paul writes his key to the Old Testament, the Epistle to the 
Hebrews, i.-xiii. Timothy liberated, Heb. xiii. Paul visits 
Crete, 63, and leaving Titus there, goes to Macedonia, 64. 

Peter writes his first Epistle to Jews and Gentiles, scattered, 

and persecuted, 1 Pet. i.-v. 
Paul writes to Timothy at Ephesus, 1 Tim. i.-vi. 
Paul* writes to Titus, l.-iii 

Paul winters at Nicopolis, in Dalmatia, and Troas. 
Jude writes his Epistle (see below). 

Peter, in expectation of martyrdom, writes to Jewish and 
Gentile converts scattered throughout Pontus, etc. Mar- 
tyrdom of Peter. 

Paul arrives at Rome a prisoner, and is brought before Nero, 
65. 

Paul writes second Epistle to Timothy, 2 Tim. i.-iii. Mar- 
tyred at Rome (Usher. 67). 
Destruction of Jerusalem (A. D. 70). 
John writes his first Epistle, i.-v. (or 68 A. D.) 
John writes his second Epistle (or 68 A. D.) 
John writes his third Epistle (or G8 A. D.) 
Jude writes his Epistle (see 61 A. D., and Introd. to Jude). 

John writes the Apocalypse to supply the place of a succes- 
sion of prophets, i.-22. 

John closes the canon by writing his Gospel (some think, be- 
fore his Epistles). 



a Those who question Paul's second imprisonment, and suppose him put to 
death in 64 A. D., place 1 Tim. after Acts xix. 41 or xx. 1, and Tit. after 2 Cor. See 
A. D. 57. 



STUDY OF THE EPISTLES. 



647 



CHAPTER VII. 
the epistles and the book of revelation. 
Sec. 1. On the Study of the Epistles. 

167. In the first fifteen chapters of Acts we have seen the Gospel 
extend throughout the known world. In five and twenty years after 
the death of our Lord, churches seem to have been formed in Asia and 
Palestine, in Babylon and Egypt, in Greece and Italy; "so mightily 
grew the word of God and prevailed." Wherever the truth had gone, 
it had found the same opposition, though under different 

forms, and had produced the same peaceful and sanctifying Epistte^^ 
results. A more permanent record of truth, however, than 
the "winged words" of speech could supply was wanting. The spirit 
which had hitherto opposed the Gospel had begun to pervert it ; and 
evil seducers have a strong tendency to wax worse and worse. To 
explain in writing, therefore, what had been in a great measure taught 
orally, to preserve these lessons in " everlasting remembrance," and to 
give such indirect corrections of incipient error as might, if prayerfully 
studied, keep the church from subsequent heresy, is the aim of the 
Jfyistles. 

To ascertain their meaning — 

168. (1.) Observe by whom, and for whom, they were written. This 

rule is not so essential in the case of history or epistles as By w ^ ora 

in the case of prophecv ; for the former are generally self- £ind f° r 

« . . , . & J whom, they 

interpretative ; but it is nevertheless important. were writ- * 

Of the one and twenty Epistles, thirteen at least were ten " 
written by Paul, and bear his name. As he was emphatically the 
apostle of the Gentiles, he treats largely of the mystery of their call to 
equal privileges with the believing Jews. He maintains their freedom 
from the Mosaic yoke, urges them to stand fast in it, and proves their 
subjection to the great law of faith and love. In defence of this 
doctrine, he resisted Peter to the face, endured the offence of the cross 
(Gal. v. 11), falling at last a martyr to his attachment to this and 
kindred truths (see Introd. to 2d Ep. to Tim.) His sentences are often 
long and intricate. His style is full of thought, prone to digression, 
but highly accurate, well guarded, and rich in allusion to the Old Testa- 
ment. Hia Epistles should be illustrated from each other and from his 



648 



STUDY OF THE EPISTLES. 



history. In the Hebrews, he has shown most impressively how of the 
law, as elsewhere of law, Christ is the completion and end. 

Peter, the author of two Epistles, writes chiefly as the apostle of 
the circumcision. His writings also should be read in connection with 
those parts of the Old Testament to which, in almost every sentence, 
he referred. James, pastor of the church at Jerusalem, wrote after the 
fervor of its first love had begun to subside. A cold negative faith 
seemed to threaten the destruction of all spiritual obedience. Hence 
the strain of his Epistle. Not dissimilar was the condition of the 
churches John addressed. His style is rich in aphorisms, and his 
strong affirmations need to be guarded by other parts either of his writ- 
ings or by Paul's. Jude wrote but one Epistle, and that resembles 
the second of Peter, by which it may be illustrated. The Revelation, 
again, speaks in language taken very largely from the Old Testament, 
and needs to be compared with Ezekiel, Daniel, and the discourses of 
our Lord. 

For whom was each book written ? is also an important question. 
The Gospels were intended for the instruction of all classes, and much 
of what they contain was addressed to all. The Epistles, it must be 
•noted, were addressed primarily to professing Christians exclusively, 
called out of the world and united in spiritual communion. Three are 
addressed to private disciples; three to evangelists; two, Hebrews and 
James, to Jewish converts exclusively; two more, 1st and 2d Peter, to 
Jewish converts chiefly ; two more, 1st John and Jude, to the disciples 
of Christ in general ; the last five being called catholic or general 
Epistles ; the remaining nine are addressed to various churches, con- 
sisting chiefly of converted Gentiles. In each case, the author and the 
occasion often explain or illustrate the statements of an Epistle; 
though, as we have but one Gospel for Jew and Gentile, the help thus 
afforded is in this respect less important than elsewhere. 

(2.) Mark the special design of each Epistle. 

It has pleased the Divine Spirit to instruct mankind not in formal 

treatises, but in letters written under his guidance, and so 
The design , , r . , . J? , 

of each as to meet peculiar emergencies; and to the emergency of 

Epistle. each case each Epistle is addressed. Ascertain, therefore, 
what the obvious design of each Epistle is — the obvious design, for it is 
an abuse of learning to seek for some hidden design, and then to inter- 
pret each part in subordination to it in violation of the natural mean- 
ing. For this purpose, the plan of Mr. Locke is deserving of all praise. 
Read through an Epistle at the sitting, and observe its drift and aim. 
*' If the first reading (says he) gave some light, the second gave me 
moie; and so I persisted on, reading constantly the whole Epistle over 



STUDY OF THE EPISTLES. 



649 



at once, till I came to have a good general view of the ' writer's pur- 
pose,' the chief branches of his discourse, the arguments he used, and 
the disposition of the whole. This, I confess, is not to he obtained by- 
one or two hasty readings ; it must be repeated again and again, with 
a close attention to the tenor of the discourse, and a perfect neglect of 
the divisions into chapters and verses. The safest way is to suppose 
in the Epistle but one business and one aim, until, by frequent peru- 
sal of it, you are forced to see in it distinct independent matters 
which will forwardly enough show themselves." Let this plan be 
adopted by any humble prayerful Christian, by one, that is, whose 
heart is on the whole in unison with the writer's, and the meaning of 
the whole will generally appear. In the meantime, and as a present 
blessing, he will feel and appreciate individual promises and truths to 
an extent unknown before. Scripture is in fact a tree of life; its 
matured fruits infinitely precious, and its very leaves for the healing 
of the nations 

To aid the readers in ascertaining the design of the Epistles, we have 
indicated the paragraphs and principal sections of each In paragraph 
Bibles, the reader * will find these sections indicated in the mode of 
printing. In the absence of such a help, an ordinary copy of the Bible 
may be marked, so as to indicate them with great advantage. 

(3.) Mark the prevailing errors against which the truths 

The errors 

of the Gospel are specially directed. against 

The first of these errors sprang out of the formalism and ai^'directed. 
superstitious notions of the Jews. They still clung to their 
ritual law, and concluded that, if Gentiles were to be admitted to 
equal privileges, it must be through circumcision. " Except ye be cir- 
cumised," was their statement, " ye cannot be saved," Acts xv. 1. Out 
of this question, a serious controversy arose at Antioch, and though it 
was decided, under the special direction of the Holy Ghost, in the 
negative, it sprang up again and again, impeded the progress of the 
Gospel, alienated and often divided the church. From the first, Paul 
took a bold, decisive stand. He maintained that, while a Jew might, 
and probably ought, to submit to that rite so long as the ancient law 
remained, for a Gentile to submit to it was to relinquish his liberty 
and deny both the universality of the Gospel and the sufficiency of the 
Cross. Throughout his preaching, and nearly all his Epistles, this 
view is maintained, Acts xv. 1-31 ; xxi. 17-25: 2 Cor. xi. 3 : Gal. ii. 4; 
iii.-v.; vi. 12: Col. ii. 4, 8, 16: Phil. iii. 2: Tit. i. 10-14, etc. 

While the Judaizing tendency of early believers did mischief in one 
direction, the spirit of unhallowed philosophy did mischief in another; 
proving more fatal to Christianity, as Burton has remarked, than per- 



650 



HERESIES OF THE EARLY CHURCH. 



secution itself. This spirit appeared under different forms, but the 
essence was for the most part a proud rationalism, that refused it re- 
ceive as true any doctrine which could not be made to agree with a 
previous system, or that moulded into its own system whatever to re- 
ceived. The Greeks sought after wisdom. This tendency showed 
itself early in the various Gnostic (yvZns, knowledge) sects which* 
sprang up in the church ; a name very loosely applied, and including 
the advocates of very different views. 

One sect included under this general name were called, also, Docetas, 
or the Seemers ; as they could not comprehend how a Divine person 
(which they maintained our Lord to be) could unite himself with that 
which was human. They contended that his body was an appearance 
only, and that he only seemed to live upon earth. This heresy denied 
both his brotherhood with our race and the reality of his atonement ; 
see 1 John, Introd., and iv. 23. 

Another sect, called (from Cerinthus, their founder) Cerinthians, 
drew from the same principle an opposite conclusion. They denied the 
Divinity of Jesus, and supposed that the Christ was an emanation of 
the Godhead, who descended on the man Jesus at his baptism, and so 
continued with him till his death, when the Christ left him *nd as- 
cended to heaven, 1 John ii. 22 ; iv. 15 ; Gospel of John. 

In later times, and after the canon of Scripture was closed, these 
tendencies took even a more decided form. The school of Alexandria, 
applying the doctrines of Plato to the Gospel, broached the crudest 
notions on the Divine nature, on Christ, and on man. Later still, the 
schoolmen applied to the teachings of Scripture the logic of Aristotle, 
and claimed for their deductions (see Pt. i. \ 463-5), the same authority 
as was claimed for the express statements of the Bible. All these 
attempts spring from the same principle — that our reason is the mea- 
sure of religious truth, and led to the same results, the corruption of 
truth and the division of the church. To us, they teach the wisdom 
of bringing up our faith to the level of God's revelation and the folly 
of bringing down his revelation to the level of our understanding. 
The world, by ivisdom, knows not God. 

The third error prevailed among all sects, Jewish and Gentile — the 
formalist and the philosophic. It assumed various phases, though 
representing but one principle. Ritualism without spirituality, know- 
ledge (gnosis) without practice, justification by faith without holiness. 
This was the creed which the apostles rebuke, and was received in 
their day with favor by the Jews. Many of the Gnostics held it, and 
in the persons of the Nicolaitanes it called forth the severe condemna- 
tion of the latest of the apostles. It is, in fact, the principle of licea- 



STUDY OF THE EPISTLES. 



651 



tious religionism in every age, and several portions of the L'pistles are 
directed against it. The followers of Balaam (equivalent to Nicolai- 
tanes), mentioned by Peter and Jude, were of the same class. 

The names of these sects (except the last) are not mentioned in Scrip- 
ture, but their principles are. And herein is a double advantage. We 
are taught not to restrict the teaching of inspired men to their own 
times, and we are supplied with letters in which not sects, but princi- 
ples — self-righteous formalism, rationalistic pride, and practical immo- 
rality—are forever condemned. A knowledge of these sects, however, 
illustrates human nature, proves our need of a revelation, and of hu- 
mility in studying it and gives clearness and force to the teaching of 
the Bible. 

What a proof of human depravity is the history of Divine truth in 
the world. God's first revelation ended in the wicked imaginations 
that preceded the deluge ; his second, in the idolatry of Israel and 
Judah, and again, in the formalism and overthrow of the nation; his 
- third met with the bitterest opposition at the outset, and ever since the 
world has sought, under various influences, to corrupt what it cannot 
otherwise subdue. 

4. The most important rule remains. Carefully compare the various 
parts of the New Testament, and especially the Epistles, and comparison 
gather from the whole a consistent and comprehensive view of New Tea- 
bo th of truth and duty. the greatest 

The necessity of such a comparison in the case of the New im P ortan ce. 
Testament will appear on comparing it as a composition with the law. 
The whole of the first dispensation was revealed through one person — 
Moses, and to one congregation assembled to receive it. The New Tes- 
tament was composed by eight different authors, and was addressed to 
many congregations and individuals scattered over the earth. The law 
was written in the plainest style, with systematic fullness, was adapted 
to the weakest capacity, and required submission only to such com- 
mands as were expressly enjoined. The New Testament, on the other 
hand, is composed of detached instructions, many of them given inci- 
dentally and indirectly, nearly all addressed to those who were already 
called out of the world, and had witnessed the ordinances or believed 
the truths they were directed to maintain Obedience, moreover, is 
required to whatever was taught by word and example, as well as by 
Epistles; 1 and the whole, though sufficiently plain that all may under- 
stand and be saved, is so rich and profound as to afford opportunity for 
the exercise of the holiest spiritual discernment. 



a 1 Cor. iv. 1G. 17; xi. 2: Gal. i. 6-9: Phil. iv. 9. 



65J 



TRUTHS DISCUSSED IN THE EPISTLES. 



We may conclude, therefore, that to make the New Testament ou? 
standard of faith and practice, it must be compared and studied with 
the utmost attention. The facts of our Lord's life, the practical influ- 
ence of them on the early church, and the inspired comments of apos- 
tles, must all be examined ; the principles and duties they involve, ex- 
plained ; and the whole cordially believed and practised, in preference 
to all the suggestions and inventions of man. 

169. The following are the most important of the truths discussed in 
the Epistles. The passages in which they are most fully discussed may 
be found at the close of the introductions to the Epistles named. These 
passages must be carefully compared, and particular phrases in them, 
with similar phrases elsewhere, such as may be found in any Bible with 
marginal references. 

Man's need of salvation, Rom. Justification by faith, Rom. 

The fruits of faith in Christian experience, Rom. 

The fruits of faith in Christian character, Heb. 

The fruits of faith through the Gospel, 1 Pet. 

The fruits of justification and its consequent blessings, Rom. 

Man's connection with Christ, and man's connection with Adam, Rom. 

The source of redemption, Rom.; and the peculiar grace bestowed therein on 

the Gentiles, Eph. 
The relation of the Gospel to the Jews, Rom. (see Heb.) 

Morality, its true nature and vast importance, Rom. 

Morality, evangelic motives to, Rom.; peculiar motives justly binding on tht> 
Jew, Heb.; and on heathen converts, Eph. 

Principal duties of Christians to God, Rom., Eph.; to themselves, Rom. ; to relae 
tives. Cor.; to fellow- men. Rom.; to civil government, Titus; and to fellow- 
believers, Cor. 

Holiness essential to true religion, 1 John. Eminent holiness its appropriate 
fruit and best security, 2 Pet. 

The spiritual warfare, Eph. 

Persecution, its comforts and lessons, Phil. Apostasy, its danger and signs, 
Heb., 2 Pet. 

Apostolic character and authority, Cor. False teachers, their character ana 
end, Cor. 

Christian ministers, their character, qualifications, and duties, Tim. 
Christian ministers, duties of the church to them, Tim. 
Deacons, etc., their character and duties, Tim. 

The church, its members, discipline, divisions, ordinances, Cor. 

The church, its members, their duties, their gifts, the excellence of love, Cor. 

Christ's dignity, essential and mediatorial, Heb. Christ's incarnation and its 
end, Heb. 

The superiority of his office, as prophet, leader, and priest, Heb. 
The superiority of his sacrifice, Heb. 



GENUINENESS OF THE EPISTLES. 



653 



The significancy and inferiority of the ancient economy, Eeb. 
Our spiritual liberty in relation to it, Heb. 

The corruption of Christianity and prevalence of infidelity in "the last time," 
Tim. How met, Tim. 

The resurrection of the body, Cor. The second coming of the Lord, 2 Thess. 
The judgment and its issues — eternal life, eternal death, 2 Pet. 

Sec. 2. — The Genuineness of the Epistles. 

170. The general evidence of the genuineness of the Epistles has 
been already given. So far as particular Epistles are concerned, the 
evidence may be given in a brief tabular form. For an explanation, 
see chap, v., \ 137. 



Epistles. 

■ 


| Clement of R. 


j Ignatius. 


| Polycarp. 


X 

C3 
'5, 
eg 


[ Justin Martyr. 


j Tatian. 


m 

8 
ft 
a> 

Sh 


Church of Lyons. 


Canon of Muratori. 


| Athenagoraa. 


| Theophilus. 


| Cyprian. | 


| Clement Alex. 


j Tertullian. j 


| Caius. 


a 

<3> 

'r- 

o 


Writers examined 
by Eusebma. 


Romans 


t X 


! 










1 


i 






1 




1 


1 


1 




AIL 


1st Corinthians 
2d Corinthians 


1 


1 




i t 


1 


1 
1 






*t 




T 
it 


1 


1 
1 


1 

1 




« 
















1 










1 




1 




a 


Ephesians 

Pnilippians 




l 


1 




















1" 


1 


1 




it 




l 


1 








1 1 

1 


t 










1 


1 


1 




u 




















it 




1 


1 


1 




« 
















1 










1 


1 


1 




K 


2d Thess 




% t 


i 




it 




1 












1 


1 


1 




a 






% 






1 








i 




1 


1 


1 




M 
















1 




II 








1 


1 


1 



















It 


1 










1 


1 


1 




U 


Philemon 


























1 




a 












T 
















1 


1 






u 




%\ 
















1 t 














ft 


Most 










1 






1 






i... 


1 


1 




All. 


2d Peter 


it 




















... i 










Most 








it 


1 






1 




It 






l 


1 








All. 
Most 


2d and 3d John 























it 
i 






























i 


T 
















1 1 


i 




1 




it 




i 




i 


l 






K 




































Sec. 3, — Helps to 1st Thessalonians, etc., to Jude. 

the first epistle of paul the apostle to the thessa- 
lonians, corinth, a. d. 52. 

171. Thessalonica was the capital of one of the four districts of Mace- 
donia, and the seat of a Roman governor. Its position on the great 
55* 



654 



FIRST EPISTLE TO THESSALONIANS. 



Egnatian road, and at the head of an excellent harbor, augmented ita 
trade and wealth, and brought to it a mixed population of Greeks, Ro- 
mans, and Jews. It is still, as it has ever been, a flourishing commer- 
cial town, bearing the slightly varied name of Salonilci. Its geogra- 
phical position and maritime importance fitted it to become one of the 
starting points of the Gospel in Europe, and explain the fact that 
from this city the word of the Lord had sounded forth "in every place" 
(i. 8). 

The Gospel was first preached here by Paul and Silas, shortly afte 1 
their release from imprisonment at Philippi, Acts xvii. 1-10. Paul ad 
dressed himself first, agreeably to his constant practice, to the Jews,, 
and afterwards, with still more success, to the Gentiles. What time he 
spent here does not distinctly appear; but it was evidently more than 
the three weeks during which he reasoned with the Jews in the syna- 
gogue on the Sabbaths. Compare Acts xvii. 4, 5: 1 Thes. ii. 9: 2Thes. 
iii. 8: and Phil. iv. 16. 

The church which he formed during this period was composed 
partly of Jews and Jewish proselytes, many of whom were women 
of rank and influence (Acts xvii. 4), but chiefly of converts from idol- 
atry (i. 9). 

Being driven away by the violence of the Jews, Paul left the newly 
planted church in such difficulties as excited his anxiety respecting 
them, and led him to send Timothy from Athens to encourage and com- 
fort them under the persecutions to which they were exposed (iii. 1, 2). 
Timothy returned to Paul at Corinth (whither the latter had gone in 
the mean time), and brought him so good an account of the steadfast- 
ness of the The6salonian Christians as filled him with joy and grati- 
tude (iii. 6-9), and reawakened his desire to visit them. But, having 
been repeatedly disappointed in his plans for that purpose (ii. 17, 18), 
ne wrote this letter from Corinth, A. D. 52. 

This being the earliest of Paul's Epistles, was accompanied by a 
solemn charge that it should be read publicly in the church (v. 27). 

i. In the first portion of this Epistle (i.-iii .), the apostle expresses his 
gratitude and joy on account of the manner in which the Thessalonians 
bad received the Gospel, and for their fidelity and constancy in the 
midst of persecutions and afflictions; vindicates the conduct of himself 
and his fellow-laborers in preaching the Gospel ; and declares his affec- 
tionate concern for their welfare. 

ii. The remainder of the Epistle is taken up with practical admoni- 
tion? ; warning them against the sin for which their city was notorious; 
and exhorting them to the cultivation of all Christian virtues, and par- 
ticularly to a watchful, sober, and holy life, becoming their happy 



SECOND EPISTLE TO THE THESSALONIANS. 655 



condition and exalted hopes (iv. 1-12 ; v.) Special words of consola- 
tion are addressed to those who had been bereaved, who seem to have 
imagined that their departed friends would lose some important advan- 
tages, which those would enjoy who should survive to the Lord's com- 
ing (which they expected speedily), and who had therefore indulged in 
excessive grief on their account. Speaking by express Divine authority, 
he assures them of the resurrection of the pious dead on Christ's com- 
ing, to be followed by a glorious transformation of the living ; and 
exhorts them to take the comfort of this glorious hope, iv. 13-18. 

Connect and read i. 1, 2; ii. 1, 13, 17; iii. 1, 6, 11 ; iv. 1, 9, 13; v. 
1, 4, 12, 14, 15, 16, 19, 23, 25, 27, 28. 

Note. — The bold type used here and subsequently indicate principal 
divisions ; the others, smaller ones. The former may be regarded as 
marking the beginning of new subjects. 

THE SECOND EPISTLE OF PAUL TO THE THESSALONIANS, 
CORINTH, A. D. 53. 

172. This Epistle was probably written, like the former, from Corinth, 
and not long afterwards (early in A. D. 53); Silas and Timothy being 
still in Paul's company (i. 1). Its chief object appears to have been 
to correct an erroneous notion which had begun to prevail among the 
Christians at Thessalonica, that the appearance of the Saviour and the 
end of the world were at hand. This had been grounded in part upon 
a misconstruction of expressions in the former Epistle, and appears to 
have been supported by some who laid claim to inspiration. There 
were also persons who, on religious pretences, neglected their secular 
employments, and were guilty of disorderly conduct. 

The commencement and conclusion of the Epistle are occupied witA 
affectionate commendations, mingled with encouragements to perseve- 
rance, exhortations to holiness, and directions for the maintenance of 
discipline with regard to idle and disorderly members, i.; ii. 13-17; iii. 
In chap. ii. 1-12, Paul exposes the error of anticipating the near ap- 
proach of the day of the Lord. Reminding the Thessalonian Christians 
of what he had said when he was with them, he tells them that he had 
spoken rather of the unexpectedness of the event than of its nearness, 
and that it must be preceded by a great apostasy, and by the temporary 
ascendency of the " man of sin," the spiritual usurper (which, however, 
could not take place until certain obstacles were removed) establishing 
a system of error and delusion by which many would be carried away. 

The agreement between the little horn of Dan-'el's prophecy and the 



656 



MAN OF SIN — EPISTLE TO GALATIANS. 



man of sin in this Epistle is very striking. In Daniel, he does not rise 
till the Roman empire is broken ; in Paul, he is not revealed till that 
empire — that which hindereth (ii. 7) — is taken out of the way. In 
Daniel, he weareth out the saints ; in Paul, he opposeth, or persecuteth. 
In Daniel, he magnifieth himself above every god; in Paul, he exalteth 
himself above all that is called God. In Daniel, he changes times and 
laws ; in Paul, he is the lawless (ver. 8, Greek) one. In Daniel, hecauseth 
craft, through his policy, to prosper ; and in Paul, he comes with lying won- 
ders and all deceivableness, which many will believe, Dan. viii. 25 ; 
xi. 36. How remarkable the connection of prophecy! six hundred 
years before, Daniel foretold the rise of this power ; Paul adds a few 
touches; and by John its history is to be more fully revealed. 

This prediction deserves grateful attention on another ground. It 
tells us that, while the coming of our Lord was then near, it was also 
remote: many events were to intervene; and with all the light of pro- 
phecy it must ever be, as to the precise time, unknown. Comparing 
this passage with others, the servants of Christ are taught to contem- 
plate the revolution of many succeeding centuries, without being stum- 
bled by the delay of his appearance or discouraged by the prevalence 
of wickedness and delusion under the profession of his name. 1 Tim. 
iv. 1-3: 2 Tim. iii. 1-8: 2 Pet. ii. ; Rev. xi.-xiii.; xvii. ; xxii. 

Connect and read as follows: i. 1, 3, 11; ii. 1, 5, 13, 15, 16; iii. 1, 
6, 16, 17, 18. 

THE EPISTLE OF PAUL THE APOSTLE TO THE GALATIANS, 
EPHESUS OR CORINTH, A. D. 53 OB, 57. 

173. Galatia was a large province in the centre of Asia Minor. It 
derived its name from the Gauls, who conquered the country and set- 
tled in it, about 280 B. C. : it was also called Gallo-Graecia, on account 
of the Greek colonists who afterwards became intermingled with them.' 
About 189 B. C. it fell under the power of Rome: and became a Roman 
province, 26 B. C. The inhabitants were but partially civilized, and 
their system of idolatry was extremely gross and debasing. 

Paul and Silas travelled through this region about A. D. 51, and 
formed churches in it, which Paul visited again in his second journey, 
three years afterwards. This Epistle was probably written soon after 
his first visit: see Acts xvi. 6; xviii. 23: Gal. i. 6, 8; iv. 13, 19. 

It appears that, after having received the Gospel with great joy and 
readiness from the apostle's lips, many of these converts, amongst 
whom were not a few Jews and proselytes, had been perverted by some 
Judaizing teachers, who had taught them that the observance of the 



EPISTLE TO GALATIANS. 657 

ceremonial requirements of the law of Moses was essential to salvation. 
This party seems, also, to have questioned Paul's authority; insinua- 
ting that he was inferior to Peter and the other apostles at Jerusalem, 
from whom they professed to have derived their views and authority. 
To settle these important matters, in which the apostle evidently con- 
sidered that the very life and soul of Christianity were at stake, he 
wrote this Epistle with his own hand (vi. 11), contrary to his usual 
practice of dictating his letters. It may be divided into three parts. 

i. After his usual salutation, Paul asserts his full and independent 
authority as an apostle of Christ: he relates the history of his conversion 
and introduction into the ministry ; showing that he had received his 
knowledge of Christian truth, not by any human teaching, but by 
immediate revelation ; and that the other apostles had recognised his 
Divine commission, and treated him as their equal (i., ii.) 

ii. In support of his doctrine, that men are accepted of God by faith 
alone, and not by the rites and ceremonies of the law, he appeals to 
the experience of the Galatians since their conversion to Christianity, 
and to the case of Abraham, who had been justified and saved by faith, 
and shows that the design of the law was not to supersede the Divine 
covenant of promise previously made with Abraham, but to prepare 
the way, and to exhibit the necessity for the Gospel (iii.) He draws 
a contrast between the state of pupilage and the subjection of the 
people of God under the law, and their happier condition under the 
Gospel, when, by the redemption of the Son of God, they were put 
into possession of the privileges and blessings of sonship : and address- 
ing that portion of the Galatians who had been heathen, he reminds 
them that, having been rescued from the far more degrading bondage 
of idolatry, it was especially deplorable that they should fall back into 
the slavery of superstition (iv. 1-11). He tenderly appeals to them as 
his spiritual children, reminding them of their former attachment to 
him : and then, addressing those who relied upon the law and the letter 
of the Old Testament, shows them that the history of Abraham's two 
sons afforded an emphatic illustration of the relative position and spirit 
of the two contending parties ; and of the rejection of the one, and the 
blessedness of the other (iv. 11-31). 

iii. He exhorts the believers to stand firm in their Christian liberty, 
but not to abuse it; shows them that holiness of heart and life is 
secured under the Gospel by the authority of Christ and the grace of 
the Holy Spirit (v.); and enjoins upon them mutual forbearance, ten- 
derness, love, and liberality; and, after again condemning the doctrine 
of the false teachers, closes his Epistle with a declaration which may 
be regarded as the sum of the whole (vi.) 



658 



FIRST EPISTLE TO CORINTHIANS. 



This Epistle resembles both the Epistles to the Corinthians and tha«r 
addressed to the Romans. Like thefirst.it defends Paul's apostolic 
authority, and shows that he was taught immediately by Christ. Like 
the last, it treats of justification by faith alone, from which the Gala- 
tians, very soon after Paul left them, and greatly to his surprise, had 
been seduced by false teachers, who insisted on submission to the Mosaic 
law as essential to salvation, and probably insinuated that elsewhere 
Paul himself had urged the same doctrine. Mark the sharpness and 
tenderness of his rebuke (iii. 1 ; iv. 19); the place assigned to holiness, 
not as the ground, but as the fruit of salvation, and inseparable from 
it (v. 6, 22). Mark also how little we can depend on ardor of religious 
feeling as proof of the strength of religious principle (iv. 15, 20). 

It is interesting to remark that the persons to whom this Epistle was 
addressed were Gauls (whose name in Greek is Galatians), both in name 
and character. 1 They manifest all the susceptibility of impression and 
fondness for change which authors from Csesar to Thierry have ascribed 
to that race. They received the apostle as an angel, and would have 
plucked out their eyes and given them to him, but were " soon removed" 
by false teachers "to another Gospel," and then, under the influence of 
the same ardor, began to "bite and devour one another" (iv. 14, 15; 
V. 15). 

Connect and read as follows, i. 1, 6, 11 ; ii. 15 ; iii. 1, 6, 10, 15, 19, 
24; iv. 1, 8, 12, 17, 21; v.*> 1, 7, 13, 16, 19, 22; vi. 1, 2, 6, 11, 17, 18. 

THE FIRST EPISTLE OF PAUL THE APOSTLE TO THE CORIN- 
THIANS, EPHESUS, A. D. 57. 

174. Corinth was a large city, the capital of the Roman province of 
Achaia, in the southern part of Greece. Its situation on the narrow 
isthmus between Peloponnesus (now called the Morea) and northern 
Greece, gave it the command of the land traffic from north to south ; 
whilst, by its two ports on the Ionian and iEgean Seas, it received, on 
fche one hand, the rich merchandise of Asia, and, on the other, that of 
Italy and the West. Possessing these advantages, Corinth became a 
place of very extensive commerce. It was also 'distinguished for its 
sumptuous public edifices, and for the cultivation of the elegant arts, 

a See Conybeare and Howson's Life and Epistles of Paul, i. 261. 

b On the maintenance of spiritual liberty, against those who taught 
that ritual observance was essential to salvation, and those who taught 
that "will worship" was acceptable obedience, see iii. 5, 6: Rom. vii. 
1-6 : Col. ii. 16-23. 



FIRST EPISTLE TO CORTNTHIANS. 



659 



and of polite learning. The Isthmian games, also (prohably alluded 
to in chap. ix. 24-27), which were held near the city, had attained great 
celebrity, and attracted a vast concourse of strangers from all parts. 
From these causes, Corinth became remarkable for wealth and luxury ; 
and equally so for profligacy and licentiousness, which were greatly 
fostered by the worship of Venus established there ; so that it became 
ultimately the most corrupt and effeminate city in Greece. 

The first entrance of the Christian religion into this stronghold of 
vice is related in Acts, chap, xviii. Paul was then on his way from 
Macedonia to Jerusalem. After passing some time at Athens, he came 
to Corinth ; and was there joined by Silas and Timothy. He preached 
the Gospel in that city, first to the Jews ; but, when they " opposed 
themselves and blasphemed," he renounced all fellowship with them, 
and turned to the Greeks. Some, however, of the principal J ews be- 
lieved. r His fears and discouragements, while engaged in this work 
(see. chap. ii. 3 : Acts xviii. 9, 10), were met by a special revelation, 
assuring him of the Lord's presence with him, and of his purpose to 
collect a church there. Paul continued his labors at Corinth more than 
a year and a half; and they were afterwards followed up by the teach- 
ing of Apollos, Acts xviii. 27, 28. Thus a numerous and flourishing 
church was formed ; teachers were set over them ; and the ordinances 
of Christ were regularly observed. 

It appears, however, that, ere long, their peace was disturbed by cer- 
tain individauls, who sought to ingraft on the doctrines of Christ the 
refinements of human philosophy. The factious teachers attempted to 
depreciate the apostle, representing him as deficient in the graces of 
style and the arts of oratory, and even calling in question his apostolic 
authority : they also pleaded for a licentious manner of life, under 
pretence of Christian liberty. Hence arose divisions and irregularities ; 
and the church was fast declining from its original faith, purity, and 
love. 

This Epistle seems to have been written from Ephesus, after Paul 
had made one visit to Corinth, and when he was about to make another : 
see* chaps, ii. 1; iv. 19; xvi. 5. We learn from Acts xviii. 1, and 
xx. 1-3, that Paul visited Achaia, and doubtless Corinth, twice ; and 
that, on the second occasion, he went thither from Ephesus, after 
having spent two years in that city. That this Epistle was written 
during that period is further confirmed by various incidental refer- 
ences. See chaps, xv. 32 : xvi. 8 ; and chap. xvi. 9, compared with 
Acts xix. 20-41 : also the salutation from the churches of Asia in 
chap, xvi 19 (see Part i. sec. 398); and, further, the salutation from 
Priscilla and Aquila, who were at Ephesus at the time, Acts xviii. 26. 



600 



FIRST EPISTLE TO CORINTHIANS. 



The object of this Epistle seems to have been, partly, to reply to 
one which Paul had received from the church, requesting his advice 
and instruction on some points (see chap. vii. 1) ; and, partly, to cor- 
rect some disorders prevailing among them, of which he had heard 
from some of their members (i. 11 ; v. 1 ; xi. 18), which had occasioned 
him deep concern, and led him to send Timothy to Corinth (iv. 17). 

The evils which Paul sought to correct among the Corinthians 
related to the following subjects: — 

Party -divisions (i. 10-16 ; iii. 4-6). A fondness for philosophy and 
eloquence (i. 17, etc.) Notorious immorality was tolerated amongst 
them (5). Law- suits were carried on by one against another before 
heathen judges, contrary to the rules of Christian wisdom and love, 
and sometimes even to the principles of justice (vi. 1-8). Licentious 
indulgence (vi. 9-20). In their religious assemblies, the female mem- 
bers of the church, in the exercise of their spiritual gifts, had mani- 
fested an unfeminine deportment, laying aside the veil, the distinguish- 
ing mark of their sex (xi. 3-10). The Lord's Supper had been per- 
verted by the manner in which it was celebrated (xi. 20-34) : some 
having made it an occasion of jovialty, and a source of humiliation to 
their poorer brethren, ver. 20, 21. Miraculous gifts, especially the 
gift of tongues, had been misused (14). And the momentous doctrine 
of the resurrection had been denied or questioned (xv. 12). 

The matters upon which the Corinthians had requested Paul's in- 
structions are, 1. Marriage, and the duties in regard to it in their 
circumstances (vii.) ; 2. the effect which their conversion to Christianity 
produced upon a prior state of circumcision or of slavery (vii. 17-24) ; 
and 3. their duty with reference to eating things offered in sacrifice to 
idols (viii.) They had, probably, also addressed some questions to 
him respecting the employment of spiritual gifts, and the order to be 
observed in their religious assemblies. 

In no Epistle does Paul's own character appear more illustrious than 
in this. The assertion of his apostolic authority is beautifully blended 
with humility and godly jealousy of himself (ii. 3 ; ix. ; xvi. 27). Means 
he diligently employs, yet is profoundly dependent (iii. 6, 9; xv. 10). 
Fidelity he combines with the utmost tenderness (iii. 2; vi. 12 ; iv. 14) ; 
and with the noblest gifts, he prefers love to them all (xiii. 1). Herein 
he is a pattern not only to ministers, but to private Christians of every 
age. 

For those who profess to have no sympathy with superstition, and 
little respect for authority, these Epistles are peculiarly instructive. 
They combine, in the most striking way, the utterances of a liberal. 



SECOND EPISTLE TO CORINTHIANS. 



661 



manly spirit with doctrines the most humbling. 'They cherish the 
loitiest hopes for man, and for truth, and they tell us how alone these 
hopes may be fulfilled. 

In other respects, moreover, these Epistles are of great interest. In 
their contents they are the most diversified of all the apostle's writings ; 
and more than any other they throw light on the state of the early 
church, and on the evil tendencies with which the Gospel had to strug- 
gle, even among good men. 

Connect and read as follows, i. 1, 4, 1G, 13, 17, 26 ; ii. 1 ; iii. 1, 10, 
16, 18; iv. 1, 6, 8, 14; v. 1, 9; vi. 1, 9, 12 ; -vii. 1, 17, 25, 29; viii. 
1; is. 1, 24; si. 14, 23 ;-xi. 2, 17, 23, 27; sii. 1, 31; xiii. 1, 13; 
siv. 1, 34, 36 ;-xv. 1, 12-20, 35, 51 ;-xvi. 1, 5, 10, 12, 13, 15, 17, 19, 
21, 23. 

THE SECOND EPISTLE OF PAUL THE APOSTLE TO THE COR- 
INTHIANS, MACEDONIA, A. D. 57. 

175. Not very long after writing the former Epistle, Paul left Ephe- 
sus, and went to Troas. Here he expected to meet Titus (whom he 
had sent to Corinth); and to receive from him intelligence of the state 
of the church, and of the effects of his former Epistle (ii. 12). But, 
not finding him there, he crossed over to Macedonia, where his anxiety 
was relieved by the arrival and report of Titus. From him Paul 
learned that his faithful reproofs had awakened in the minds of the 
Corinthian Christians a godly sorrow, and a practical regard for the 
proper discipline of the church. But, with these pleasing symptoms, 
there were others of a painful kind. The faction connected with the 
false teachers was still depreciating his apostolic authority, and mis- 
representing his motives and conduct; even using his former letter to 
bring new charges against him, as having failed to keep his promise 
of coming to see them, and having adopted an authoritative style of 
writing, little in unison, as they alleged, with the contemptibleness of 
his person and speech. 

Under the strong and mingled emotions caused by this intelligence, 
the apostle wrote this second Epistle; in which the language of com- 
mendation and love is blended with that of censure, and even of 
threatening ; and sent it by Titus and others, intending speedily to 
follow them, as it appears that he did. It was designed to carry for- 
ward the work of reformation, to establish still further his authority 
against the objections and pretensions of false teachers, and to prepare 
the Corinthians for his intended visit, when he desired to find their 
56 



662 SECOND EPISTLE TO CORINTHIANS — CONTENTS. 



disorders rectified, and their promised contributions for their afflicted 
brethren ready (viii. 18; ix. 3, 5; x. 2, 11; xiii. 1, 2, 10). 

Although this and the preceding Epistle are full of references to the 
peculiar circumstances of the Corinthian church, they are not the less 
important or instructive on that account. For they contain directions 
and admonitions suited to many of the ordinary circumstances of life 
which could not have been so advantageously introduced in a more 
general discourse on the great doctrines and duties of Christianity. Prin- 
ciples and rules are laid down which are of general application, espe- 
cially in opposing dissensions and other evils arising in the church, 
and in promo ling the important duty of Christian liberty. 

The principal contents of this Epistle are as follows : — 

i. The apostle, after expressing his gratitude for the Divine consola- 
tion granted to him under his sufferings for Christ, states the reasons 
of his delay in visiting Corinth: and refers to the case of the guilty 
person upon whom discipline had been exercised; whom, being peni- 
tent, he exhorts them to restore to their communion (i. 12 :-ii. 13). 

ii. He alludes to his labors in the service of the Gospel and their 
success, and to his own personal relation to the Corinthians; and is 
thereby led to speak of the differences between the ministry under the 
Old Covenant and under the New ; showing the superior glory of the 
latter (3). He describes the principles and motives by which he and 
his brethren were actuated in fulfilling their ministry in the midst of 
great trials and afflictions; and exhorts the Corinthians not to frustrate 
the great objects of the Gospel by the neglect of Christian discipline 
and purity (iv. :-7). 

iii. Then, resuming a subject referred to in his former Epistle, with 
persuasive earnestness he recommends to them the collection for the 
poor among the saints at Jerusalem; and shows the manifold advan- 
tages of such services (viii.: 9). 

iv. He vindicates his apostolic authority against the insinuations of 
false teachers ; and (though with evident reluctance) contrasts his own 
gifts, labors, and sufferings, with the character and conduct of those 
pretenders who opposed him (x. ; xi.) : he refers, in proof of the 
Divine approval, to some extraordinary visions and revelations with 
which he had been favored (xii. 1-11) : shows the openness, sincerity, 
and disinterestedness of his whole conduct: and after a few affection- 
ate admonitions to self-examination, and to love and holiness, closes 
the Epistle with prayer and benediction, (xii. 11-21; xiii.) 

Connect and read as follows, i. 1, 3, 8, 12, 15, 23; ii. 5, 12, 14; iii. 
1, 4, 12; iv. 1, 3, 7, 12; v. 5, 11, 16, 20; vi. 1, 11, 14; vii. 1, 2, 5, 11, 



COEINTHIANS — THE CHUKCH. 



663 



13; viii. 1, 16; ix. 1, 6; x. 1, 7, 12; xi. 1, 5, 13, 16; xii. 1, 14, 19; 
xiii. 1, 5, 11, 14. 

176. (i.) Not the least instructive part of these Epistles \s the light 
they throw on the motives and spirit of the apostles. In Aposto j ic 
J Cor., Paul shows that not man but Christ alone is the authority 
centre of union to the church, that ministers are but fellow- ^ r d eharac " 
laborers employed and endowed by God, to whom all their 
success is owing. They are, therefore, neither to be overrated nor de- 
rpised. The true minister of Christ may be known by his patience, his 
self-denial, his holiness, and the spirit in which he exalts his Lord, 

1 Cor. i. 10 ;-iv. 21 : 2 Cor. iv. ;-7 : 1 Thess. ii. 1-12 ; iii. ; 2 Tim. 
Elsewhere, however, he insists largely on the dignity and authority of 
his office, 2 Cor. x -xii. : Gal. i. ; ii. : 1 Cor. xv. 9, 10: Eph. iii. 8. In 
the whole of these passages the object seems three-fold ; to confirm 
and prove his doctrine, and to refute false teachers, 2 Cor. xi. 3 : to 
exhibit to Christians and to Christian ministers an eminent example, 
Phil. iii. 1 ;-iv. 9 : Heb. xiii. 7-14 ; and, above all, to illustrate the 
power of Divine grace, 2 Cor. xii. 9: Gal. i. 24: 1 Tim. i. 16. The 
whole supplies also important evidence of the truth of the Gospel. 3 

(ii.) The character of false teachers, against whom the church of 
Christ is often warned, may be gathered from many passages. Charflcter 
Some were Judaizers, denying the sufficiency of the cross of false 
and the liberty of the church ; some philosophizing teachers, teachers, 
corrupting the simplicity of the truth ; and others, " dogs," turning the 
grace of God into licentiousness, 1 Cor. i. 10-iv.: 2 Cor. xi.: Gal i. 1-12; 
iv. 9-20; v. 7-15: Col. ii. 16-23: Acts xv. 13-31 :-2 Thess. n. 1-12: 

2 Pet. iii.: Jude 4-19: 1 Tim. vi. 20: 2 Tim. ii. 16: 1 John ii. 18-24; 

iv. 1-6 : 2 and 3 John. 

(iii.) The church is many and one, 1 Cor. xi. 16; xiv. 33: Gal. i. 22: 
1 Thess. ii. 14 : Acts xvi. 5 : 1 Cor. xii. 21-27 : Eph. iv. 3-5 ; 

v. 25-32: Col. i. 18-24: Gal. iii. 28: Matt. xvi. 28 :— chosen Thechurch - 
(Eph. i. 4: 1 Pet. v. 13): loved (Eph. v. 25: Rev. i. 5):— redeemed by 
Christ (Heb. ix. 12: 1 Pet. i. 18, 19), and subject to him (Rom. vii. 4: 
Eph v. 24). Christ is its Foundation and Head (Eph. ii. 20 : 1 Pet. ii. 
4, 6: Eph. i. 22; v. 23 : Col. i. 18). The church is his body and bride 
(Eph. i. 23: Col. i. 24: Rev. xxi. 9; xxii. 7). 

a It illustrates both the humility of the apostles and the priesthood 
of the whole church, to notice how they ask the prayers of their con- 
verts, 2 Cor. i. 11: Rom. xv. 30: Eph. vi. 19: Col. iv. 3, 4: 1 Thess. 
v. 25 : 2 Thess. iii. 1. 



664 CORINTHIANS — CHRISTIAN DUTIES. 



(iv.) For the general character of its members, see the descriptions 
given at the beginning of each Epistle, and especially 
em s. 1 Cor. iii. 9-17: 2 Cor. vi. 14-17: 1 Thess. i. 2-10; ii. 13, 
14; iii. 6; iv. 9, 10: Eph. ii. 13-22: Phil. i. 7: Col. i. 3-8: 1 John. 
The whole and each member ought to be the image of Christ, 2 Cor. 
iii. 18: Rom. viii. 14, 29: Eph. i. 4, 5; iv. 23, 24: 1 Pet. iv. 1; and 
.he temple of the Spirit, 1 Cor. iii. 16, 17: 2 Cor. vi. 16: 1 Tim. iii. 15: 
1 John iii. 24; iv. 12, 15: John xiv. 23: xvii. 21-23. 

(v.) On the duties which Christians owe one to another Scripture is 
Their du beautifully explicit. The justice and benevolence which as 
ties, motives men they owe to their fellows (see Romans, Pt. ii. $ 179), 
and spirit, owe also to their brethren, but to them they owe other 

duties besides, and all are enforced by motives peculiar to Christians, 
being taken, in fact, from their mutual relation to one another through 
the love and grace of their Lord, 1 Cor. xvi. 13-16 : 2 Cor. xiii. 11 : 
Rom. xii. 3-10: Gal. vi. 2: Eph. iv. 1-16: Col. iii. 12-15: Phil. ii. 
1-16: 1 Thess. iv. 9; v. 11-21: 1 Pet. i. 22; iv. 8-11; v. 1-7: 2 Tim. 
ii. 22: James ii. 1-18: Heb. x. 25; xiii. 7, 17: 1 John iii. 13-24; iv. 7, 
11, 21; v. 16, 17. 

(vi.) Relative duties of Christians. In relation to marriage, 1 Cor. 

vii.: Gal. iii. 28: Eph. v. 22, 23: Col. iii. 16-19: 1 Pet. iii. 

Ss! e 1-7 : Heb - xiiL 4 : Tit - iL 4 - 5 - 0n the true di S n % and be- 
coming behavior of Christian women, previous passages, 

and 1 Cor. xi. 1-16; xiv. 34, 35: 1 Tim. ii. 9-15. As parents, Eph. 
vi. 4: Col. iii. 21: 1 Tim. v. 8; iii. 4, 5: Tit. ii. 4: 2 John. As chil- 
dren, Eph. vi. 1, 2: Col. iii. 20: Heb. xii. 9: 1 Tim. v. 1: 1 Pet. v. 5 
(see Job xxxii. 6, 7). As masters, Eph. vi. 9: Col. iv. 1: Philem. 16: 
James v. 4. As servants, 1 Cor. iv. 2; vii. 22: Gal. iii. 28: Eph. vi 
5, 6 : Col. iii. 22, 23: 1 Tim. vi. 1, 2: Tit. ii. 9, 10: Philem. 11 : Luke 
xii. 41-43 ; xvi. 10-12. As men, see Rom. Examples : Parents, Gen. 
xviii. 19; xiii. 4: 2 Tim. i. 5. Children, Ruth i. 14: Esth. ii. 20: 2 
Tim. iii. 15. Masters, Gen. xvii. 23: Josh. xxiv. 15: 2 Sam. vi. 20: 
Acts x 2. Servants, 2 Kings v. 2 : Acts x. 7. 

(vii.) Liberality; its motives, and measure, 1 Cor. xvi. 1, 2: 2 Cor. 
viii. 9: Rom. xii. 13; xv. 26, 27: 1 Tim. vi. 17-19: 1 John iii. 17-19: 
James i. 27 ; ii. 8 : Heb. vi. 6 : in receiving fellow-Christians, Rom. xii. 
13: Heb. xiii. 1, 2: 1 Tim. v. 10: Tit. i. 7, 8: 3 John. 

Hence it appears that though, at first, the members of the church at 
Jerusalem "sold their possessions and had all things in common," this 
was not intended as the rule; though all are enjoined to give as the 
Lord has prospered them. 



CORINTHIANS — VARIOUS TRUTHS. 



665 



(viii.) That the love and comfort which this relation involves may 

be secure, the church of Christ must be kept free from im- 

, ,. , . , Its discipline, 

purity and disorder. Rebuke, encouragement, censure, 

exclusion, restoration — all are to be exercised for the good of the body. 

1 Cor. v.: 2 Cor. vi. 14-18 ; iii. 17; x. 8 ; xiii. 10: Gal. vi. 1 : 2 Thess. 

iii. 6-15: 1 Tim. v., vi. : 2 Tim. iii. 1-5; iv. 2: Tit. i. 10-iii. 10: Jude 
22 : Rev. ii. 14-16, 20-23. 

(ix.) The sin and cure of divisions, 1 Cor. i. 10 ; iv. 21 : 2 Cor. xi. : 
Rom. xvi. 17, 18: 1 Tim. i. 3-7; vi. 3-5, 20: Tit. iii. 9-15: 
Heb. xiii. 8, 9. See on Christian forbearance. ofXfsiSS 

(x.) The duty of Christian forbearance in relation to mat- 
ters on which there may be a difference of opinion among good men, 
1 Cor. viii.-x: Rom. xiv. 1-xv. 7: Matt, xviii. 10: Phil. ii. 1-7 : James 

iv. 11, 12: Acts xv. 8, 9; xi. 17: 1 Pet. iii. 8. 

(xi.) The right use of miraculous gifts, as prophecy, etc., is largely 
explained in these Epistles. These gifts were intended to ^ ^ 
confirm the truth of the Gospel, promote its rapid dissemi- and other 
nation, and were essential to prove a new revelation. Now, gllts " 
we are referred for evidence and for spiritual knowledge to the Scrip- 
tures. Outward instruction, personal experience, careful study, and a 
spirit of devout dependence on God's teaching, in his word, occupy the 
place of miraculous endowments. 2 Tim. ii. 1 ; iii. 3, 15, 16 : 2 Thess. 
ii. 15 : 2 Pet. i. 15-21 ; iii. 1-4, 14-17 : James i. 5. In these passages, 
however, we learn that the church of Christ ought to be edified by the 
willing and combined service, according to their gifts, of all its mem- 
bers. 1 Cor. xii. 14: Rom. xii. 4-8: Gal. iii. 1-5: Eph. iv. 7-13: Heb. 
ii. 1-4. 

(xii.) Mark the nature and superlative excellence of Chris- 
tian love. 1 Cor xiii. : Col. iii. 12, 14 : Gal. v. vi. : 1 Tim. £an°k>vS 
i. 5 : 1 John iii. 10-24. 

(xiii.) Mark the importance and consolation of the doctrine of the 
resurrection of the dead, and how it is insured by the res- 
urrection of our Lord. 1 Cor. xv.: Rom. viii. 11, 19-25: °? r ^ctIon 
1 Thess. iv. 13-17: Rev. xx. 11-13: John v. 21, 28. 

(xiv.) Mark, also, with what ardor and devotedness the Lord's 
Supper is to be observed, and mark that it is not sacrificial, Qn obgerv . 
but only commemorative. 1 Cor. xi. 17-34 ; x. 15-18 : ance of 
Matt. xxvi. 26-30 : Acts ii. 42-47 ; xx. 7. Supper. 3 

66* 



666 



EPISTLE TO ROMANS. 



THE EPISTLE OF PAUL THE APOSTLE TO THE EOMANS, 
CORINTH, A. D. 58. 

177. The Epistle to the Romans was addressed to the Christians resi- 
ding in the metropolis of that great empire, whose dominion then ex- 
tended over almost the whole known world. 

The way had been prepared by Divine Providence for the introduc- 
tion of the Gospel into Rome, by the extensive settlement of Jews 
there. That the establishment of the Jewish worship at Rome had 
produced considerable effect on the general community, is clear from 
the statements of heathen writers. Ovid speaks of the synagogues as 
places of general resort: and, still later, Juvenal ridicules his country- 
men for becoming Jews. 

At what time, or by whom, the Gospel was first preached in the im- 
perial city, is unknown. That it was at an early period may be inferred 
from the circumstance that, when Paul wrote this Epistle, the faith of 
the Roman Christians "was spoken of throughout the whole world," 
chap. i. 8. It is probable that some of those "strangers of Rome, Jews 
and proselytes," who were present at Jerusalem on the great day of 
Pentecost (Acts ii. 10), carried back to that city the knowledge of the 
Gospel. And it is not improbable, also, considering the constant inter- 
course between Rome and the provinces, that some of the numerous 
converts to Christianity in Judaea, Asia Minor and Greece, might soon 
have found their way to the capital. That some of the persons con- 
cerned in the establishment of the church of Rome (two of whom Paul 
mentions as having been converted earlier than himself), were Paul's 
particular friends, with whom he had met while preaching in Asia and 
in Greece, is evident from the form of the salutations in chap. xvi. 3-16. 

The traditions of some of the ancient fathers, that Peter was the 
founder of the church at Rome, appears plainly inconsistent with the 
evidence derived from this Epistle, as well as from the book of the Acts, 
which shows him to have been at Jerusalem at the very time when he 
is alleged to have been at Rome, In this whole Epistle there is no 
mention of Peter as ever having been at Rome. Now, if Peter had 
not only been there, but had actually founded the church, and had 
presided over it, it is impossible to suppose that Paul could have failed 
to advert to that fact. And, further, had Peter been at Rome when 
Paul wrote this Epistle, he would certainly have been included in the 
particular enumeration of persons to whom salutations are sent, in 
chap. xvi. 

The date of this Epistle is ver-y precisely fixed by the following facts. 



EPISTLE TO EOMANS. 



667 



Paul had not yet been to Kome, (i. 11, 13. 15). He was intending to 
visit it, after first visiting Jerusalem (xv. 23-28), and that was his pur- 
pose during his three months' residence at Corinth, Acts xix. 21. He 
was about to carry a collection from Macedonia and Achaia to Jeru- 
salem (xv. 26, 31): and this he did carry from Corinth to Jerusalem at 
the close of his visit, Acts xxiv. 17. When he wrote the Epistle, Tim- 
othy, Sosipater, Gaius and Erastus were with him (xvi. 21, 23). Gaius 
was his host, and resided at Corinth, i. Cor. i. 13. Erastus was himself 
a Corinthian, and had been sent, shortly before, from Ephesus, with Tim- 
othy, on their way through Corinth to Macedonia, Acts xix. 22: 1 Cor. 
xvi. 10, 11 ; and the first three are expressly mentioned m Acts (xx. 4) as 
being with Paul at Corinth. Phoebe, moreover, the bearer of the Epistle, 
was a member of the church at the Corinthian port of Cenchrea (xvi. 1). 
As Paul, therefore, was preparing to visit Jerusalem, one of his con- 
verts was also departing from Corinth, in an opposite direction, for 
Rome, and by her this Epistle was taken to that city. Its date is thus 
fixed, A. D. 58. 

The character of the Roman church may be gathered from the Epistle 
itself. It contained several converts from Judaism (iii. 4, 14, etc.); but 
the majority were clearly of Gentile origin (i. 13; xv. 14, 15). To all 
it was important that they should have a full and inspired exhibition 
of Divine truth ; and this is given. The doctrine of justification by faith 
had been employed to justify immoral practices (iii. 8), and, moreover, 
dissensions had sprung up between Jewish converts and Gentile Chris- 
tians (xi. 17, 18; xiv). The Jewish believer was unwilling to regard 
his uncircumcised Gentile brother as his equal in Christ's kingdom (iii. 
9; xv. 7-11); and, on the other hand, the more enlightened Gentile 
convert was inclined to treat the lingering scruples of the Jew with 
contempt (xiv. 3). Here, therefore, the doctrine of justification is shown 
to produce holiness. To the Jewish Christian, truth and its claims are 
revealed; to the Gentile Christian, love and its claims; and both are 
taught that faith in Christ and subjection to him are the only condi- 
tions of a place in the church and of an interest in the covenant. In 
the whole of this discussion principles are laid down of the greatest 
value to the church in every age. 

The Epistle may be divided as follows (see § 171, note). 

i. 1, 8, 13, 16, 18, 24; ii. 1, 17, 25; iii. 1, 5, 9, 21, 27, 29, 31; iv. 1, 
6, 9, 10, 13, 18, 23; v. 1, 3, 6, 11, 12; vi. 1, 12, 15; vii. 1, 7, 13; viii. 
1, 12, 18, 26, 28, 31; ix. 1, 6, 10, 14, 19, 30; x. 1, 14, 18; xi. 1, 7, 11, 
16, 22, 25, 33 ; xii. 1, 3, 6, 9, 14 ; xiii. 1, 11 ; xiv. 1, 13 ; xv. 1, 5, 8, 14; 
xvi. 1, 17, 21, 25. 

178, As the Epistle to the Romans treats of the doctrine which has 



668 



ROMANS — OUTLINE. 



been regarded as the test of a true church, and is, moreover, the most 
full and systematic of all the apostle's writings, we append an analysis 
of the whole, showing the course of argument and illustration. The 
significance of particular passages depends, in a great degree, as will 
be readily seen, on their connection and tendency. 

(i.) INTRODUCTION (i. 1-17). 
(1.) The salutation (i. 1-7). 

(2.) Introduction, and Paul's estimate of the Gospel (8-17). 

(II.) DOCTRINAL EXPOSITION (i. 18-XI. 36). 

(a.) Sinfulness of the human race. 
(1.) Condition of the heathen, — 

In relation to God (i. 18-23). 
In relation to human duty (24-32). 
(2.) Condition of the Jews, — 

Mere knowledge will not save (ii. 1-11). 
It even aggravates guilt (12-29). 
(3.) Comparison of Jews and Gentiles, — 

Value of Old Testament dispensation not lowered (iii. 1-8). 
Both guilty, and needing salvation (9-20). 
(b.) The Gospel-plan of salvation explained, in itself, and in its 
results. 

(1.) This plan explained, a revelation of Divine justice and mercy 
excludes — 

All boasting (iii. 21, 26-28), and— 
Saves all on the same terms (29-31). 
(2.) Holy men of old justified by faith, — 

Illustrated, Abraham (iv. 1-5): David (6-8). 
Circumcision the sign (9-12), and the theocracy (13-17) the 
result of the covenant: the result, therefore, of justification, 
rather than subservient to it. 
(3.) Abraham's faith described. Its results (iv. 18-25). 
(4.) The fruits of faith in Christian experience, in imparting peace, 
joy and hope (v. 1-11). 

(5.) The excellence of faith shown by a comparison between Adam, 
the head of the fallen race, and Christ, the author of spiritual life, to 
all who are united to him (v. 12-21). 

(c.) This way of salvation {^a^^Su^toavvn) favorable to holiness. 
(See iii. 8). 



EOMANS — OUTLINE. 



669 



(1.) We cannot go on in sin that grace may abound ; for we are one 
with Christ our Head, in his baptism, death and life (vi. 1-14) ; verse3 
12-14 illustrating the idea that Christ is our King, as well as Head. 
(2.) Nor can we go on in sin, because under grace, and not under law. 
Eor the servants of another are bound to obey their master, 

and, moreover — 
Men are increasingly swayed by that authority which they 
heartily acknowledge. It becomes a yoke, which, however, 
if it be righteousness, is free, and has a glorious issue 
(vi. 15-23). 

(3.) He illustrates the same truth as in vi. 2, by an example founded 
on law (vii. 1-7). 

Hence a twofold objection: 
(4.) Either the law is sin — 

No ; for it reveals sin, and impresses it on the conscience 
(vii. 7-12): 

(5.) Or being itself good, it has become death (vii. 13-25). 

No; for we ("our inner man") admit it to be spiritual, even 
when not obeying it ; a fact admitted by the awakened and 
regenerate. 

Both facts meet the objection, and show our need of a new system. 
(d.) The law having failed to justify and sanctify, he repeats 
and expands the truth, that Christ for us, and Christ in us, 
is our justification and holiness. 
(1.) Christians justified in Christ and sanctified in him, through the 
Spirit; which sanctification will be complete (viii. 1-11). 
(2.) Christian's duty and privilege (viii. 12-17). 
(3.) The connection between the perfection of creation, and that of 
the children of God (viii. 18-25). 

(4.) Other blessings (viii. 26, 27, 28-30, 31-39). 

(e.) As chap. i. 18 ;-iii. 20, the apostle has explained the relation 
of Jews and Gentiles to the law, so in chap. ix. 1 ;-xi. 36, he 
explains the relation of both to the Gospel. 
That salvation is by Christ, and for all that believe, is the conclu- 
sion to which the apostle has come; but if so, the great majority of 
the Jews perish, and the Gentiles have taken their place : a result ap- 
parently severe, and to the Jew particularly startling. The apostle 
meets this feeling. 

(1.) He affirms, *hat he is himself greatly distressed at their state of 
rejection (ix. 1-6). 



670 



ROMANS — OUTLINE. 



(2.) It cannot be said, however, that the promise is unfulfilled, or 

that this difference of treatment is without precedent ; for — 

The promise did not extend to all the children of Abraham, but only 
to the descendants of Sarah ; nor to all her descendants, but only to 
Jacob (7-13), the ground of the difference being, not the actual merit 
of the persons, but the election of God. 

Least of all does it follow that God is unjust, for all mercy on God's 
part is evidence of kindness, and is altogether undeserved. 

That God has a right to make distinctions in his dealings, and does 
make them, is further shown in the case of Pharaoh (14-18). 

(3.) But does not this idea of purpose on God's part, free us from 
blame? To which the apostle replies by affirming, first, that God has 
a right to do as he will ; suggesting, that in the exercise of that right, 
there can be no wrong; and secondly, that in exercising that will, 
both the justice and the mercy of God will be the more illustriously 
revealed (19-24), saving all on the same conditions, both Jews and 
Gentiles. (24). 

(4.) Both this call of the Gentiles, and the salvation of a remnant 
only of the Jews, are foretold, or have their precedents in the Old 
Testament (25-29). 

(5.) The failure and rejection of the Jews, though in one sense in 
accordance with the Divine purpose, are really results of unbelief 
(30-33). 

Chap. x. This last thought is expanded in chap. x. After again ex- 
pressing his distress at the unbelief of the Jews, he shows that their 
rejection is the result of unbelief; and all who call on the name of the 
Lord, Jews or Gentiles, shall be saved (1-13). 

It is then objected, that the Jews could not call upon one of whom 
they had not heard (14-17), and the apostle answers by showing that 
they have heard, and that their rejection of truth was not owing to 
ignorance, but to disobedient unbelief; a fact which, in all aspects of 
it, their own prophets foretold (18-21). 

Chap. xi. The apostle proceeds to explain his statements. 
(6.) It must not be supposed that Israel, as a whole, have been 
rejected. 

It is not Jews, as Jews, but Jews as unbelievers ; for " I myself," 
says he, "am an Israelite" (1), and, as in Elijah's days, there were 
thousands who had not bowed to Baal, so now there is a remnant 
according to the election of grace, chosen not for their works, but 
from free favor ; while the rest have missed the blessing through un- 
belief (2-10). 



ROMANS— OUTLINE. 



671 



Nor, speaking of the Jews as a nation, is this utter rejection: 
Their unbelief gave occasion for the proclamation of the truth to the 
Gentiles, and their conversion will be connected with the general diffu- 
sion of the truth (11-15), of all which the faith of their fathers is a 
kind of earnest (16). 

(7.) Humility, faith, adoring reverence of the justice and mercy of 
God, with hope in this general issue, because all Gentile converts (17-24), 
and — 

(8.) By-and-by, Israel as a whole, shall be converted to God (25-32). 

(9.) The whole scheme of salvation an evidence of the unfathomable 
wisdom and love of G<rd (33-36), to whose praise all will ultimately 
redound. 

(ill.) ETHICAL DEVELOPMENT OF TRUTH XII.-XV. 14). 
(i.) In relation to general behavior. 

(1.) All previous doctrine points to consecration of the whole life 
as the appropriate result, and with this consecration all holiness begins 
(xii. 1, 2). 

This founded in humility, i. e. in a true and healthy view of our- 
selves, and of our position (xii. 3). 
This consecration will include — 

(2.) The Christians relation to the church (xii. 4-13), including love, 
faith and hope ; and — 

(3.) The Christian's relation to the world (xii. 14-21). 

(4.) Chap, xiii. Especially is this spirit of consecration seen in sub- 
mission to the ruling power, which has the force of a Divine law (1-7). 
Obedience in such cases is another form of the great law of love (8-10), 
which is especially incumbent under the Gospel, as is all spiritual holi- 
ness (11-14). 

(ii.) In relation to our behavior in things indifferent (xiv. 1-xv. 7). 

Here forbearance is our rule. He who regards things indifferent as 
binding may be the weaker Christian, but God has received him ; he 
does all to Christ, who is his judge; and in accordance with his own 
conscience, which is subordinately, his law. 

Therefore, neither is he the less welcome, nor is he to be tempted by 
ridicule or rebuke to violate what he himself believes (xiv. 2-23). 

The example of Christ, and the ultimate design of the Scriptures, 
teach this duty on even more comprehensive grounds — the common 
good (xv. 1-7) 

The lesson is repeated, that Gentiles and Jews are one body, and 



672 



ROMANS — VARIOUS TRUTHS. 



that the salvation of each illustrates the faithfulness and mercy of Goc? 
(xv. 8-13). 

(IV.) PERSONAL COMMUNICATIONS. 

(1.) Explanation of the apostle's relations to the Gentiles, and of his 
earnestness in their behalf (xv. 14-21). 

(2.) Notice of his proposed journeys (xv. 22-23). 

(3.) Salutations (xvi. 1-23), with cautions in reference to such as 
caused divisions (17-20). 

(4.) Conclusion (24-27). 

179. Mark in this Epistle the following truths, doctrinal and moral 

(i.) Man's extreme need of salvation, in consequence of his guilt, depravity, and 
wretchedness (i. 18-iii. 20, compare vi. 19-21; viii. 6-8): Gal. iii. 10-22: Eph. ii. 1-3: 
iv. 18, 19: Col. iii. 5-10: Heb. ix. 1-9; x. 1-11: 1 Pel. iv. 3: Tit. iii. 3: Psa. exxx. 3; 
exliii. 2. 

(ii.) The only way of justification— by the free favor of God through faith in the 
righteousness of Christ; explained and illustrated by reference to the history of 
Abraham and David (iii. 21-iv. 25; v. 16: viii. 1): Gal. iii. G-29: Eph. ii. 8-10: Phil, iii 
7-*0: Tit. iii. 4-7: Ileb. x. 11-18: Psa. xxii. 30, 31: Isa. xlii. 21: Jer. xxiii. 5. 6. This 
faith is sanctifying, see James and Acts xxvl 18. 

(iii) Peace and reconciliation, hope and joy, the fruits oi faith (v. 1-11; x. 15; 
xiv. 17): 2 Cor. v. 18-21: Eph. ii. 11-20: Col. i. 19-27: 1 Pet i. 18-21: Isa. xxxii. 71: 
Psa. Ixxxv. 8-10; xvi. 9-11. 

(iv.) As by the disobedience of one all are sinners, so are righteousness and 
eternal life through the obedience of Christ (v. 12-31): 1 Cor. xv. 20-23, 45-49: 
1 Tim. i.-xiv: Gen. iii. 6; v. 3: Isa. liii. 10-12. 

(v.) The evangelic motives of obedience; deliverance from the dominion and 
condemnation of ancient, law, living union with Christ, and submission to his autho- 
rity, the constraining influence of his love, the efficacy of his death and resurrec- 
tion, the transforming power of his example, the promised aid of his Spirit, and the 
hope of an eternal reward; in one word, all the affections and desires of our new 
life (vi.l-vii 25): 2 Cor. v. 14-17; vi. 14-18: Gal ii. 19, 20; v. 24; vi 14: Eph ii 4-10: 
Col. ii. 6-17: iii. 1-3: Tit, ii. 10-14: 1 Pet. ii. 20-25; iv. 1, 2: 2 Pet. i. 4-9: Phh. iii. 17, 
18: Psa cxvi. 16: Jer.xxxi. 31-34: Acts xxvi. 18. 

(vi.) The privileges consequent on justification — adoption, the inward presence, 
testimony and help of the Spirit, the certainty ot complete salvation and a glorious 
inheritance (viii. 1-27; v. 5): 2 Cor. i. 21,22: Gal. iv. 1-7: Eph. i. 14; vi. 18: 1 Pet i. 
3-9: 1 John iii. 1-3, 19-21 

(vii.) The source of redemption— God's sovereign love and eternal purpose 
(viii. 28-39): Eph i. 3-10: 2 Thess. ii. 13-17: 1 Pet. i. 2-5; ii. 7-10: 2 Tim. i. 9-12: 
John kvii. 9-24. 

(viii.) The principal duty of Christians, individually, socially, as members of the 
church of Christ, and as subjects of civil government (xii. 1-xv. 7). Christian 
morality requires universal and permanent rectitude,a must proceed from a renewed 
heart,bbe based on religion, i. e on the consecration of man in all his powers and 
affections unto God,c needs the sauctifying influence of the Spirit,- and 'fen be 



ROMANS — VARIOUS TRUTHS. 



673 



offered with acceptance only through the mediation of Christ.e This morality is the 
believer's chief concern; for his justification is complete, while his sane tifi cation 
is not ; and the attainment of it is the business of the Christian's life, as it was one 
end of the coming of our Lord.f 

a Compare the following passages, which all treat of morality, and it will be seen 
that no sin is excused, nor is any branch of righteousness excepted in the Christian 
code. Rom. xii. 1-xv. 7: 1 Cor. vi.; xi. 1-16: 2 Cor. 4; vi. 14-1S: Gal. v.; vi. : Eph. 
iv.-vi. : Phil. i. 27-ii. 16 ; iii. 18 : Col. iii. 1-iv. 6 : 1 Thess. iv. : 2 Thess. iii. 6-15 : 1 Tim. 
ii. 9-15; vi.: 2 Tim. iii. 1-9 : Tit i. 12-iii.8: Philem.: Heb. xiii.: James all (see ii. 10); 
1 Pet.i. 22-ii. 3; ii. 11— iii. 17; iv. 8-11; v. 1-7; 2 Pet. ii.; iii. 11-14: 1 John ii. 3-11, 15- 
17, 29 ; iii. 3-18, 24: Jude. 

b Eph.iv. 22-24: Col. i. 22, 23: Phil. ii. 3-5: Rom. xii. 2. All the passages which 
speak of motives to obedience, and the very structure of the Epistles, addressed as 
they are to Christians, and basing precepts on doctrines, obedience on faith, Psa. 
Ii. 10: Ezek xxxvi. 25, 27. 

c Rom. xii. 1: 1 Cor. vi. 20: 2 Cor. v. 15; vi. 14-18; vii. 1; viii. 5: Phil. i. 20: 1 Pet. 
ii. 24; iv. 2 : Eph. v. 25-27: 1 Thess. v. 23. 24: 1 John iii. 3. 

dRom. xv. 16: Phil. iv. 13: Heb. ix 14: 1 Pet. i 22. 

e Eph. i. 6 : Phil. i. 9-11 : 1 Pet ii. 5 : 1 John iii. 6-10 : Col. iii. 17. 

f Eph.iv. 11-13; v. 25-27: Phil. ii. 12; iii. 13: Tit. ii. 11-14. 

The various duties of morality are easily arranged. They refer to God — to our- 
selves — to others. All. indeed, are enjoined by a Divine law, and must 
be performed from religious motives. Yet is the distinction convenient Duties 
and Scriptural. We find it recognized in the 12th of Romans, and else- ° 
where. Living devotedness to God is first enjoined, ver. 1,2; then the personal 
•virtue of humility, ver. 3. and lastly, the duties we owe to the church of Christ, and 
to the world. 

(ix.) In relation to God, it is incumbent upon us to ascertain his character and 
will, especially as revealed in his Son;g to exercise appropriate faith 
and love, submission, and reverence ;h to imitate his moral perfections, ^ (j^* 011 
to obey his commands.) and to express our feelings in acts of accepta- 
ble worship, j The sum of our affection is reverential love, and of our service, living 
consecration k 

g 2 Cor. iv. 6: 2 Pet. i. 2, 3: 1 John v. 20: John xvii. 3: Psa. ix. 10. 

h 1 John v. 10-12: 1 Cor. viii. 3: 1 John iv. 9: Heb. xii. 9 : 1 Pet. i. 10-21; v. G: Jas. 
iv. 7, 10: 2 Cor. vii. 1: Eph. v. 21: Heb. xii. 28: Examples, Heb. xi.: Matt. viii. 10: 
Psa. xviii. 1 : John xxi. : Job ii. 10 : 2 Sam. xv. 26. 

i2 Cor. iii. 18: Eph. iv. 32; v. 1: Col. iii. 13: Matt. v. 44, 45,48: 1 John iv. 11: 
1 John ii. 3-5: John xiv. 23: Rom. xvi. 19: Examples, our Lord, Eph. v. 2: 1 Pet. 
ii.21: Abraham, xii. 1-4. 

j Rom. x. 9, 10: Heb. x. 25: Phil. iv. 6: James i. 5, 6: 1 John iii. 22: John xiv. 13 
Eph.v. 19, 20: Col. iii. 16, 17: Mark xiv. 26: Ex., Acts i. 14; ii. 1, 2; iv. 24-31; Luke 
iv.15, 16: Acts xviii. 4. 

klJohnv.2-5: Mark xii. 29, 30: Deut.vi.5; x.12; xxx. 6: Rom. xii. 1: 1 Cor.vi. 
20: 2 Chron. xxx. 8. 

(x.) In relation to ourselves, it becomes us to be humble, never thinking more 
highly of our gifts than we ought, and ever remembering that they are j n relation 
gifts,* meek, restraining wr'thin proper bounds all irascible passions,b to ourselves. 

57 



674 



ROMANS — CHRISTIAN DUTIES. 



contented with our lot,c temperate,^ self-denying,e carefully in preserving for God ? 3 
service, our health and 3ife,f diligent,* and pure.h 
a Rom. xii. 3: 1 Cor. iv. 7; 2 Cor. xii. 7: Gal. vi. 3: Phil, ii 3, 4: Eph. iv. 2 : Col. 

iii. 12: James iv. 6: 1 Pet. v. 5, 6. Ex., Gen. xviii. 27; xxxii. 10; xviii.13: 1 Cor. xv, 
9: Phil. ii. 5-8. False humility condemned, Col. ii. 18-23: 2 Chron. xii. 6: 1 Kings 
xxi. 29. 

b Eph. iv. 2: Col. iii. 12: Tit. iii. 2: Gal. v. 23: James iii. 13, 17: 1 Pet. iii. 4-15: Ex, 
Numb. xii. 2 : Psa. cxxxi. 1 : 1 Thess. ii. 7 : Christ, 2 Cor. x. 1 : Matt. xi. 29. 

c Heb. xiii. 5: Phil. iv. 6: I Tim. vi. 6-8: Matt. vi. 25: Ex., Paul, Phil. iv. 11, 12. 

d Rom. xiii. 11-13: Gal. v. 23: 1 Cor. vii. 30; ix. 25-27 : Tit. ii. 2, 11, 12: 2 Pet. i. 6: 
Luke xxi. 34. 

e Rom. xiv. 20; xv. 1; viii. 13: 2 Cor viii. 9; vi. 4,5-10: 1 Cor. viii. 13: Col. iii. S: 
'Phil. ii. 4: 1 Pet.iv. 1, 2: 2 Tim. ii. 4, 15: Ex., Acts ii. 45: 1 Cor. viii. 13: Heb. xi. 
24,25. 

f Eph. v. 29 : 1 Tim. v. 2 : Acts xvi. 27, 28; xxvii. 34: Matt. x. 23 : Acts xiv. 6, 7. 

gRom. xii. 11: Eph. iv. 28: 1 Thess. iv. 11, 12: 2 Thess. iii. 11, 12: Col. iv. 12,13, 
see Prov. vi. 6-8; xxii. 13. Diligence in seeking our Scriptural improvement is an 
urgent duty, Phil. ii. 12; iii. 14: Heb. vi. 3, 4: 2 Pet. i.5, 10: John vi. 10: 2 Cor. viii. 
7 : Heb. vi. 12 : Gal. vi. 9. An earnest character is clearly to be the aim of each 
Christian. 

hRom. xiii. 13; xvi. 8: 1 Cor. v. 11; vi. 9, 13-18: 2 Cor. vii. 2: Gal. v. 19-21: Eph. 

iv. 19; v.3,5: Phil. iii. 19: Col. iii. 5-8: 1 Thess. iv 3: Heb. xiii. 4: 2 Pet. ii. 13, 14 1 
Tit. iii. 12. 

(xi.) In relation to others we owe justice and veracity — the virtues of reciprocity 
In relation as * ne y are called — peace and love, the virtues of benevolence or good- 
to others. will. 

1. We owe them justice, i. the righteous fulfilment of righteous expectation^ 
We must respect their liberty, and neither oppress nor unnecessarily 
Duties of condemn them;j their property, nor neither steal nor covet, nor de- 
viz'? Jus- fraud ;k their character, and neither slander nor misrepresent them ;i 
tice. their happiness, and not envy their worth or rank ;m their lives, and 

neither quarrel with nor hate them; n their virtues, and withhold 
neither the gratitude, the admiration, nor the love which they may justly claim. 



iRom. xiii. 7: James ii. 6; v. 4: Mai. iii. 5: Zech vii. 7-10: and frequently in the 
Old Testament. Ex., Job xxix. 14: Jer. xxiii. 25 (Josiah): Luke xxiii. 51 (Joseph): 
our Lord especially, Psa. xcviii. 9 : Isa. xi. 4. Injustice, a characteristic of the 
ungodly and of hypocrites, 1 Cor. vi. 1: Matt, xxiii. 23. 

j Rom. xiv. 4: 2 Cor. i. 24: Gal. ii. 4, 5: Col.ii.16, 17, 20: James iii.l; iv. 11,12: 
1 Pet. v. 3. 

k Eph. iv. 28; v. 3-5 : 1 Cor. vi. 10 : 1 Pet. iv. 15: Col. iii. 5: Psa. x. 3. 

l Rom. i. 29 : 2 Cor. xii. 20: 1 Tim iii. 11; v. 13: Tit. iii. 2. Ex. The devil, Jobi.* 
Rev. xii. 10: Psa. iv. 20. 

m Rom. xiii. 7 : Eph. vi. 5 : 1 Pet. ii. 17, 18 : Matt. xxii. 21 : Phil. ii. 3 : 1 Cor. xii. 21 j 
I Pet. v. 5. 

n Rom. xii. 19 : Gal. v. 20 : Col. iii. 21 : Eph. iv. 31 : I John iii. 15-17 : Lev. xix. 17, 18. 

The relative value of piety and rank is defined. Piety is not to be despised be- 
cause of poverty, nor is wickedness to be respected because of wealth, James ii . 1-9 : 
Jude xvi. 

1. To others we owe veracity or truthfulness. Tb,is is the basis of all confident 



ROMANS — CHRISTIAN DUTIES. 



675 



tial intercourse between intelligent beings, and is essential to virtue. 2. "Veracity. 
Its opposites, hypo jrisy, flattery, slander, lying, are either the parents, 
or the offspring of many vices. 

Eph. iv. 25; v. 4: Col. iii. 9. See Psa. li. 6: Prov.xii. 19, 22. 

Mark the origin of lies, Gen. iii. 4: John viii. 44 : Acts v. 3: and their end, Rev. 
xxi. 8, 27; xxii. 15. Natural to man, Psa. lviii. 3: Isa. lvii. 4: hateful to God, Prov. 
vi. 16-19: Isa. lix. 2, 4. Lies form one of the marks of the great apostacy,2 Thess. 
ii. 9 : 1 Tim. iv. 2: 1 John ii. 22. 

3. To others in special relations, there are owing various duties, which we are 
bound in justice to discharge, see Cor. and Titus. 

And here, perhaps, heathen morality would end. The Gospel, however, has pre- 
cepts of even a nobler kind. In addition to duties that spring out of jj u ^j es f l>©- 
what is due to man it enjoins others, the duties of peace and love, or nevolence* 
of benevolence to all, irrespective of character or desert. Natural Peace and 
affection is a feeling which is due between those who sustain mutual love - 
relations. Gratitude is the least return which the recipient of kindness can pay to 
his benefactor. Admiration is the homage which is paid to virtue. But over and 
above these feelings the Gospel inculcates universal good-will, in spite even of vice 
and hostility. 

Upon all it urges the exercise of a peaceful disposition, a calm, patient, friendly 
temper in ourselves, and all proper effort to promote a kindred feeling 
In others. No duty is more solemnly enjoined, and from the deserip- Peace, 
fcions as well as from the precepts of the Bible, it may be gathered that peace iu 
our homes, in our churches, in nations, and throughout the world is the thing most 
needed to secure individual and social happiness, and that such peace is the fruit 
of the Gospel. 

Rom. xii. 18; xiv. 19: 2 Cor. xiii. 11: Gal. v. 22: Eph. iv. 3: 1 Thess. v. 13, 14: 
Heb.xii. 14: James iii. 16-18: 1 Pet. iii. 11: 2 Tim. ii. 22. 

Peace, like truth, is one of the attributes of God, Phil. iv. 9: Col. iii. 15: 1 Thess. 
y. 23 : 2 Thess. iii- 16 : and of the Gospel, Eph. vi. 15. In value, it is second only to 
truth and principle, Gal. ii. 11-16: James iii. 17, 18. 

To preserve it, cultivate the tempers favorable to it, Eph. vi. 10-18: Gal. v. 16-26: 
Phil. ii. 2; James iv. 1-11: 1 Pet. iii. 4: 1 Tim. ii. 2. Avoid all bitter contentious 
language, 1 Cor. x. 32: Eph. iv. 31: and seek it of the God of peace, 1 Tim. ii. 2: 
Psa. cxxii. 6-8. If lost, copy Abraham, Gen. xiii. 8: or Abimelech, xxi. 25-32: or 
the Israelites, Josh. xxii. 

Further, as religion begins in love to God, so it ends in love to man, universal 
good-will. Its principle is, a desire for the good of others; in its Love 4 

operation it teaches us to avoid insincerity (which is to love what 
hypocrisy is to truth), flattery, censoriousness, to practice liberality, a spirit of 
forbearance and forgiveness, and secures when perfect the consecration of life 
itself to the welfare of our race. 

The neglect of this second class of duties has done irreparable mischief in the 
world. Men have everywhere forgotten that bare justice is not the Scriptural rule. 
Love is always just, butjustice is notalways loving, and Christian morality requires 
them both. The recollection of this truth might serve to humble us ; and it would 
certainly serve to illustrate the perfections of God, of which our good-will is a faint 
type, and commend the Gospel to the admiration of our race. 

Rom. xii. 10, 19, 20 : 1 Cor. iv. 12. 13; xiii. 1-13: Gal. v. 14; vi. 10: 1 Thess. iii. 12: 
James ii. 8: 1 Pet iii. 9: Luke vi. 30-36, etc. 

(xii.) We have lastly in this Epistle a revelation of God's design in relation to 
lie jews, and propagation of the Gospel among the Gentiles, and the general 



676 



ROMANS — LESSONS. 



conversion of both in the last days. Chaps, ix. to xi.: read the three tocret.ier, aiul 
chap. xv. 8-12. Compare Eph. iii. 1-12: Jer. xxxi.-xxxiii. : Ezek. xxxvi.-xxxix.- 
Zech. xii.-xiv. 

180. Rich as this Epistle is in passages formally discussing Christian 
truth, it is not less rich in incidental expressions abounding in spiritual 
significance. 

(i. 1). The Gospel is called with nearly equal frequency the Gospel 
of God, and the Gospel of Christ. It is God's, for it originates in his 
counsel and love, illustrates his righteousness, and is revealed by his 
Spirit. It is Christ's, for he is its theme ; it is preached by his servants, 
and in his name. See 1 Cor. i. 24 : Phil. ii. 11. 

(i. 3). Christ's resurrection is the evidence and effect of the complete- 
ness of his work ; the commencement of his reign, and the earnest of 
our resurrection, Acts ii. 24; xvii. 31: Eph. i. 20: Heb. ii. 14: Rom. 
iv. 25. Here the fact is rnade an evidence of his Divine nature. As 
man Christ could die ; as the Living God, the Quickening Spirit, it was 
not possible that Death should hold him, Acts ii. 24 : John xx. 9. 

(i. 13-15). To Paul's thwarted desire to visit Rome, we owe subordi- 
nate^ this Epistle, which is a blessing for all time. It prepared the 
way, moreover, for those cordial greetings with which Paul was after- 
wards welcomed to the imperial city, Acts xxviii. 14, 15. " Still out 
of seeming ill, educing good." 

(i. 17). Christ died to justify God in exercising mercy. He lived to 
exhibit the Divine holiness, and honor the Divine law. He obeyed 
unto death, that he might lay the foundation of our acceptance, i. e., 
of pardon and holiness. Hence the plan of justification is called the 
" righteousness of God." It vindicates God's holinesss while illustrating 
his grace; and it gives to the sinner who believes the perfect title of 
our righteous Redeemer. 

(i. 19-21). Ignorance is clearly not the primary cause of man's hos 
tility to God. His hostility is rather the cause of his ignorance 
Atheism, practical or avowed, has its origin in the heart, Psa. liii. 

(i. 25). The same heart that is averse to holiness is prone to religious 
observance. Nature pointing to a Great First Cause ; conscience, im- 
plying a Supreme Law-giver; taste, and sentiment even, suggesting 
the idea of One, who is infinitely fair and good, combine to make a 
God a natural necessity. . . . The progress of error we may mark, is 
ever downward (v. 23). Men first worshipped an image made like to 
corruptible man — and at last creeping things ! 

(i. 22). So little did man feel his condition, that while his folly moat 
clearly appeared t he was boasting of his wisdom. 



JAMES — DATE — CONTENTS. 



677 



(i. 26). Man's depravity begins in Godlessness, and ends in moral 
corruption. The reason for each is given in verses 25 and 32. These 
verses describe, not the Romans, but man. 

Nearly every word, sentence, and verse, is thus suggestive, either in 
itself, or when compared with other parts of the Bible. If in some 
respects, our study of Scripture cannot be too comprehensive, in others, 
it cannot be too minute. 

THE GENERAL EPISTLE OF JAMES — JERUSALEM, A. D. 61* 

181. There were two apostles named James or Jacob ; one of whom 
was the son of Zebedee and the brother of John, and was put to death 
by Herod, as related in Acts xii. 2 ; and the other called James the 
Less, or the Little (Mark xv. 40), probably in allusion to his stature, 
was the son of Alphseus or Cleopas (see Matt. x. 3: Mark iii. 18: Acts 
i. 13 : Luke xxiv. 18) ; and being a near kinsman of the Lord, is called 
his brother, Gal. i. 19, etc. The latter of these is commonly supposed 
to have been the writer of this Epistle. a 

After most of the apostles had gone to other countries, James appears 
to have resided permanently in Jerusalem, superintending the affairs 
of the church in that city and neighborhood (see Acts xii. 17; xv. 
13-29; xxi. 18-24: Gal i. 18, 19; ii. 9, 12); and maintaining such 
reputation for eminent sanctity as to acquire, even among his unbe- 
lieving countrymen, the honorable appellation of " the Just." It was, 
therefore, most appropriate that James should be directed to address 
this letter to his own people, exhibiting to them, not so much the 
peculiar doctrines, as the elevating and sanctifying influence of the 
Gospel. For he knew well that they had become too much accustomed 
to a professed belief in God's word, whether spoken by Moses or by 
Christ, without allowing it to affect their hearts or conduct. Hence 
the apparent (though not real) discrepancy between him and Paul on 
the subject of justification by faith. (See Part i. \\ 285, 297, 511 c.) 

It is a striking proof of the adaptedness of the Gospel to our condi- 
tion, and of our tendency to abuse it, that when the Gospel was first 
introduced men were unwilling to be justified by grace alone: hence 
the Epistles to the Romans and to the Galatians. Now that the Gospel 
has been established, men pervert it by overlooking the importance of 
works as an evidence and necessary result of saving faith. The 
Gospel, however, has an appropriate message for both. 

This Epistle is supposed to have been written after the Epistle to the 



a See, however, Kitto's Cyc. Art., James. 

57* 



678 



JAMES — DATE — CONTENTS. 



Romans, i. e., not before A. D. 58, and probably in 61, the year before 
the apostle's martyrdom. Neander, Davidson, and others, gave an 
earlier date, about A. D. 45. The whole strain of the Epistle, however, 
indicates a state of degeneracy both degrading and extensive, such as 
could hardly have existed at the commencement of the Gospel. 

As those to whom the apostle addressed were in trying circum- 
stances, he begins with encouragements and counsels specially suited 
to their condition (i. 1-15). He then describes the nature of true re- 
ligion, in its origin, and in its effects upon the heart and the conduct 
(i. 16-27); enjoins sincere and impartial love, without reference to 
outward condition and circumstances (ii. 1-13); and exposes the 
hypocrisy of the man who pretends to have faith, while his works do 
not answer to his words ; quoting Scripture examples to show that the 
faith which God had approved had been always evidenced by works 
(ii. 14-27). Then to check some prevailing evils arising from a fond- 
ness for becoming teachers and censors, he gives cautions and rebukes 
on those subjects. He exhibits, in a series of striking metaphors, the 
evils of an unbridled tongue ; and contrasts the disputatious, envious, 
and angry spirits of the schools of earthly wisdom with the pure, 
peaceful, gentle, and beneficent character of that which is of heavenly 
origin (3). He exposes the effects of the spirit of the world, as ex- 
hibited in the conduct of those who are under its influence ; and exhorts 
to submission to God and resistance to the devil. He calls sinners and 
hypocrites to repent, and to humble themselves before God ; and warns 
Christians against speaking evil, censuring, or sitting in judgment 
upon each other (iv. 1-12). He reproves the presumption of those 
who formed their worldly projects without any sense of their depend- 
ence upon God ; and the covetousness and oppression of the rich 
(iv. 13-17; v. 1-6). Then, returning to the suffering Christians he en- 
courages them to patience by the prospect of the Lord's coming ; 
cautions them against swearing; recommends prayer as the best re- 
source in sorrow, and praise as the best expresssion of joy ; gives 
special directions to the sick; enjoins mutual confessions of faults and 
intercessions for each other ; the efficacy of which he illustrates in the 
case of Elijah; and, finally, urges the duties of seeking to save an 
erring brother ; and shows the blessed consequences of such an effort 
where successful (v. 7-20). 

How instructive are Scripture examples. The history of Abraham 
is quoted to prove that true faith produces holy practice. The history 
tells us, moreover, that more than twenty years after Abraham had 
been brought into a state of justification, he was called upon to exhibit 
the influence of his principles, by his readiness to offer up even his 



PAUL — EPHESIANS. 



679 



only son, Gen. xv. 6: xxii. 9-12. This fact again is a lesscin to us, and 
is decisive proof that justifying faith, once exercised, is to be habitual, 
it is not so much an act as a state. 

Connect and read as follows :— i. 1, 2, 5, 9, 12, 16, 19, 22, 26; ii. 1, 
12 ; xiv. 21, 25 ; iii. 1, 13 ; iv. 1, 4, 9, 11, 13 : v, 1 ; vii, 9, 12, 13, 19. 

THE EPISTLE OF PAUL THE APOSTLE TO THE EPHESIANS, 
POME, A. D. 62. 

182. That this Epistle was written by the Apostle Paul there is 
abundant evidence, both external and internal. But as the name 
Ephesus is wanting in chap. i. 1, in a few ancient manuscripts, it has 
been doubted to whom it was addressed. Some have supposed it to be 
the Epistle to the Laodiceans, referred to in Col. iv. 16. Others have 
conjectured from the general character of its contents, and the absence 
of local and personal allusions, that it was a circular letter to the 
churches of Asia Minor. But it is most probable that the received 
reading in chapter i. 1, is correct; and that the Epistle was written to 
the Ephesian Christians ; although probably the other churches in that 
district, of which Ephesus was the centre, were included in the apos- 
tle's intention and object. 

Such is the view taken by Usher, Hug, Michaelis, and others. 
Paley, Wetstein, and Greswell suppose, on the other hand, that this 
Epistle was addressed to Laodicea. Its circular character is sustained 
by most evidence. 

Ephesus was a large city in Ionia, the capital of the Eoman province 
of Asia. It was chiefly celebrated for its temple of Diana, which was 
of exteme magnificence, enriched with immense treasures, and re- 
garded as one of the wonders of the world. Its inhabitants were 
noted for luxury and voluptuousness, and for the practice of magical 
arts. 

The book of Acts (xviii. 18-26 ; xix ) mentions two visits of Paul to 
Ephesus. The first time, on his way to Jerusalem, he preached on one 
Sabbath in the synagogue, leaving behind him Priscilla and Aquila, 
who were shortly afterwards joined by Apollos. On his second visit, 
Paul remained there more than. two years ; probably on account of the 
importance of the place, as a principal seat of idolatry, and a great 
centre of influence, and his labors were crowned with signal success, 
both among the citizens and the inhabitants of the surrounding coun- 
try. About a year subsequently, when he was on his way from Mace- 
donia to Jerusalem, he had an interview with the elders of the Ephe- 
sian church at the neighboring sea-port of Miletus. 



680 



EPHESIANS. 



This Epistle is supposed to have been the first of those written by 
Paul while he was a prisoner at Eome, about five years, therefore, 
after his third interview with them ; and like the two which follow 
it, is remarkable for a peculiar pathos and elevation of thought and 
feeling. His whole mind seems to have been filled with the transcen- 
dent excellency of the privileges and hopes of believers in Christ, the 
all-comprehensive character of the Christian dispensation, and its cer- 
tain triumphs and glorious results. 

Anxious for the welfare of his Ephesian converts, the apostle was 
about to send Tychicus to them; and he wrote this Epistle, one object 
of which was to remove any feelings of distrust or discouragement 
which the intelligence of his imprisonment might have produced in 
their minds; and to prevent that circumstance being taken advantage 
of by Jewish zealots to lower his apostolic authority, or oppose the 
great truth in which he gloried — the unity and universality of the 
church as the body of Christ. 

This Epistle may be divided into two parts : — i. Doctrinal (i.-3) ; and 
ii. Practical (iv -6). 

i. After the opening salutation, Paul breaks forth into expressions 
of praise* to God for the blessings of redemption, and especially for the 
extension of them to the Gentiles, of which they had an earnest in tho 
baptism of the Spirit; dwells on the two wonderful displays of omnipo • 
tent grace, first in the glorification of Christ, and then in that of his re- 
generated people (i. ; ii. 1-10), and reminds the Ephesians of their 
former heathen state of spiritual death and distance from God, and of 
the great change in their condition by being now, through his sovereign 
mercy, admitted to the fellowship of saints (ii. ll-22 b .) Then, describ- 
ing himself as a prisoner in the cause of Christ for the sake of 
the Gentiles, he speaks of the special revelation and commission, 
granted to him in reference to them ; grounds upon it an exhortation 
not to be discouraged at his sufferings ; and assures them of his prayers 
that they might be increasingly enlightened and strengthened, and 
have a full enjoyment of the benefits of Christ's redeeming love (3). 

ii. In the remaining chapters of the Epistle, which are chiefly prac- 
tical, the apostle beseeches them to maintain a conduct and spirit 

a Mark how prayers and thanksgivings are offered under the Gospel, 
through the Spirit, and by the Son, Rom. viii. 26; i. 13-23; iii. 14-21; 
vi. 18: 1 John v.: Jas. L : Jude xx. : Phil. i. 3-11: Col. i. 9-12. 

b On the favor manifested towards heathen converts, see Rom. v.: 
Col. ii. 9-14 : 1 Pet. i. 18-ii. 10. 



EPHESIANS — COLOSSIANS. 



681 



worthy of the exalted privileges to which they had been called ; re- 
minds them of the great ends which the spiritual gifts bestowed upon 
them were designed to promote ; enjoins upon them a course of con- 
duct in direct contrast to that of the heathen around them and to their 
own former lives ; a exhorts them particularly to unity, truthfulness, 
meekness, honesty, and industry; to purity of speech; to kindness and 
generosity, after the example of Christ; and to universal uprightness 
and holiness of conduct (iv. ; v. 1-20). He then enforces, by motives 
peculiar to the Gospel, an exemplary discharge of all relative duties 
(v. 21 ; vi. 9) ; concluding with animated exhortations to fortitude, 
watchfulness and prayer ; followed by a commendation of Tychicus, 
the bearer of the Epistle, and by his apostolic benedictions (vi. 10-24). b 

In the circumstances in which this Epistle was written, and in the 
subsequent history of the Ephesian church, there is much that is in- 
structive. The Epistle which dwells most on the unsearchable 
riches of God's wisdom and love, was written when its author was in 
bonds. A heart filled with thoughts most spiritual and heavenly 
devotes attention to relative and moral duties (iv. 28 ; v. ; vi. 1-9) 
and Holy Spirit (iv. 32; v. 2-25; vi. 5; iv. 30). The churches to 
which the Epistle was addressed, are not much censured here, but a 
few years later they were in a very different state, Rev. ii. 1-7 ; iii. 
14-19. Their history is a solemn warning to- Christians in every age. 

Connect and read as follows: — i. 1, 3, 15; ii. 1, 11, 19; iii. 1, 14; 
20; iv. 1-7; svii. 25, 26, 28, 29, 31; v. 3, 15, 25; vi. 1, 4, 5, 10; 
xzi. 23. 

THE EPISTLE TO THE COLOSSIANS, ROME, A. D. 62. 

183. Colosse was one of the chief cities of Phrygia, which, at the 
date of this Epistle, was a very rich and fertile country, though now 
under the Moslem yoke; and is in a great measure uncultivated. 
Phrygia was twice visited by Paul, Acts xvi. 8 ; xviii. 23, but whether 
he reached Colosse is doubted. The tenor of the Epistle favors the 
conclusion that he did not (see especially ii. 1) ; but it is certain that 
he knew several of the Colossian Christians, of whom Archippus, their 
minister, and Philemon are expressly named. The Colossians, having 
heard of Paul's imprisonment, sent to him Epaphras, their minister, to 

a See Col. iii. 1-13. 

h On the warfare and armor of the Christian, see vi. 10-18: 1 Thes. 
v. 6-10: 1 Pet. v. 7, 8: Heb. iv. 12: 2 Cor. vi. 7. 



682 



COLOSSIANS. 



comfort the apostle, and imform him of their state. Epaphras, shortly 
after reaching Rome, was also imprisoned, Philem. xxiv. 

This Epistle was written during Paul's first imprisonment at Rome 
(i. 24; iv. 18); and prohably at an early period of it, about the same 
time as those to the Ephesians and to Philemon ; as they appear to 
have been all sent by the messengers, Tychicus and Onesimus, the 
latter of whom was returning to his master, Philemon, at Colosse. 
The account given of the church by Epaphras was on the whole satisfac- 
tory. There appears, however, to have been some danger from false 
teachers, who aimed to combine with Christianity the speculations of 
the philosophers (ii. 4-8), and superstitious observances (ii. 16). 

The striking resemblance between this Epistle and that to the 
Ephesians, indicates some similarity in the tendencies of the two 
churches. 

The two Epistles must, in fact, be read together. " The one is," as 
Michaelis observes, " a commentary on the other." Both, moreover, 
are exceedingly rich in exhibitions of the glory of the Gospel. 

This Epistle was to be sent to Laodicea, and the Colossians were to 
receive from Laodicea the Epistle he had directed to be sent on to 
them, probably the present Epistle to the Ephesians. 

The Epistle may be divided into two parts — doctrinal and practical. 

i. After the usual salutation, the apostle expresses his thankfulness 
for the effects of the Gospel among the Colossians, and his prayerful 
anxiety that they might continue to advance in spiritual knowledge 
and in Christian virtues (i. 1-14); he sets forth the divine and the 
mediatorial glories of the Redeemer, and gives a sublime view of the 
whole doctrine of reconciliation by Christ, both in its amplitude, as 
affecting all created beings, and in its individual application to believers 
in their personal conversion to God (i. 14-21). He then speaks of his 
cwn labors and sufferings as the apostle of the Gentiles, and expresses 
his intense solicitude for their stability and perseverance (i. 21 ; ii. 5). 

He cautions them against particular errors ; showing that no philoso- 
phical speculations, no human ordinances or traditions, no ascetic 
austerities, could raise the soul above gross pursuits, or enable it to 
realize unseen and eternal objects. But that, on the other hand, in 
Christ is perfect salvation; faith in him not only reconciling us to 
God, but, by connecting us with an ascended Redeemer, leading our 
thoughts and desires to things above (ii. 6 ; iii. 4). 

ii. He then expands the application of the foregoing doctrine, points 
out the operation of this vitalizing faith, in subduing the propensities 
of the old sinful nature, and producing and sustaining the varied holi- 
ness of the new man ; and, above all, brotherly love, which is to be 



COLOSSIANS — PHILEMON. 



683 



exercised in social worship and mutual edification (iii. 4-16). He gives 
brief directions for the fulfilment of domestic duties (iii. 18-25 ; iv. 1) ; 
exhorts the Colossians to constancy in prayer and thanksgiving, and 
to consistent conduct before the world (iv. 1-6); and in conclusion, 
mentions Tychicus and Onesimus, who would give them full informa- 
tion of all his circumstances ; and sends salutations from his fellow 
laborers and from himself, among others, to their minister : adding a 
touching injunction, at the moment of signing the letter, to remember 
his bonds (iv. 6-18). 

Connect and read as follows:— i. 1, 3, 9, 19, 21, 24; ii. 1, 6, 8, 16, 
20; iii. 1, 5, 12, 16, 18, 20, 22; iv. 1, 2, 5, 7, 10, 15, 18. 

THE EPISTLE OF PAUL TO PHILEMON, ROME, A. D. 62. 

184. This inspired model of private Christian correspondence was 
addressed by the apostle Paul to Philemon, one of his converts residing 
at Colosse (compare ver. 2, 10, 19, with Col. iv. 9, 17), of whom nothing 
more is known than may be gathered from the letter. From this it 
has been supposed that Philemon was an elder or deacon in the church, 
and that Appia was his wife. Archippus seems to have been pastor at 
Colosse, Col. iv. 17. 

This Epistle was evidently written (see ver. 1, 10, 23), and sent at 
the same time as that to the Colossians (see Col. iv. 8 : compare also 
ver. 23, 24, with Col. iv. 10-14). Onesimus, the subject of this Epistle 
and the bearer of both, was a slave (probably a domestic servant) of 
Philemon, who, having fled from his master, had found his way to 
Rome; and, while there, had been converted by the instrumentality 
of Paul, ver. 10. After a time, Paul, thinking it rigH that he should 
return to his master, wrote this elegant and persuasive letter in order 
to secure for him a kind reception. 

After an affectionate salutation from himself and Timothy, the 
apostle expresses his thankfulness at hearing of the good reputation 
which Philemon as a Christian enjoyed: and then gracefully intro- 
duces the main subject of his letter: requesting as "Paul the aged," 
now a prisoner for their common faith, what he might as an apostle 
have commanded. Acknowledging the fault of Onesimus, he mentions 
the happy change which had taken place in him: and hints that his 
Might had been overruled for his master's benefit as well as his own ; 
and entreats that he may be received back, no longer as a slave, bat 
as a beloved Christian brother. He then delicately proposes to make 
good any loss Philemon might have sustained ; whilst he intimates 
how great were his friend's obligations to himself. 

This short letter is invaluable, as offering an example of humility, 



684 



PHILIPPIANS. 



courteousness, and freedom, in the intercourse of Christian friendship : 
and we cannot but suppose that the gentleness and address of the 
apostle's pleading were effectual. 

Connect and read, i. 1, 4, 8, 21, 23, 25. Compare on the whole 
spirit of this Epistle, 1 Tim. vi. 1, 2: James i. 9-11 : Philip, ii. 3-8. 

THE EPISTLE OF PAUL THE APOSTLE TO THE PHILIPPIANS. 
ROME, A. D. 63. 

185. Philippi was a city of Macedonia, enlarged by Philip of Mace- 
dca, and afterwards colonized by Julius Caesar, who gave the people the 
privileges of a Roman city; and it is distinguished as having been tli6 
first place in Europe which received the Gospel, Paul having been 
specially directed thither by the Holy Spirit, in opposition to his pre- 
vious plans, Acts xvi. On arriving at Philippi, Paul followed his 
usual custom of addressing himself first to the Jews ; who appear, 
however, to have been few in number. Those who met for worship at 
a place of prayer outside the city were chiefly women ; one of whom, 
a pious stranger from Asia, was the first convert to Christianity. The 
successful labors of Paul and Silas, and the persecution raised 
against them, which led to their uudden departure from it, are related 
in Acts, chap. xvi. That Paul visited Philippi again, before his first 
imprisonment at Rome, is plain from Acts xx. 1, 2, 6. On his first 
visit he seems to have left Luke behind him (xvi. 12 ; xvii. 1). Luke, 
also, who was with him at the earlier part of his imprisonment (Acts 
xxvii. : Col. iv. 14), seems now to have left him (ii. 20, 21) 

This Epistle was manifestly written at Rome (see chap. i. 12-14 ; 
iv. 22), and, probably, during the latter part of the apostle's first cap- 
tivity in that city. For Paul, at the time of writing it, anticipated a 
speedy decision in his case, and hoped to obtain his release, (i. 25, 27 ; 
ii. 23, 24). It appears to have been written on the occasion of the 
return of Epaphroditus, whom the Philippian church had sent to Rome 
with a pecuniary contribution for the apostle's relief during his im- 
prisonment, and who, while zealously performing this service, had 
fallen dangerously ill : the tiding of which so afflicted the Philippians, 
that the apostle was induced, upon his recovery, to send him back 
sooner than he had intended (ii. 24-30). 

The church at Philippi appears to have been one of the most pure 
and generous of that age Its members showed the tenderest regard 
for Paul. Twice while he was at Thessalonica, and once when at 
Corinth, they had generously sent him contributions for his support, 
which he accepted, to prevent the- Gospel being burdensome to more 



PHILIPPIANS. 



685 



recent converts (iv. 15, 16 : 2 Cor. xi. 9). They had also cheerfully 
borne many sufferings for their adherence to the Saviour (i. 28-30). 
Their conduct had been uniformly so exemplary that he had only to 
rejoice over them. Accordingly, in this Epistle, he pours forth his 
heart in expressions of devout thankfulness and hearty commendations, 
not unmingled, however, with exhortations and counsel. 
This Epistle may be divided into three parts: — 

i. After an affectionate introduction, Paul expresses his gratitude to 
God for the Philippians, and his earnest desire for the increase of their 
knowledge and holiness (i. 1-11). That they might not be dejected on 
his account he assures them that his imprisonment had not hindered 
but promoted the Gospel; some gathering boldness from his bonds, and 
others preaching Christ of contention. If Christ be but preached and 
magnified, whether it be by Paul's labors or by his martyrdom, he 
himself is more than content. The former he thinks most probable ; 
and exhorts the Philippians at all events to maintain a conduct worthy 
of the Gospel ; to be steadfast and courageous, united, generous, and 
humble, copying the example of their blessed Lord, and reminds them 
that their consistency and usefulness are his own highest rewards. 
He promises to send Timothy to them, gives his reason for sending 
Epaphroditus, and adds the character of each (i. 12; ii). a 

ii. He exhorts them to rejoice in their Christian privileges; and to 
be on their guard against Judaizing teachers, who prided themselves 
upon distinctions in which he himself could more than compete with 
them ; but which, however he once valued, he now regarded as utterly 
worthless, in comparison with the surpassing excellency of the know- 
ledge of Christ; and then referring to his own holy ambition to strive 
after perfection, urges upon the Philippians a similar spii.it ; contrast- 
ing with this the conduct of some false professors, against whom he 
had previously warned them (iii.-iv. 1). 

iii. Admonitions are addressed to individual members of the church ; 
followed by exhortations to holy joy, moderation, prayer, and thanks- 
giving; and to the study and practice of all that is true, just, pure, 
amiable, and praiseworthy (iv. 2-9). The Epistle concludes with 
grateful acknowledgements of the repeated proofs of affection, care, 
and sympathy, which he had received from the Philippians, in which 
he rejoiced for their sakes ; intimating, however, with noble delicacy, 

a Persecution endured with steadfastness conforms us to Christ, and 
is a token of coming judgment, i. 27 : 2 Thess. i. 5, 6: 1 Pet. i. 6-10; 
iii. 14; iv. 7, 12-18: 1 John iii. 13. 

58 



686 



HEBREWS — AUTHORSHIP. 



his contentment with either poverty or abundance, and closes with 
salutations and a benediction (iv. 10-23). 

Connect and read as follows:— i. 1, 12, 15, 21, 27: ii. 1, 5, 12, 17, 19, 
25; iii. 1, 2, 12, 15; iv. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 15, 20, 21, 23. 

THE EPISTLE OF PAUL THE APOSTLE TO THE HEBREWS, 
ROME, A. D. 63. 

186. As the Holy Spirit did not direct the author of this Epistle to 
insert his own name, or to specify the persons to whom it was ad- 
dressed, the determination of these questions cannot be essential to its 
right use : nor is it surprising that there should have been much dif- 
ference of opinion upon them. Whilst, however, many both in former 
and in later times have thought otherwise, it has always been the pre- 
vailing belief that the apostle Paul was its author. The following 
remarks will show how strong is the evidence in favor of this decision. 

(1.) Those to whom the Epistle was sent must have known the writer 
(see chap. x. 34; xiii. 18, 19, 23): and in preserving and circulating it - 
could hardly fail to communicate their knowledge. Now the early 
fathers of the Eastern and Alexandrian churches, in the second and 
third centuries, tell us that the " ancients" (who must have been con- 
temporary with, if not the same persons as those who received the 
original) had handed it down to them as a writing of Paul's. And the 
most learned among them, Clement and Alexandria, Origen, and 
Eusebius, though sensible of some difficulties and doubts on the point, 
regarded this testimony as conclusive. — (2.) This is corroborated by the 
author's intimate acquaintance with the Jewish system — so worthy of 
the disciple of Gamaliel; and his sympathizing interest in the salva- 
tion of the Jewish people — so like that which is expressed in Roin. 
ix. x. xi., and in Phil iii. — (3.) The few personal allusions found in the 
Epistle, are all perfectly compatible with what we know of the history 
of Paul. — (4.) Nor is there anything in the peculiarities of st}de and 
treatment of the subject that cannot be satisfactorily reconciled with 
Paul's other Epistles. If it differ from them in the rhetorical length 
of words and finish of sentences, it is only the more like his speeches 
recorded by Luke. So regular a composition would naturally vary in 
manner from letters of a different character, written under different 
circumstances. Yet the careful reader may sometimes find the concise 
expressions, abrupt transition, reasonings addressed to the latent 
thoughts and objections of the readers, and the occasional involutions 
and long parentheses resulting from the kindling of soul and exuber- 
ance of feeling, which characterize the apostle's other writings. So 



HEBREWS — CONTENTS. 



687 



that the internal as well as external evidence appears to support the 
opinion of the early fathers, that the Epistle is substantially Paul's ; 
though he may have adopted occasionally, as some critics suppose, the 
phraseology of his companion Luke. 

"Why this Epistle, like the First of John, was anonymous, it is im- 
possible to say. Perhaps the apostle wished that its first hearers or 
readers should feel the force of its contents before knowing from 
whom it came, as the Jews generally were greatly prejudiced against 
him. 

The Epistle was clearly addressed to Hebrew Christians: who appear 
to have been inhabitants of some particular city or region (see chap, 
xiii. 23) : and to have formed an organized society or church which 
had existed some time ; having had pastors who had been removed by 
death (xiii. 7) : and having now teachers, whom they are exhorted to 
obey (xiii. 17). It has been generally supposed that they were resident 
in Palestine, either at Jerusalem or Csesarea. 

To this class the Epistle is peculiarly adapted : exposed as they were 
to the danger of falling back into Judaism, or of attaching too much 
importance to the ancient law. The writer sets before them the 
supreme authority, the peculiar sanctions, and the transcendent glory 
of the Christian dispensation, as concurring to render unbelief the 
more inexcusable, and apostasy the more criminal and fatal. 

It is worthy of remark, how the whole reasoning was fitted to those 
for whom the Epistle was written. Addressing Jews, the writer 
exhibits with due prominence all that they justly venerated; and 
draws all his illustrations (xii. 16, 18 ; xiii. 2, 10, 12, 14) : and examples 
of what is noble and excellent (xi.) from their own records and history. 
When about to make a statement at variance with Jewish views and 
feelings, he cautiously*prepares their minds for it (v. 11) ; and he con- 
stantly reasons upon their own principles. The Jews had looked upon 
themselves as especially favored, in possessing a Divine revelation 
which appointed Moses as the lawgiver, Aaron and his race as the 
priests, and all the temple rites as the worship of God. The apostle 
does not overlook this peculiarity, but, accommodating it to his line of 
proof, shows that the Christian faith is but the completion of their own. 

This Epistle may be divided into two principal parts : the first, in- 
tended to explain the meaning, and prove the inferiority of the Jewish 
dispensation: the second, to confirm' and comfort Jewish believers in 
their religious profession. 

i. Having noticed that the Mosaic and Christian dispensation both 
proceed from the same Divine author, the sacred writer shows the sur- 
passing excellency of the latter, as being introduced by the Messiah. — 1. 



688 



HEBKEWS — CONTENTS. 



Greater than prophets, and even angels; notwithstanding his humilia- 
tion unto death, which, so far from diminishing his glory, was the very 
means of accomplishing his great work of redemption, (i. 2.) — 2. Su- 
perior to Moses, their venerated law-giver, who nevertheless was but 
a servant. Here the apostle solemnly warns the Hebrew Christians, 
lest they should lose through unbelief that present rest and final glory, 
of which the Canaan into which Joshua had led their forefathers was 
but a type. (iii. ; iv. 1-13.) — 3. Then, as the Jews rightly attached the 
highest importance to their priesthood and sacrifices, he expatiates at 
length upon the superior excellence and efficacy of the priesthood and 
sacrifice of Christ; shows that the necessary qualifications of a high 
priest, namely, that he should be appointed by God and able to sympa- 
thize with men, were found in the Lord Jesus (iv. 16 ; v. 10) : and 
having cited from the prophetic Scriptures a declaration concerning 
the supreme and eternal priesthood of the Messiah as typified by Mel- 
chisedec, he interrupts his argument with a reproof to those whom he 
addressed for their small proficiency in Christian knowledge ; adding 
warnings and encouragements, (v. 11-vi.) Then, returning from this 
digression, he compares the priesthood of Christ with that of the Jewish 
high priests in several particulars, (vii. ; viii.) He next illustrates the 
emblematical and temporary nature of the Levitical services, which are 
realized in Christ ; compares the ministrations of the high priest in the 
worldly sanctuary with the intercession of Christ in the presence of 
God above ; and contrasts the merely typical virtue of the oft- repeated 
Jewish sacrifices with the intrinsic and perpetual efficacy of the one 
perfect and all-sufficient propitiation, (ix. ; x. 1-18.) 

ii. Upon this reasoning the apostle grounds his practical application. 
After a general exhortation to steadfastness in faith, hope, and mutual 
encouragement, he points out the aggravated guilt and awful issue of 
apostasy. Then, having reminded the Hebrew believers of their forti- 
tude and faithful adherence under former trials, he points out the in- 
dispensable necessity, in order to their perseverance and salvation, of 
maintaining the life of faith, (x. 19-25.) After describing the nature 
of faith, he shows it to have been the main principle of religion in 
every age; and illustrates its powerful operation and triumphant effi- 
cacy in a long line of heroes, martyrs, and confessors, from Abel to the 
close of the Old Testament dispensation ; and above all in Jesus Cheist 
himself, whose temptations and sufferings were far beyond theirs, (xi. ; 
xii. 1-3.) He further encourages them by reminding them that their 
afflictions were but the discipline of a Father's hand, and designed for 
their ultimate good (xii. 4-11); enjoins upon them tender mutual con- 
sideration and watchfulness ; warns them against bartering, like Esau, 



HEBREWS — VARIOUS TRUTHS. 689 

spiritual privileges for present gratifications (xii. 12-17) ; stimulates 
them, by contrasting the terrific material splendors of the Mosaic law 
with the solemn but cheering spiritual glories of the gospel ; and infers 
that, in proportion to the magnitude of their privileges, would be the 
danger of neglecting them (xii. 18-29). 

In conclusion, he gives specific precepts on various practical duties, 
and closes with salutations and a benediction (xiii. 1-25). 

187. Mark in this Epistle the following lessons : — 

The dignity of Christ, as the express image of the Father, the Creator 
of all things, the restorer of fallen man, the righteous King, the object 
of angelic worship : 

1. i.-ii. 9: Col. i. 13-19; ii. 10: 2 Cor. iv. 6 : 1 Pet. hi. 22: 1 John 
i. 1,2: Rev. iv. 11; v. 6-13 ; xix. 11-21: John i. 1-18 ; iii. 13-21; 
xxxi. 36: Zech ix. 9: Psa. ii.: Isa. xii. 2: Acts x. 40-42. 

His incarnation and its objects: He gives a complete revelation, 
suffers, sympathizes, aids ; and as Captain of our salvation conducts to 
glory. The plea that men need saintly intercession is more than met 
by the humanity and sympathy of our Lord : 

2. x.-xviii; iv. 15; v.: 2 Cor. v. 18-21: Phil. i. 5-11; ii. 7, 8: Gal, 
iv. 4-7: Rom. viii. 3: Gen. iii. 15: Isa. vii. 14: John i. 14. 

His superiority over Moses, Joshua, and Aaron; and the consequent 
duty of hearkening to his voice, with the fearful sin of unbelief and 
apostasy. 

3. i.-iv. 13: see Numb. xii. 1-10 : Josh. xi. 15-23 : Rev. vii. 9-17: 
Isa. ix. 6, 7: John vi. 32-58. 

4. xiv.-vi. 20; ii. 17, 18; x. 19-23 : Eph. ii. 18; iii. 12: Exod. 
xxviii. xxix. : Psa. cx Compare 2 Pet. ii. 15-22. 

The peculiar excellence of Christ's priesthood, 3 of the new covenant, 
and of Christ as Mediator, b and of the sacrifice offered by our Lord, 
with the sentiments and responsibilities appropriate to each. d 

The apostle gives the significance of the ancient economy and its 
various ordinances. The whole was a shadow or type of good things 
to come (x. 1) : but the significance of particular parts only is here ex- 
plained. 

a vii. 1-viii. 6 : Rev. v. 6-13 ; i. 5, 6: Eph. i. 7 : Col. i. 14 : 1 John ii. 
2 : Matt. xx. 28. 

b viii. 7; ix. 1-22: 2 Cor. iii. : 1 Cor. xi. 25: Rom. iii. 19,31; v. 2; 
vi: John xiv. 6: Exod. xxxiv. 28; xx. 1-17. 
c ix. 23-x. 18 : Eph. v. 2 : Tit. ii. 14. 

d x. 19-37: ii. 1-18; iv. 16: Rom. viii. 28-39; 15-17: 1 Cor. x. 
1-12: Rev. iii. 1-4: Rom. xi. 21. 
58* 



690 HEBREWS — VARIOUS TRUTHS. 

The holy of holies, as entered by the high priest, may represent 
heaven into which Christ enters, ix. 1-14, 21 : Lev. xvi. The sanctu- 
ary, as dwelt in by God, may represent our Lord (John ii. 21: Col. ii. 
9), or the church, Eph. ii. 19-22 : 1 Pet. ii. 5, 9 ; the golden candlestick, 
the church as enlightened by the word and Spirit of God, Rev. i. 20; 
iv. 5 : Phil. ii. 15, 16 : Matt. v. 14-16 ; the incense, the prayers and 
praises of saints, Heb. xiii. 15 : Rev. viii. 3, 4 : Exod. xxx. 1-8, 34-36 ; 
the second vail, Christ's flesh, rent to allow access unto God, x. 19, 20 : 
Mark xv. 37, 38 : Exod. xxvi. 31-33 : the pot of manna, the true bread, 
Rev. ii. 17 : John vi. 48-51 : Exod. xvi. 32-34 ; and the mercy-seat, the 
throne of grace, to which the penitents have free access by the blood 
of Christ, who is the propitiation for sin, ix. 5, compared with iv. 16: 
Col. ii. 10-17: Rom. iii. 25: Psa. xl. 6-8: Exod. xxv. 10-22. 

The inferiority of this ancient dispensation is repeatedly announced, 
Heb. vii. 22; ix. 9: Gal. iii. 1-5; iv. 9, 10: 2 Cor. iii. : John i. 

As faith is the grand duty of the Gospel, enforced by the facts already 
examined, so here the apostle illustrates it by Old Testament examples. 
In spite of mystery, difficulties, trials, and delay, ancient saints con- 
fided in the Divine word, and acted in accordance not with what they 
saw, but with what they believed. So must we. Faith is the principle 
both of our pardon and of our steadfastness. 

xi. 1-xii. 13: Rom. iv. 13-25; v. 1, 2; viii. 24: 2 Cor. iv. 13-v. 8: 
1 Peter i. 8. 

The practical lessons of this Epistle are remarkable for the peculiarly 
appropriate motives to which the inspired writer appeals. 

Be thankful, steadfast, and obedient, for the darkness and terror of 
the ancient law have ceased, and a kingdom that cannot be moved is 
revealed, xii. 18-29: 1 Pet. ii. 4-10. 

Be content, though no earthly inheritance is set before you. There 
still remain Joshua's promise and the care of Joshua's God, xiii. 5, 6. 
Note the beauty, to a Jew especially, of the reason given for exercising 
hospitality, xiii. 1. 

Follow faithful teachers, hold fast the unchangeable doctrine of 
Christ, discountenance vain traditions and ritual observance, joining 
Christ without the camp, and look for the New Jerusalem, in return 
for what is lost, xiii. 7-14. 

The closing benediction (ver. 20, 21) is beautifully comprehensive 
and rich in allusions to the chief doctrine of the Epistle, the New Cove- 
nant, and the dignity and grace of the Mediator. 



1 PETER. 



6'Jl 



THE FIRST EPISTLE GENERAL OF PETER. BABYLON, A. D. 63. 

188. Peter, whose original name was Simeon or Simon, was a native 
of Bethsaida, on the sea of Gallilee ; and the son of Jonas (whence he 
is called Bar-jona, Matt. xvi. 17). At the time of his first appearance 
in the gospel history he was married, and living at Capernaum, Mark 
i. 29, 30; and, like the sons of Zebedee, followed the occupation of a 
fisherman. He was brought to Jesus by his brother Andrew, who had 
been a disciple of John the Baptist, but was led by his master's testi- 
mony to attach himself to the Divine Teacher. For some time after 
this, the two brothers continued to follow their business, until they 
were summoned by our Lord to be in constant attendance upon him, 
Matt. iv. 18-20 ; after which they were his devoted followers. 

The numerous facts related of Peter, during his attendance upon our 
Saviour, throw much light upon his character at that period. His 
sincere piety, ardent attachment to his Master, and zeal for his honor, 
seem to have been blended with some measure of rashness and incon- 
stancy ; but, after his fall and restoration, and when "endued with 
power from on high," a great change is observable in him. So that he 
fully justifies the appellation which our Lord had prophetically be- 
stowed on him, calling him Cephas or Petros ; the former a Syriac, the 
latter a Greek word, both signifying a stone or rock. Immediately 
after the out-pouring of the Holy Spirit, Peter was honored by being 
commissioned to open the gates of the kingdom of heaven first to the 
Jews, and afterwards, in the case of Cornelius and his family, to the 
Gentiles. 

These facts do not imply that he had any supreme dignity ; while 
Matt, xxiii. 8 : Gal. ii. 2, plainly prove that he had not — a conclusion 
which the testimony of antiquity confirms. 

Of the latter part of Peter's life nothing is known with certainty ; 
but it is supposed that, after his visit to Antioch, mentioned in Gal. ii. 
11, he remained at Jerusalem for some years, and then visited Syria 
and the countries mentioned in the inscription of this Epistle, which 
he wrote when he had gone into the Parthian empire. It is said by 
some that he afterwards went to Pome, and was there put to death by 
crucifixion, in fulfilment of the prophecy of our Lord respecting him, 
John xxi. 18, 19. Others maintain that he died in Babylonia.* Both 

a See on the one side, Gieseler's Eccl. History, i. \ 27, Philadelphia; 
and on the other, Simon's Mission and Martyrdom of St. Peter, Loud , 
1852. 



692 



1 PETER — CONTENTS. 



parties, however, agree that he was put to death early in Nero's reign, 
probably A. D. 64 or 65, and in the persecutions excited by that Em- 
peror. The alleged visit of Peter to Rome, in the days of Claudius, ia 
altogether without satisfactory foundation (see Introduction to Ro- 
mans). 

This Epistle is generally assigned to A. D. 63, though some give it 
an earlier date. It is certain that Mark, who was now with Peter 
(v. 13), was thinking of leaving Paul in 62 A. D., when the Epistle to 
the Collossians was written, Col. iv. 10, and was absent from him in 
64 A. D., 2 Tim. iv. 11. These facts favor the later date. 

This Epistle was addressed to the Jewish Christians scattered through- 
out the different provinces of Asia Minor ; yet not altogether without 
reference to the numerous Gentile converts which those churches con- 
tained (i. 14 ; iv. 3). It appears to have been written from Babylon 
(v. 13), which some have supposed to be a mystical name for Rome. 
This notion has been favored by writers of the Church of Rome, in 
order to prove the contested point of Peter's residence in the imperial 
city. But there is no evidence that, at that early period, the name 
Babylon was ever given to Rome ; nor can any reason be assigned 
why such a name should at that time be applied to it ; or why Peter 
should choose a figurative name, which, though adapted to a symbolical 
style, is plainly unsuited to epistolary writing. It appears, therefore, 
most reasonable to take the name in its obvious and natural significa- 
tion, like all the other names mentioned in the apostolic Epistles, and 
to refer it either to the region of Babylonia, to Babylon, or to Seleucia, 
which had been built out of the ruins of the ancient city, and in its 
immediate neighborhood. The Jews were very numerous in that dis- 
trict, and were not likely to be overlooked by the " apostle of the 
circumcision ;" and among them it is probable that a Christian church 
had been planted. 

It is well described by Leighton, as " a brief and yet very clear 
summary, both of the consolations and instructions needful for the 
encouragement and direction of a Christian in his journey to heaven; 
elevating his thoughts and desires to that happiness, and strengthening 
him against all opposition in the way, both that of corruption within, 
and temptation and afflictions from without. The heads of doctrine 
contained in it are many ; but the main that are most insisted on are 
these three, faith, obedience, and patience; — to establish in believing, 
to direct in doing, and to comfort in suffering; often setting before 
those to whom he wrote the matchless example of the Lord Jesus, and 
the greatness of their engagements to follow him." 

The general object of the Epistle is stated in v. 12, and the whole 



1 TIMOTHY. 



693 



may be divided into two parts, exclusive of the salutation, (i. 1, 2), 
introduction (3-12), and conclusion (v.* 13, 14). 

i. General exhortations to love and holiness (i. 13— ii. 10). 

ii. Particular exhortations on specific duties (ii. 11-v. 12). 

While the Epistle has thus a practical design, it is as evangelical as 
if it had been chiefly doctrinal. It points everywhere to Christ; to his 
atonement foretold by prophets, contemplated by angels appointed 
before the foundation of the world; to his resurrection, ascension, and 
gift of the Spirit; his example as a suffering Saviour, and the awful 
solemnities of the last judgment. Like his beloved brother Paul, he 
urges the doctrines of the Gospel as the great motives to holiness and 
patience; like him he descends to the enforcement of every relative 
duty, while giving the most exalted view of our privileges as believers 
in Christ. 

His humility, as illustrated by the Gospel of Mark, has been noticed 
already. His honorable notice of Paul, 2 Pet. iii., who had publicly 
reproved him, and then recorded that reproof in his Epistle to the 
Galatians, to whom Peter himself was now writing, Gal. ii. 11 : 1 Pet. 
i. 1 : 2 Pet. iii. 1, is a fresh manifestation of the same spirit. He illus- 
trates in this way his own precept, 1 Pet. v. 5, and had clearly not 
forgotten the lessons of the last days of our Lord. 

189. Mark that the incorruptible word is the appointed means of the 
Christian's growth in holiness, 1 Peter ii. 3: Col. i. 5, 6: 2 Pet. i. 8; 
iii. 18: John xvii. 17: Psa. cxix. 

Connect and read, i. X, 3, 10, 17; ii. 13, 17, 18; iii. 1, 7, 8, 18; iv. 
1, 7, 12 ; v. 1, 5, 8, 10, 11, 14. 

THE FIRST EPISTLE OF PAUL THE APOSTLE TO TIMOTHY. 
MACEDONIA, A. D. 64 OR 67. 

190. The two Epistles to Timothy and the Epistle to Titus have 
been called pastoral Epistles. They abound in instruction relative to 
the oversight of the church and other duties of the Christian ministry. 
They also abound in instruction suited for the churches themselves. 

Timothy was an inhabitant, perhaps a native, of Lydia, Acts xvi. 
1, 2. His father was a Greek, his mother and grandmother pious 
Jewesses, by whom he was carefully trained in a knowledge of the 
Scriptures, 2 Tim. iii. 14. He was probably converted by Paul on his 
first visit to Lydia, Acts xiv. 6 (see 1 Tim. i. 2: 2 Tim. i. 2: 1 Cor. iv. 
17) ; and on his second visit was chosen to be the companion of the 
apostle in his journeys and labors. He is everywhere spoken of in 
terms of high praise, 1 Thes. iii. 2 : Phil. ii. 20, and is a noble instance 



694 



1 TIMOTHY — TRUTHS. 



of eminent gifts and grace in one young in years and feeble in health 
(iv. 12; v. 23). 

It is difficult, perhaps impossible, to determine when this Epistle 
was written. It was evidently addressed to Timothy at Ephesus, and 
when Paul was either in Macedonia or on his way thither (see i. 3) 
From Acts xx. 1, we learn that Paul left Ephesus after the uproar 
caused by Demetrius, and went to Macedonia; and some learned 
critics have supposed that this Epistle was written at that time. 
There are, however, several serious difficulties in the way of that sup- 
position. 

(1.) Before Paul left Ephesus, he had sent Timothy and Erastus before him into 
Macedonia, proposing to follow them (Acts x.22), and it is very unlikely that Timothy 
returned from this long journey before Paul left Ephesus. 

(2.) About the period supposed Timothy was with Paul in Macedonia (see 2 Gor. i. 
1); whereas, when Paul wrote this Epistle, it appears that not only was Timothy at 
Ephesus, but Paul expected him to remain there for some time (see chap. iii. 15; iv. 
13). Timothy was also with the apostle at Corinth afterwards, when he wrote the 
Epistle to the Romans (Rom. xvi. 21), and when he left Greece to return to Syria, 
Acts xx. 4. Although Paul may have remained some time in Macedonia, and have 
written the Second Epistle to the Corinthians shortly before his departure from 
that country, yet it can hardly be supposed that he could have been joined there 
by Timothy so soon if he had given him a charge to abide at Ephesus. (See 
chap i. 1.) 

(3.) Further, in this Epistle,' Paul expresses his intention of coming to Ephesus 
shortly (iii. 15). But, at the period now in question, it appears from Acts xix. ^l,and 
xx. 3, that Paul had intended, after passing through Macedonia and Achaia, to 
proceed to Jerusalem, and to go, not by the circuitous route of Troas and Ephesus, 
but direct from Greece to Syria. 

These and other considerations have led many to the conclusion thatthis Epistle 
must have been written at a later period, after the apostle's first imprisonment at 
Rome, while upon a journey which he is supposed to have undertaken shortly before 
his final imprisonment. The chief difficulty in this hypothesis is the declaration of 
Paul to the elders of the church at Ephesus, when he met them at Miletus, Acts 
xx. 25; but that this was an inference of his own appears from verses 22, 23, where 
he says that he does not know what shall befall him, only that he is assured by the 
Holy Spirit that ''bonds and afflictions abide him." (See also Phil. i. 25, compared 
with chap. ii. 17, 23, 24.) Upon the whole, this question must be considered as still 
doubtful. But the difficulties attending the later date appear less than those con- 
nected with the earlier. 

The Epistle appears to have two chief objects: 

(1.) To counteract the false doctrines of Jewish teachers, who, whilst professing 
adherence to the Law, taught doctrines at variance with its holy requirements. 
Their fallacies, and the contrary truths are forcibly exhibited in chap, i; iv. 7-10; 
vi. 3-5, 20,21. Compare Acts xx. 27-32: 2 Cor. iv. 1-7. 

(ii.) To guide and encourage Timothy in the duties of his office; directing him as 
to (1,) public devotions, chap. ii. 1-S; (2,) the duties and behavior of Christian 
women, chap. ii. 9, 12: compare 1 Cor. xi. 3-16; xiv. 34-40: 1 Pet. iii. 1-6; (3,) church 



TIMOTHY — TITUS. 



695 



officers, chap. iii. 1-13; (4,) his own teaching, chap. iii. 14-iv; (5,) his personal holi- 
ness, chap. iv. 11-16 ; and (6,) his church administration in the treatment of offenders, 
of widows, of good elders and bad, of slaves, of the rich; and the duties of those 
several classes of persons, chap. v. 6; compare Titus i. 10— iii. 10. With these are 
mingled many urgent and affectionate appeals, tender references to Paul's own 
conversion, and solemn anticipations of the coming of Christ. 

The object of the Epistle is stated in the following passages : — i. 3, 4; 

iii. 15; vi. 20, 21. 

Connect and read together: — i. 1, 3, 5, 18; ii. 1, 9; iii. 1, 8, 14; 

iv. 1, 6, 12; v. 1, 3, 17, 19, 20, 22, 23, 24; vi. 1, 3, 6, 11, 17, 20. 

191. In the Epistles to Timothy and Titus— the pastoral Epistles— we have the 
clearest revelation given in Scripture of the character (a), qualifica- 

Character 

tions (6), and duties (c). r ' the Christian minister. Though the an( j ( .] atv f 
whole are often described in the same passage, they may be thus Christian 
arranged: Ministers. 

(a.) 1 Tim. i : 2 Tim. i. 6-8; ii. 1-8, 14-26: 2 Cor. iv. 1-7: Acts xx. 27-32. 
(6.) 1 Tim. iii. 1-7 : Tit. i. 5-11 : 1 Pet. v. 1-3. 

(c.) 1 Tim. iv. 6-vi. 21: Tit i. 13: ii. 1— iii- 11 (see Rom. x\i. 17,18): 2 Tim. iii. 
14-iv. 5. 

With all these passages compare Paul's description of his own experience, mo- 
tives, and labors (see Cor.); a model of the gospel ministry. 
The qualifications of deacons are described in 1 Tim. iii. 8-13: Acts vi. 2-6; see 

also Phil. i. 1, where ministers and deacons are addressed with all the „ 

. , Deacons, 
samts. 

On the other hand, churches owe to their ministers support (a), affection, and 
respect (b). and. within proper limits, obedience (c). Correspond 
(a.) 1 Tim. v. 17, 18: Gal. v. 6, 7: 1 Cor. ix. 4-14: 2 Thess. iii, 8, 9: ing duties of 
Matt. x. 10 : Luke x. 7. churches. 
(6.) 1 Tim. v. 17 : 1 Thess. v. 12, 13. 

(c.) Heb. xiii. 17 ; for the limits see 1 Cor. xi. 1 : Phil. iii. 17 : Heb. xiii. 7 : 1 Pet. v. 3. 
These Epistles contain also the fullest account of the approaching corruption of 

Christianity (a), and of the extensive prevalence of infidelity (6), in , . . 

„ . ■; w " , J ., , . A . Approaching 
what Scripture calls the last times. corruption of 

(a.) 1 Tim. iv. 1-5: 2 Tim. iii. 1-13: 2 Thess. ii. 1-12: 2 Pet. ii.: Christianity. 

Jude 17, 18. 

(6.) 1 Thess. v. 22 Pet. iii.: Rev. xiii. 11, 14 : Luke xiii. 35-38; xviii. 8. 

To correct these errors, inspired writers direct us to appeal to apostolic doctrine 
and example, and to the Scriptures generally, 1 Tim. iv. 6-11 : 2 Tim. ^ met 
iii. 14-iv.-v: 2 Thess. ii. 13-17 : 2 Pet. i. 12-21 : Jude 20, 21. This Scrip- W me 

tural plan of checking error is highly instructive. 

THE EPISTLE OF PAUL TO TITUS. MACEDONIA, A. D. 64 OR 57. 

192. Of Titus nothing more is certainly known than we find in the 
Epistles of Paul. From incidental allusions to him wo learn that he 
was a Greek by birth, Gal. ii. 3, who had been converted to Christianity 
by the instrumentality of Paul, Gal. i. 4. He went up with Paul and 



696 



TITUS — CONTENTS. 



Barnabas to Jerusalem, Gal. ii. 1, and afterwards accompanied Paul 
on his travels ; and is repeatedly mentioned by him in terms of appro- 
bation and affection, 2 Cor. ii. 1, 2, 13 ; vii. 5, 7 ; viii. 19-24 ; xii. 17-21. 

Being the son of Gentile parents, and therefore in different circum- 
stances from Timothy, he was not circumcised. Circumcision in his 
case would have involved, as Paul reasoned, a compromise of principle, 
Gal. ii. 5. 

At the time when this Epistle was written, Titus had been left by 
the apostle in the island of Crete, that he might establish and regulate 
the churches there (i. 5). It is not easy to determine when this oc- 
curred ; no opportunity for it having been afforded by the only visit 
to Crete, recorded in Acts xxvii. 7, 8 ; for he was then on his way to 
Pome as a prisoner, his stay was short, nor could he then expect to 
spend the ensuing winter in Nicopolis (see iii. 12). 

Some have supposed that Paul may have been at Crete on his voyage 
from Corinth to Ephesus, mentioned in Acts xviii. 18 ; and have 
written this Epistle subsequently from Ephesus, having formed the 
intention of spending the winter at a town named Nicopolis, between 
Antioch and Tarsus (see iii. 12). Others have placed Paul's visit to 
Crete between his leaving Ephesus for Macedonia and his second visit 
to Corinth, mentioned in Acts xx. 2. But the more general opinion 
is that the visit to Crete here referred to was upon a jtfUrney which 
Paul took after his first imprisonment at Rome, when he sailed to 
Asia, taking Crete in his way, and leaving Titus there ; and that he 
wrote this Epistle from Macedonia, when on his way to Nicopolis. 

It is further supposed that Titus, according to Paul's desire, joined 
the apostle at Nicopolis, and afterwards accompanied him on his last 
journey to Rome, being with him there during part of his second im- 
prisonment, 2 Tim. iv. 10; and having then gone into Babnatia, 
probably to preach the Gospel, or to visit churches already formed 
there. What became of him afterwards we are not informed. The 
tradition is that he returned to Crete, and died there at the age of 94. 

We know nothing of the first introduction of the Gospel into Crete, 
but as there were Jews from that island among Peter's audience on 
the day of Pentecost (Acts ii. 11), and they were numerous there 
(Philo), it is probably that the Christian faith was carried thither by 
converts from among them. It appears also, from this Epistle, that 
Paul had labored there, and probably with considerable success ; but 
that, by some means, he had been hurried thence before he could order 
the state of the churches in a regular manner. 

The commission intrusted to Titus in Crete appears to have been 
peculiarly difficult. Although nature had endowed this island with all 



TITUS. 



697 



that could tend to render man happy, and the inhabitants had formerly- 
been renowned for the wisdom of their constitution and their laws, 
long before this time the state of law and of morals had sunk very 
low. The character of the people was unsteady, insincere, and quar- 
relsome: they were notoriously given to licentiousness and intempe- 
rance. Some of the Jews who had settled among them seem to have 
been regarded by the apostle as more dangerous in many respects than 
the natives themselves. 

There is a striking resemblance between this Epistle and the First to 
Timothy ; and they are generally supposed to have been written about 
the same time. This Epistle is particularly remarkable, as compressing 
into a very short compass a large amount of instruction, embracing 
doctrine, morals and discipline. Its contents are as follows : — 

After an apostolic salutation, declaring the object for which Paul 
had invested Titus with special authority, he describes the qualifica- 
tions required of those who were to be ordained to the ministry ; and 
which were the more necessary on account of the dangerous principles 
of the false teachers whom they had to oppose, and the general charac- 
ter of the Cretans (1). He next describes the instructions which were 
to be given to various classes of persons, enjoining upon the aged and 
the young the virtues which ought severally to distinguish them ; ex- 
horting Titus (himself a young man) to set a pattern, in his own con- 
duct, of the virtues he was to inculcate; teaching servants to be 
obedient and faithful ; for the salvation of the Gospel was designed 
for all orders and classes of mankind; making them holy in this life, 
and preparing them for a higher and better (2). Titus is then instructed 
to enjoin obedience to rulers, and a peaceable and gentle behavior to 
all men ; remembering their own former sinfulness, and their salvation 
through the free grace of God. The indispensable obligation which 
believers are under to excel in good works is insisted upon ; cautions 
are given against engaging in frivolous inquiries and unprofitable dis- 
putations ; and, after some other brief directions to Titus, the Epistle 
is closed with salutations and a benediction (3). 

It is very observable in this Epistle, that those of the humblest rank are exhorted 
to adorn the Gospel (ii. 10), and that while our salvation is ascribed exclusively to 
grace (ii. 11), to the "kindness and love of God our Saviour" (iii. 4), this fact ja 
made the ground of the most urgent exhortations to holiness (ii. 14; iii. 8). 

On the duties Christians owe to civil government, Tit. iii. 1 : see 
Rom. xiii. 1-10: 1 Pet. ii. 13-17: 2 Pet. ii. 10: Jude 8. 
59 



698 



2 PETER — LAST WORDS. 



THE SECOND EPISTLE GENERAL OP PETER. A. D. 64 OR 65. 

193. The Epistle is addressed to all believers (i. 1), and especially to 
the same persons as the former (iii. 1). It was written not long before 
the apostle's martyrdom (i. 14), a circumstance that gives it a solemn 
interest. 

As in the earlier Epistle, he exhorts to patience under persecution, 
bo here he exhorts to perseverance in truth amidst prevailing error 
and practical infidelity. The best preservative is, as he tells them, 
progressive piety (i. 3-11) : decisive evidence of the truth of Scripture 
doctrine being given also by irrefragible testimony and fulfilled pro- 
phecy (i. 16-21). In terms most energetic and awful he warns false 
teachers, and those who were beginning to yield to their seductions, 
of their guilt and danger (ii. 1-22), and assures them that the second 
coming of the Lord, though long delayed, through long-suffering, is as 
certain as the fact of the deluge (iii. 1-3). He then exhibits the 
bright side of the same truth, and bids Christians be diligent and holy 
(iii. 14-18). Appealing to Paul's teaching, in confirmation of his 
views, he marks how men had wrested his teaching so as to make it 
countenance most pernicious practices, an evil to be remedied not by 
neglecting those Scriptures, but by increased teachableness and hu- 
mility (v. 15, 16). 

What set of heretics is here condemned is not certainly known. 
Their licentious practices (ii. 10-15), their covetousness, their denial 
of the Lord (ii. 1), their promises of freedom (ii. 19) are clearly denned, 
and serve to connect the advocates of such views with those men- 
tioned (in nearly the same terms throughout) by Jude and by John, 
Rev. ii. 14, etc. 

On the genuineness of this Epistle, and of the other antilegomena 
(questioned Epistles), see § 170, and Part i. \ 153, 155. 

How prone men seem to be to pervert truth ! The Thessalonians 
supposed that our Lord's coming was to be immediate; those of whom 
Peter writes supposed it to be indefinitely delayed. Amidst such ten- 
dencies nothing less than the Divine Spirit could have preserved 
apostles in a watchful, patient frame, nor could anything less than the 
energy of the same Spirit have taught poor fishermen to speak as they 
do of God, of sin, and of coming judgment. The sublimity, spirituality, 
and harmony of these revelations are among the most decisive evidences 
of a Divine inspiration. 

We treasure up the last words of great men. In the immediate prospect 
of martyrdom, holiness appears to Peter of the last importance, and 



Paul's last words — 2 timothy. 



699 



steadfastness the greatest blessing. His last precept is, " Grow in 
grace and in the knowledge of our Lord and Saviour, Jesus Christ," 
and his last testimony is to the Divinity of his Lord, " To Him be 
glory, both now and for ever, Amen," 2 Pet. iii. 18. 

Diligence and eminent piety enjoined from various considerations, 
i. 5-11 : Heb. iii. 14 ; iv. 11 ; vi. 7-18 : Gal. vi. 9: Col. i. 23 : Rev. iii. 
11 : 1 John iii. 10-24. 

On the final judgment and its issues, see iii. 10-13: Rom. ii. 16 ; iii. 
5, 6; xiv. 10-12: 1 Cor. iv. 5: 2 Cor. v. 10: 1 Thess. iii. 13: 2 Thess. 

i. 7-10: Phil. i. 10; ii. 16: Heb. ix. 27: 2 Tim. iv. 1: Jude 24: Rev. 
xx. 11-15: Matt. xiii. 40; xvi. 27; xxv. 31-46: John v. 22-29: Acts 
x. 42; xvii. 30, 31: Psalm xcvi. 13: Ecc. xii. 14. 

Connect and read, i. 1, 3, 12, 16, 19 ; ii. 1, 4: iii. 1, 5, 8, 11, 14, 17. 

THE SECOND EPISTLE OF PAUL THE APOSTLE TO TIMOTHY. 
ROME, A. D. 65 OR 66. 

194. This Epistle was apparently written when Paul was a prisoner 
at Rome (see chap. i. 8, 16; iv. 6); and probably during his second 
captivity, not long before his martyrdom. That it was not written 
during his first imprisonment may be gathered in part from the absence 
of several who were with him then (see Phil. i. 1 : Col. i. 1 : Philem. 
ver. 1: Heb. xiii. 23: compare also chap. iv. 10, 11, with Col. iv. 10, 
14); and from the difference in the apostle's expectations, which were 
now fixed upon a speedy decease (compare chap. iv. 6, with Phil. i. 25; 

ii. 24: Philem. ver. 22: Heb. xiii. 23); as well from his circumstances 
of increased restriction and greater solitude (compare chap. i. 17, 18, 
with Acts xxviii. 30, 31, and Phil. i. 13). But more decisive evidence 
is afforded by several incidental allusions to events which had clearly 
occurred not long before this letter was written. Mention is made of a 
cloak and books left at Troas (iv. 13), which Paul had not visited for 
five years before his first imprisonment at Rome; of Trophimus, who' 
had been left sick at Miletus (iv. 20), but who had been with the 
apostle at Jerusalem at the time of his first apprehension, Acts xxi. 29 : 
of Erastus aR having stayed at Corinth (iv. 20), where Paul had not 
been since his visit there five years before, accompanied by Timothy, 
Acts xx. 4. All these circumstances seem to show that this Epistle 
must have had a later date, probably about the year 65 or 66: two 
years later than his First Epistle. The interval between his two im- 
prisonments he seems to have spent in Asia, Philem. 22 : Phil. ii. 24; 
i. 25: Macedonia, 1 Tim. i. 3: wintering in Nicopolis, Tit. iii. 12. 
Why he returned to Rome wc are not told, but ho was soon impri- 
soned as an evil-doer, 2 Tim. ii. 9; and among his accusers was Alex- 



700 



paul's last words — 2 timothy. 



under, the Judaizing teacher of Ephesus, " who did him much evil," 
iv. 14. 

If this view be correct, and this Epistle was the last which the 
apostle wrote before his martyrdom, it is invested with peculiar in- 
terest, as containing the dying counsels of one who was not "behind 
the chiefest of the apostles." 

One object of writing this Epistle, was to request Timothy to come 
to him speedily (iv. 9) ; because his other friends had left him (see iv. 
10-12). He desired the presence of Timothy and Mark, that they 
might both cheer him in his trials, and aid him in the work of the 
ministry (see ver. 11). , The absence of all allusion to Peter throws 
light on the question raised (on p. 691), in reference to the place of his 
martyrdom. 

Commencing with strong expressions of affectionate regard, he ad- 
dresses to his son Timothy a series of earnest exhortations to steadfast- 
ness, diligence, and patience in his work ; to courage and constancy 
under persecutions ; and to the exercise of all personal virtues : en- 
couraging him by calling to mind his early training in piety, and in 
the knowledge of the Scriptures : reminding him of some who had 
proved unfaithful in the hour of trial : warning both Timothy and his 
flock against false teachers, vain controversies, and false professors, 
the increase of whom is predicted : foretelling the grievous times which 
were yet to come : and enforcing his solemn charge to Timothy to be 
vigilant, faithful, and zealous in the discharge of his ministry, by the 
consideration that his own course was nearly run, and the time of his 
departure was at hand. 

Throughout this letter to his beloved friend, Paul manifests a strong 
conviction of the truth of the principles he had embraced, a happy 
superiority to all his past or future sufferings in support of them, 
and a triumphant assurance of his great Master's approbation and 
reward. 

Connect and read, i. 1, 3, 6, 8, 13, 15 : ii. 1, 8, 14, 19, 22 : iii. 1, 10, 
14: iv. 1, 6, 9, 14, 16, 19, 22. 

This Epistle contains a noble view of the consolation which Chris- 
tians enjoy in the midst of suffering, and in the prospect of death, i. 
9-18 : ii. 9-13 : iv. 6-8, 16-18. The holiest spiritual affection to God 
and Christ is not only consistent with human friendships, but produc- 
tive of them, i. 2-5: iv. 9, 21. Nowhere are privilege and duty, grace 
and holiness more closely combined, 2 Tim. ii. 19. In the approaching 
corruption of Christianity, Paul directs Timothy to the true conserva- 
tive principle of its purity • not miracles nor a fresh revelation, but 



JUDE. 



701 



the doctrine in which Timothy had been instructed, and those Scrip- 
tures which make the man of God perfect, thoroughly furnished unto 
all good words, iii. 14-17: 2 Thess. ii.: 2 Pet. i. 15-21; iii. 1-4, 14-17. 
How instructive that in the last writings of both Peter and Paul, nor 
less in the writings of John (Rev. xxii.), and in the prospect of the 
heresies that were to prevail in the church, we should be directed to 
the study of the Bible, and that we are thus led to expect no additional 
disclosure of the Divine will. The Ceoss — our hope, our model, our 
motive : The Crown — its purity, certainty, blessedness : The Woed 
— its* promise, precept, doctrine, all complete — are among the last 
words of the sacred page. Only let these continue to be set forth, and 
the church need not fear. 

THE GENERAL EPISTLE OF JUDE. SYRIA, A. D. 75 OR 64. 

195. Jude, the author of this Epistle, was Called also Lebbaeus and 
Thaddseus, Matt. x. 3 : Luke vi. 15. He was the brother or near 
relation of our Lord, and one of the twelve apostles. We read little 
more of him in the Gospels than that he inquired of our Lord how he 
intended to manifest himself to his disciples and not to the world, John 
xiv. 22. His Epistle is supposed to have been written to Jewish 
Christians in Syria and Arabia, where he is reported to have labored : 
as Peter's Second Epistle was written to persons of the same character 
in Asia. It is highly probable that one had seen the writings of the 
other. Compare 2 Pet. ii. Those who think that Peter had seen 
Jude's Epistle give to the latter the date of 64 or 65 A. D., as does 
Lardner, or even an earlier date ; while others conclude that it was 
written about 75 A. D., or even later. 

The design of the Epistle is clearly to guard the Christian church 
against those false teachers who resolved all religion into speculative 
belief and outward profession, and sought to allure the disciples into 
insubordination and licentiousness. The whole may be divided into 
two parts : the first descriptive of the punishment, 5-7 : the second, of 
the character of these seducers, 8-19. To guard the disciples against 
being led astray by them, the apostle refers to the Israelites who had 
perished in the wilderness, to the angels who had fallen from their 
original dignity, and the cities of the plain which had been made an 
example of Divine vengeance ; and shows that a similar fate awaited 
those wicked seducers. He reminds them that it had been predicted 
that such persons should arise in the last period of the world ; exhorts 
them to steadfastness and prayer, and to efforts for the salvation of 
others ; and concludes with an ascription of praise to Him who alone 
59* 



702 



1 JOHN— LESSONS. 



could preserve them horn falling. See 2 Pet. ii. 3 : 2 Thess. ii. : 2 
Tim. iii. 

Ungodly men have many pleas to urge in arrest of judgment. " They 
had experienced deliverance:" but so had Israel, ver. 5. "They had 
lived near to God, and his favor had exalted them:" so had the lost 
angels, 6. " They but yielded to natural propensity :" so did Sodom, 7. 
Thus may the Old Testament be used to illustrate the New, and facta 
to prove principles. 

Sec. 4. — Helps to 1st, 2d, and 3d John and Kevelation. 

the first epistle of john. towards the close of the 
1st century, or 68. 

196. This sacred writing, though called an Epistle, has more of the 
character of a discourse on the doctrines and duties of Christianity. 
It appears to have been addressed to believers generally, especially to 
Gentiles and residents in Asia Minor, among whom John himself had 
labored (ii. 7; ii. 12-14, 20-27). The writer has not deemed it neces- 
sary to prefix his name ; but its remarkable similarity, both in matter 
and expressions, to the other writings of the apostle John, confirms the 
testimony of the early Christians, and affords satisfactory evidence 
that he was its author. It was certainly written by an eye-witness 
of the person and labors of our Lord (i. .1-4 ; iv. 14). It is commonly 
supposed to have been written from Ephesus, but at what precise date 
is uncertain ; a late date is highly probable from the errors which are 
here condemned. 

It was evidently one object of this Epistle to counteract errors 
already prevalent. Some questioned the Divine dignity of our Lord, 
and denied him to be the Son of God. These the apostle calls de- 
ceivers and antichrist 3 (ii. 22; iv. 15; v. 1). Others denied his 
humanity, thus contradicting the real fellowship of Christ with men 
(Heb. ii. 16; iv. 15), and the reality of his death and propitiation. 
His incarnation was, as they held, but an appearance, and the story 
of his life, a myth. This delusion the apostle strongly denounces 
(iv. 3), and declares that he had himself felt with his hand the body of 
his Lord (i. 1). A third party seem to have held that it was enough 
to worship God with the spirit, and that the body might have all pos- 

aThe word Antichrist occurs only in these Epistles. It means either one who 
claims to be Christ, or one opposed to him; and such are all who deny that Jesus 
is Messiah (or Christ), or that the Messiah has come in the flesh. When the word 
s applied to the Great Apostasy (2 Thess. ii. 3-10), as it is in modern discussions, 
it means that that apostasy is supremely opposed to our Lord in his teaching and 
office. 



1 JOHN — LESSONS. 



703 



sible indulgence. This immoral creed the apostle refutes by showing 
that every sin is real transgression (iii. 4); that fellowship with God 
purifies the Christian, and that by this purity only can we be recog- 
nized as His (iii. 8-10; ii. 5; iv. 13; v. 11). 

The errors which are thus rebuked early ripened into heresy, and 
their advocates were known by different names (see \ 191 (3) ). 
Whether they had made such progress as to have formed defined sects 
at the time this Epistle was written is doubtful ; but its contents are 
such as refute these and similar errors, both of ancient and modern 
times, and in this respect it possesses peculiar value. 

While the correction of prevalent error was clearly one aim of this 
Epistle, it was not the only, perhaps not the chief aim. Other topics 
are introduced and discussed, of the deepest interest, and to these the 
correction of error seems regarded as subordinate. 

i. We are taught the true nature of fellowship with God (i. 3 a ). He 
is Light (i. 5) and Love ; and fellowship implies conformity to Him . 
light, and therefore man must be purified and redeemed (i. Y— ii. 2): 
light, and therefore man must be holy (ii. 3-7) : love, and therefore we 
must love one another (ii. 27). Let, however, Christ be denied, and all 
these blessings are lost (ii. 22-24). 

ii. We are taught the blessedness and duties of sonship. Not only 
fellowship, but adoption is our privilege in Christ : and again we are 
led to the same results. God is righteous : as his children we too 
must be righteous (ii. 29— iii. 3). Christ came to take away sin ; and 
in him is no stn ; to him we must be conformed (iii. 4-10). He gave 
his life for us, and herein his love is our model (11-18). Having his 
spirit we shall share his other blessings (19-24). Again, let Christ be 
denied, in his human nature especially, and these blessings are lost 
(iii. 19-iv. 6). 

iii. He had begun with the truth that God is light; and thence 
shown what fellowship with him and sonship involve ; now he gives 
another view. God is love (iv. 7, 8). Love is his essence, was mani- 

a Note the revelation here given of the theme of apostolic teaching (i. I, 2), and 
its result (3). (1.) Christ's eternity and union with the Father, John i.l; xvi.28; 
xvii. 5,24. (2.) Christ's manifestation in the flesh, and to each Christian. John i. 14. 
(3.) Eternal life in him, John x. 28: 1 John v. 11. In its results, this message brings 
fellowship with apostles, with God, and with our Lord ; with apostles, for we share, 

i. e. have "in common" with them (Acts iv. 32), forgiveness, love, and parental dis- 
cipline, Rom. v. 1 : Eev. i. 9; with God, for we share his holiness (2 Pet. i. : 2 John 

ii. 29; v. 18) and blessedness; with Christ, for we share his. justification— sin has no 
more dominion ovev him— his resurrection, adoption, and glory. This idea of 
"fellowship," of which pecuniary contribution is one and a lower form, being ex- 
pressed by the same word, Koiva>vix t explains many passages. 



704 



1 AND 2 JOHN. 



fested in the mission and character of his Son, and is the necessary 
condition of sonship (v. 21) Love to God and one another, faith in 
Christ, such confidence as casts out fear, are all among the results 
which this revelation secures. Only let us truly believe that God 
gives eternal life, and that life in his Son (v. 11-13), and we become 
holy and happy; we are forgiven and sanctified. Reject this truth or 
any part of it, and we are left without hope. Like the world we lie 
in wickedness (v. 18). 

Very beautiful is it to mark how from the holiness (light) and love 
of God he gathers the doctrine of propitiation, and proves the necessity 
of holiness. Compare i. 5-ii. 11, and iv. 7-13. 

197. The general character of this Epistle probably gave occasion to 
the opinion early entertained that John was of a peculiarly affec- 
tionate disposition ; and this opinion seems just. Yet none has spoken 
of false doctrine more sharply. The gentlest Christian may be a son 
of thunder (Luke iii. 13-19) when Christ's honor is at stake, and 
charity may be exercised in denouncing sin as well as in loving the 
brethren. v. 

The truth most largely insisted upon in this Epistle is the necessity of 
holiness, as the evidence and fruit of faith, i. 6; ii. 3-11, 29; iii. 3-15, 
19, 21, 24; v. 18: Rom. viii. 16: James ii. 17-26 : Tit. i. 16; ii. 11,12: 
Eph. ii. 10: John xv. 2. 

THE SECOND EPISTLE OF JOHN. 

198. Of trie thirteen verses of this Epistle, eight are in substance 
found in the first, and it is concluded, from the similarity of style and 
subject, that both were written about the same time, and in reference 
to the same topics. It is addressed to a Christian lady and her chil- 
dren, for the purpose of encouraging them to continue in the truth, 
and avoid giving any countenance to deceivers. He calls her Electa, 
possibly from her name, but more probably (see ver. 13) on account 
of the eminence of her piety. The opinion that some church, or the 
church at large, is addressed under this title can scarcely be main- 
tained 

An Epistle so addressed shows with what vigilant affection the 
ministers of the Gospel ought to cherish the piety of those whom they 
have gained, and it shows no less the importance, in the sight of God, 
of the station of a Christian mother, and the earnestness with which 
the should interest herself in the religious welfare of her children. 



3 JOHN — REVELATION. 



705 



THE THIRD EPISTLE OF JOHN. 

199. That the Gains or Caius, to whom this Epistle is addressed, 
was the person mentioned in Rom. xvi. 23, and 1 Cor. i. 14, though 
not certain, is highly probable; as he appears to have been an eminent 
Christian, particularly distinguished for his hospitality to Christian 
evangelists or missionaries. The apostle expresses his affectionate joy 
at this and other evidences of his piety ; cautions him against one 
Diotrephes, noted for his ambition and turbulence ; and recommends 
Demetrius to his friendship; deferring other matters to a personal 
interview. 

" The Elder," the name assumed by the author of this and the pre- 
ceding Epistle, might probably be applied to John, when all the other 
apostle^ were dead, as a title of honorable distinction ; for he was the 
senior of the whole church ; or he might modestly, yet as claiming 
authority, use it upon this occasion. 

Comparing these two Epistles with Philemon, it is evident that the 
apostles wrote as apostles even in their private letters, and that, what- 
ever the theme of their communications, they imparted to each a savor 
of Christ. 

THE REVELATION OP JOHN. PATMOS, A. D. 96. 

200. This book is styled the Apocalypse, or Revelation (i. e. the re< 
vealing or unveiling of that which had been hidden), as consisting of 
matters chiefly prophetical, which were revealed to John by our Lord 
Jesus Christ. This took place when he was in the isle of Patmos, in 
the iEgean Sea, whither he was banished, as is generally supposed, by 
the Emperor Domitian, A. D. 94 or 95. Some, indeed, are of opinion 
that this happened much earlier, during the persecution of Nero, A. D. 
67 or 68 ; but the arguments adduced in support of this opinion are by 
no means conclusive. Irenseus, Eusebius, and, in the third century, 
Victorinus, expressly refer the book to the age of Domitian, a view 
favored by the testimony of Clement of Alexandria, Origen, and 
Jerome, nor is there any other tradition in the early church. Internal 
evidence also confirms it, such as the prevalence of persecution, and 
the great declension which appears to have taken place in the Ephesian. 
church, which, as late as A. D. 62, was warmly commended by Paul, 
for the fidelity and love of its members. No book, it may be added, 
was earlier commented upon, nor is it surpassed in dignity and sub- 
limity of composition. 

This book greatly resembles those of Ezekiel and of Daniel, both in 



706 



REVELATION — OUTLINE. 



form and in substance. It appears, indeed, to be a continuation of the 
prophecies of Daniel ; but given with greater fulness of detail ; the 
principal topics being the same, and the termination exactly identical. 
It consists of two principal divisions : — 

Part i. (i.-iii.) relates to " the things which are ;" comprising a pre- 
paratory vision exhibiting the Divine perfections and the human 
sympathy of the Redeemer, and the Addresses or Epistles to the Seven 
Churches ; each of which consists of three parts : 1. The introduction, 
referring in each case to some of the attributes of Him who addresses 
the church, taken from the preceding vision, in which a progressive 
order is observable, and an appropriateness to the general tenor of the 
epistle which follows; 2. A description of the characteristics of the 
church, with suitable encouragement, admonition, or reproof; and 3. 
Promises of reward to those who overcome, which are addressed to all 
the churches. 

ii. The remainder of the book (iv.-xxii.) is occupied with the pro- 
phecy of " the things which shall be hereafter." It consists of a series 
of visions, showing forth, by means of symbolical imagery and figura- 
tive language, the conflicts and sufferings of the people of God, and 
his judgments upon their enemies; and concluding with a representa- 
tion of the church of Christ, the New Jerusalem, after the final judgment. 
The principal contents of this prophecy are as follows : — 

An introductory vision, representing the Divine glory (iv.), the 
eealed scroll, and the Lamb who alone is worthy to open it (v.) The 
opening of the first six seals (vi.) The sealing of the 144,000 of the 
tribes of Israel ; the appearance and worship of the innumerable mul- 
titude from all nations ; and the opening of the seventh seal (vii. ; viii. 1). 
The vision of an angel offering incense at the altar ; followed by the 
sounding of the first six trumpets (viii. 2-13 ; ix.) The vision of a 
mighty angel, with a little scroll open in his hand ; which, after the 
Beven thunders, and the angel's proclamation, John is directed to take 
and eat (x.) The measuring of the temple and altar ■ the two witnesses ; 
their prophesying, death, resurrection, and ascension ; the sounding 
of the seventh trumpet (xi.) The vision of the woman persecuted by 
the dragon; the conflict between Michael and his angels, and the 
dragon and his angels ; preservation of the woman in the wilderness 
(xii.) The beast rising up out of the sea, and the second beast coming 
up out of the earth (xiii.) The vision of the Lamb and the 144,000 on 
Mount Sion; the proclamations of the three angels; the harvest and 
Ihe vintage (xv.) The pouring out of the seven vials of plagues (xvi.) 
The angel's description of the woman sitting upon the beast (xvii.) 
Another angel's proclamation of Babylon's fall and destruction (xviii.), 



REVELATION- — OUTLINE. 707 

followed by songs of praise and exaltation (xviii.; xix. 1-10). "The 
Word of God " attended by his faithful followers, by whom the beast 
and the false prophet, and the confederate kings, are overthrown and 
destroyed (xix. 11—21.) The binding of the dragon, and his imprison- 
ment for a thousand years, during which the saints live and reign 
with Christ ; and at the end of which, Satan being again loosed, gathers 
the nations once more to battle against "the beloved city," when he 
and his rebellious hosts are finally overthrown and cast into the lake 
of fire (xx. 1-10). Visions of the last judgment, the new heaven and 
the new earth, and the heavenly Jerusalem (xx. 10-xxii. 5): followed 
by final addresses from the angel, from Christ, and from the apostle, 
declaring the Divine origin, the absolute certainty, and the speedy 
accomplishment of these predictions (xxii. 6-21). 

More briefly, the whole has been summed up thus : — 
We have, first, seven epistles to the seven churches (i.-iii.) ; and 
seventhly, towards the close, the New or heavenly Jerusalem (xxi.-xxii.) 
We have secondly, seven seals (iv. 1-viii. 1). 

thirdly, seven trumpets sounded (viii. 2-11). 

fourthly, three enemies, Satan, the beast, and the false 

prophet warring against the church (xii.-xiv.) 
fifthly, seven vials are poured out (xv. xvi.) 
sixthly, the three enemies of the church are overthrown 
(xvii.-xx.) 

With these central objects, seals, trumpets, vials, Satan, the beast 
and the false prophet, and other visions, are interwoven as introduc- 
tory and concluding scenes. 

201. In the interpretation of Revelation we meet with many diffi- 
culties. The general meaning of the symbols is, indeed, commonly 
clear, founded, as they often are, on resemblance, and used with uni- 
formity, but the application of symbols to specific events is by no 
means obvious. A principle adopted by Dean Woodhouse seems 
deserving of general acceptance, namely, that unless the language and 
symbols of the Apocalypse require another mode of application, its 
predictions are to be applied to events occurring in the progressive 
kingdom of Christ, or the history of the Christian church from the 
apostolic age to the end of time. The Bible is the history of the church, 
and of other nations only so far as they are connected with it. And 
it seems but reasonable to look in revelation for the same general truth 
■which we find elsewhere. The whole analogy of Scripture is in favoi 
of this view. 



708 REVELATION — MODES OF INTERPRETATION. 



ON THE PROPHETIC VISIONS OF THE REVELATION. 

As no other portion of sacred Scripture is more difficult, so of none 
have the explanations been more various. The different theories may 
be arranged under three heads. 

I. Some consider the greater part of these prophecies to have had 
their fulfilment in the early ages of the church. 

In this view, Grotius, Hammond, Wetstein, Eichhorn, De Wette, 
Lee, Stuart, and Hug concur, and of course maintain the earlier date 
of the book. This is the preterist interpretations 

Professor Stuart, who advocates this view, divides the whole into 
three great catastrophes : the first (chap, vi.-xi.), describing the destruc- 
tion of Jerusalem, and the overthrow of the Jewish persecuting power, 
by a series of Divine judgments ; and, at the same time, the deliverance 
of the Christians: — second (chap, xi.-xix.), the destruction of the Roman 
persecuting power, and the triumph of Christianity over Paganism : — 
and third (chap, xx.-xxii.), the last great efforts (still future) of heathen 
antichristian powers, issuing in their entire overthrow; followed by 
the general judgment, the everlasting punishment of the wicked, and 
the glorified state of the righteous. 

II. A second class of expositors, comprising the greater number of 
Protestant writers, regard these prophecies as a delineation of the great 
features in the history of the world, or of the church, from the apostolic 
age to the end of time. 

This interpretation regards the narrative as a continuous history, 
reaching on to the end of time, though some parts of the book are 
treated as synchronological. Its advocates are Mede, Sir I. Newton, 
Vitringa, Bishop Newton, Scott, Forbes, Frere, Cuninghame, Wood- 
house, Elliott, Keith, and Birks. 

While agreeing, however, in this general view, they display the 
utmost diversity of opinion as to the application of the different 
symbols ; some extending them more or less to the events of secular 
history, while others restrict them entirely to the affairs of the church. 

According to the scheme of interpretation adopted by the late T. Scott, 
the first six seals (chap, vi.) predict, first, the early progress of Chris- 
tianity, and then the gradual undermining of the Pagan persecuting 
Roman Empire by successive judgments, till it was terminated by the 
conversion of the emperors to Christianity. In the first four trumpets 

a These outlines are taken, as are portions of the introductions to several of the 
» Epistles, from the Pocket Paragraph Bible, published by the Religious Tract 

Society 



REVELATION — MODES OF INTERPRETATION. 709 



(chap, viii.), is foretold the gradual subversion of the Roman Empire 
by the Goths, Huns, Moors, and Vandals ; and in the fifth and sixth 
(chap, ix.), the spread of Mohammedanism, first under the Saracens 
and then under the Turks. Chap. xi. is interpreted as predicting the 
corrupt state of the nominal Christian church, for a period of 1260 
years ; during the whole of which, however, there is a competent number 
of suffering witnesses for the truth, who protest against these corrup- 
tions, till at length they are slain, and their testimony is silenced for a 
very short time. These last circumstances are considered as future. 
Chap. xii. refers again, in more detail than before, to the revolution by 
which the Roman Empire became professedly Christian. Chap. xiii. 
predicts the rise, establishment, and dominion of the papal Roman 
Empire, as the ten-horned beast; the Romish clergy as the two-horned 
beast ; and the Pope as the image of the beast. (These are supposed to 
be afterwards more fully described in chap, xvii.) Chap. xiv. refers to 
the opposition made by true believers to this antichristian power. The 
seven vials (chap, xvi.) predict a succession of judgments (the whole, 
or by far the greater part, being yet unfulfilled,) by which the papal 
empire and Rome itself will be utterly desolated, as declared in 
chap, xviii. 

The elaborate work of Mr. Elliot (Horce Apocalyptical) proceeds upon 
similar principles, though in greater detail, and with many important 
differences in application. He supposes the first six seals (chap. y\) 
to depict six successive periods in the history of the Roman Empire, 
between about A. D. 96 and 324 ; namely, 1st, an era of conquest and 
prosperity : — 2d, Civil war and bloodshed • — 3d, Fiscal oppression and 
grievous distress : — 4th, Wide-spread desolation : — 5th, Persecution and 
martyrdom of Christians :— 6th, Overthrow of paganism by Constan- 
tine. The "sealing of the servants of God" (chap. vii. 1-8) denotes 
the preservation of a faithful remnant during the long apostasy. The 
first six trumpets (chap, viii., ix.) describe successive scourges upon 
the Roman Empire, by the invasions of the Goths, Vandals, Huns, 
Saracens, and Turks. The "little book," and the following visions 
(chap. x. xi. 1-13), are a supplementary revelation, having reference 
chiefly to the era of the Reformation ; the measuring of the Temple 
denoting a separation of the true from the apostate church ; and the 
two witnesses (chap. xi. 3-13) signifying the twofold succession of 
faithful Churches in Eastern and Western Christendom. In chap. xi. 
14-19, the prophetic history is resumed with the sounding of the 
seventh trumpet; but is again interrupted by a distinct series of visions 
in chap, xii., xiii ; that of " the woman clothed with the sun" (chap, xii.), 
60 



710 REVELATION — MODES OF INTERPRETATION. 



describing the struggle between the Christian church and the pagan 
dragon ; the first beast with ten horns (chap. xiii. 1-10), denoting the 
Roman power under its papal head ; the second two-horned beast (chap, 
xiii. 11-18), representing the Romish hierarchy, with its two orders of 
clergy; and the "image of the beast" signifying the general councils 
of the papal church. After another series of intermediate visions in 
chap, xiv., the prophetic history is carried on in chap, xiv.-xvi., by 
the pouring out of the seven vials, which are applied to events arising 
out of the French Revolution, commencing in 1789. The sixth, which 
( :s interpreted as signifying judgments upon the Turkish empire, forms, 
according to this scheme, the boundary line, separating the past from 
the future. 

Dr. Keith interprets the first six seals (chap, vi.) as representing 
the church of Christ, and the various forms of false faith by which it 
was to be assailed; namely, 1st seal, 'Descriptive of the Lord Jesus 
Christ and the Christian religion ; 2d, Mohammedanism ; 3d, Popery 
in the dark ages; 4th, Infidelity; 5th, The depressed and persecuted 
state of the true church in past ages ; 6th, " The great day of the wrath 
of the Lord," yet unfulfilled. The first six trumpets (chap. viii.. ix ), 
he explains as describing the series of events which ended in the ex- 
tinction of the Roman Empire. The visions in chap. x. he refers to 
events in Europe, at and after the period of the Reformation. The 
two witnesses (chap, xi.) he considers to be faithful churches of Christ ; 
and their prophesying in sackcloth for 1260 years not to have yet 
ceased. The woman clothed with the sun, etc. (chap, xii.), represents 
the history of Christianity, and the conflict of the church with its pagan 
and papal enemies. The first and second beasts (chap, xiii.) are impe- 
rial and papal Rome. The seven vials (chap, xiv., xv.) are the judg- 
ments of God on the papacy; the first five of which were fulfilled in 
the French Revolution and the wars which followed it; the' sixth vial 
signifying the wasting away and dissolution of the Turkish empire, 
now in progress of accomplishment. 

Dean Woodhouse, adopting as a fundamental principle, the religious 
reference of all the symbols, views the seals as giving a general outline 
of the history of the Christian church; — the first three, reaching to the 
middle ages; the fourth representing the papal tyranny; the fifth, the 
martyrs of the whole period ; and the sixth, the triumphs of the Re- 
formed churches, and the approaching overthrow of all the enemies of 
God. The trumpets, he supposes to go over the same ground, in more 
detail ; describing attacks of heretics and antichristian corrupters on 
the Christian religion; the first four relating to those to which it was 
subjected in its early ages from Jewish and pagan enemies, and from 



REVELATION — MODES OF INTERPRETATION. 711 



false teachers; the fifth to the heresy of the Gnostics, and the sixth to 
the Mohammedan powers. The vials, he regards as designating suc- 
cessive inflictions of Divine vengeance upon the enemies and persecutors 
of the church, not yet fulfilled. 

Another scheme of interpretation, proceeding on the same general 
principle as the preceding, but differing considerably in its application, 
proposed in a work entitled " The Book of the Unveiling, with Notes," 
is as follows : — That the seals (chap, vi.) represent different periods in 
the history of the church ; namely, 1st, The early triumphs of the 
Gospel; 2d, Severe persecution; 3d, Affliction, famine, and general 
distress, both temporal and spiritual ; fulfilled in the invasions of the 
Roman Empire by the Northern nations, and in the darkness and decay 
of the church ; 4th, Awful corruption, apostasy, and persecution, 
comprising the period from the establishment of the papacy to the Refor- 
mation ; 5th, A period of comparative repose and revival, commencing 
with the Reformation and extending to the present time ; 6th, Shaking 
among the nations, universal revolution, and great terror, still future, 
but near at hand. As, according to this scheme, the seventh seal, and 
the seven trumpets, and seven vials are still in futurity, no attempt is 
made to explain them ; but the series of visions in chap, xii.-xvi. 16, 
are considered to be illustrative of, and to synchronize with those in 
chap, vi.-ix : — chap. vi. being parallel with chap, xii., xiii. ; chap. vii. 
with chap, xiv., xv. ; chap, viii., ix. with chap. xvi. 1-16; and chap, 
xi. 15-19, with chap. xvi. 17-21. 

According to another view taken of the plan of this Book, a more 
general meaning is given to many of the symbols; and the subjects 
are considered as not being arranged in strictly chronological order. 
For example, the scenes presented at the sounding of the first four 
trumpets (chap. viii. 7-12), are supposed not to refer exclusively to any 
particular places, times, or persons, but to predict scenes of devastation, 
each rising above the preceding in fearful signs of woe; the country, 
with its fertile fields, first suffering; then the maritime districts with 
the sea, then the rivers, with the cities upon their banks, and lastly, 
the luminaries of heaven. It is urged that the presentation, in these 
symbols, of different departments of creation, the progress of the series 
to a climax, and the recurrence, in each, of the statement, that a third 
part of each was affected, indicate the general nature of the prophecy. 
In like manner, when, upon the pouring out of the first four vials 
(chap. xvi. 2-9), the land, the sea, the rivers, and the sun, are in suc- 
cession affected by the judgments of God, in a still more dreadful and 
extensive manner, those visions are regarded as having no restricted 
or exclusive application; but as representing generally, in conjunction 



712 REVELATION — MODES OF INTERPRETATION. 



"with those which follow (chap. xvi. 12-21), the judgments oi God, as 
coming with increasing terribleness upon such as persist in rebellion 
against him. 

One scheme which has been proposed (Biblical Review, 1847), pro- 
ceeding upon these principles, is in substance as follows: — That the 
first six seals (chap, vi.), exhibit successive judgments of God on the 
Jewish nation, ending in its complete overthrow, on account of its oppo- 
sition to the kingdom of Christ, and persecution of his people ; while 
the visions in chap. vii. signify the preservation of the servants of God, 
first among the Jewish people, and then among the Gentiles: — That 
the trumpets (chap, viii., ix.), which form the central subject of the 
next series of visions, are general symbols of universal devastation, and 
of severe and extensive calamities upon heathen and idolatrous nations 
(see chap. ix. 20), which were fulfilled in part by the disasters which 
came upon the Roman Empire, and led to its fall : — That the visions 
which follow (chap, x., xi. 1-13) are designed to direct the mind forward 
from the judgments on the wicked, to the time when God's promises to 
his people shall be accomplished: — That the two visions of the temple 
and altar, and the two witnesses, present a general sketch of the office, 
condition, and prospects of the Christian church, — this series of visions 
being closed with the sounding of the seventh trumpet, when the judg- 
ments of God are completed, and the world is subjected to his govern- 
ment, chap. xi. 14-19: — That with chap. xii. commences a new series, 
the visions in chap. xiii. representing two chief agencies employed by 
Satan in his opposition to Christ ; the first beast (ver. 1-10) denoting 
tyrannical earthly power, opposed to the government of God, and per- 
secuting his people; and the second beast (ver. 11-18) which supports 
the first, representing the power of false priesthoods, founded on delu- 
sion, and exercised by means of social privation and popular violence : 
— That, after introductory visions in chap, xiv., xv., the seven vials, 
or vessels of plagues, in chap, xvi., exhibit severe and extensive calami- 
ties on the votaries of the world, and of power and superstition amongst 
professed Christians; and that the woman sitting upon the beast (map. 
xvii.) and Babylon (chap, xviii.) are a twofold representation of the 
same object, signifying all antichristian and persecuting systems, 
usurping the name and the place of the true church of Christ, supported 
by worldly power, and governed by earthly principles ; and thus re- 
ferring clearly to Rome and the papacy, but not to them only. 

III. Another class of interpreters, taking an entirely different view 
from any of those already mentioned, consider the greater part, if not, 
the whole, of this series of prophecies to belong, in its strictest and 
fullest sense, to the last days. 



REVELATION — MODES OF INTERPRETATION. 713 



This interpetation is the futurist, and has been advocated by Mait- 
land, Burgh, and others. 

According to this scheme, all the prophetical part of the Apo .alypse 
is viewed as a representation of events, which are to take place shortly 
before the second advent of Christ, and the consummation of all things ; 
the Israel spoken of here being the literal Israel, — the " two witnesses" 
being two individuals, probably Moses and Elijah, — the days in the 
chronological periods, literal days, — and the antichrist or apocalyptic 
beast, under his last head, a personal infidel antichrist, who is to reign 
over the whole extent of the old Roman Empire, and to persecute and 
triumph over the saints for just three years and a half, until Christ's 
coming to destroy him. Mr. Burgh considers the " sealed book" (chap, 
v., vi.) to be the book, or title-deed of Christ's inheritance which has 
been purchased (Eph. i. 14), but is not yet recovered out of the hands 
of the usurper ; — the opening of the seals being the unfolding of the 
acts of Christ, when he shall vindicate his inheritance, and assume hia 
throne, — and the whole of the visions which follow being occupied with 
the events of that last great crisis. 

202. If, in consequence of the difficulties of this book, any are tempted 
to treat lightly all the prophetic Scriptures, let it be remembered that 
ancient prophecy was probably as mysterious to a Jew as is Revelation 
to us. That a son of David should not see corruption, that that son 
should be numbered with malefactors, be put to an ignominious death, 
and yet sit forever upon his throne, seemed profound mysteries. All, 
however, were fulfilled, and they served the meanwhile to sustain the 
hopes of those who were waiting " for the consolation of Israel :" so of 
this book. 

203. "Whatever difference of opinion may exist among interpreters, 
with respect to .the precise times and countries, events, and persons, to 
which it is supposed these visions refer, they ar*» mostly agreed, both 
as to its general character and design, and as to the lessons to be de- 
duced from it — lessons more or less appropriate to every age of the 
church. a Thus all have learned from these symbolical representations 
that Christ is exalted to the highest dignity in heaven, and exercises 
universal dominion on earth — that the state of the church of Christ is, 
for a long time, to be one of trouble and conflict — that st ead fastness 
and fidelity are our duty— that after the overthrow of its first adver- 
saries, the Jews, the great enemy would employ against it other agents 
—that worldly power and policy, the persecutor and the false prophet, 
would be allied in seeking to destroy or to corrupt it — that the marka 

feSee Delta on Revelation, Nlsbet, 1850. 

60* 



714 REVELATION — MODES OF INTERPRETATION. 



of this unhallowed combination are pride, worldly pomp, a persecuting 
spirit, a careless and luxurious life (xiii. 7; xviii. 3-24) — that while 
exposed to the assaults of these foes, it would ever be under Divine 
protection — that whatever was opposed to the kingdom of Christ would 
certainly be overthrown — that even now tliere is a constant and most 
intimate connection between the visible and invisible world, prayer 
and praise ascending continually to the throne of God, and messengers 
of wrath and mercy descending thence — that the providence and gov- 
ernment of God comprehend all subjects and events, and render them 
Bubservient to the best ends — that the church, after passing through a 
condition of abasement, warfare, and tribulation, will be brought to a 
state of honor, peace, and felicity — that the Saviour, who redeemed his 
people by the sacrifice of himself, ever regards them with infinite ten- 
derness and benignity, aids and defends them by his almighty power, 
and will receive them at last to his heavenly kingdom — and, finally, 
that the unholy being excluded, all the followers of Christ, of every 
age and country, will be united in one glorious society, exhibiting 
perfect holiness, and enjoying everlasting happiness, in the presence of 
their God and Saviour. These are some of the most important truths 
contained in this book; they are presented with peculiar vividness and 
power; and they have contributed much to the faith and love, the 
fortitude and patience, the hope and joy, of all the followers of the 
Lord. 

204. Among the prophetic visions of the Apocalypse, there is one 
which appears peculiarly prominent (xvii. xviii.); and which acquires 
the greater importance, as well as clearness, from other prophetic 
intimations evidently referring to the same subject, 2 Thess. ii. 3-12: 
1 Tim. iv. 1-5. There is unusual agreement among the greater 
number of the best expositors, in explaining these combined pro- 
phecies ; although some consider them to refer to events still 
future. They are regarded as predicting the rise and temporary 
ascendancy of a great apostate power, in the midst of the Christian 
church, which should be distinguished by the following character- 
istics : — 

1st. Eminent corruption of religion, which corruption, by fraud as 
well as force, it spreads and maintains throughout the world, 2 Thess. 
ii., iii. 8-10: 1 Tim. iv. 1, 2: Rev. xvii. 2-5; xviii. 3-5; xix. 2. 2d. 
Gross immorality and licentiousness, combined with hypocritical and 
self-righteous asceticism, 1 Tim. iv. 2, 3. 3d. Arrogant and blasphe- 
mous pretensions, usurpation of Divine prerogatives, opposition against 
Sod, and persecution of his people, 2 Thess. ii. 4, 5: Rev. xvii. 6-14: 
sviii. 6-20 ; xix. 2. 4th. Great wealth, magnificence, and luxury, Rev. 



REVELATION — MODES OF INTERPRETATION. 715 



xvii. 4; xviii. 7, 8, 11-19. 5th. Reliance upon the support and aid 
of worldly powers, whose tyranny it sanctions and upholds, Rev. xvii. 
1, 2, 15, 17; xviii. 3, 9. 

Such is the picture drawn by the hand of prophecy, of this rival and 
enemy of God, seated in his temple ; and its counterpart is but too 
clearly seen in the history of a great portion of Christendom. Out of 
the abundant proofs furnished by the records of the church during the 
long, dark night through which she has passed, and even by the pre- 
sent state of the world, it is sufficient to mention a few leading traits 
of character which mark that system of iniquity in which the fulfilment 
of these predictions is pre-eminently seen. Gross corruptions of Chris- 
tian doctrine and worship; — compulsory celibacy and uncommanded 
austerities, combined with meretricious splendor and a counterfeit 
Jewish ritual; — blasphemous assumptions of Divine titles and honors, 
claims of infallibility and supreme authority over the conscience, — 
dispensations and absolution of sins, pretended prophecies and miracles, 
— oppression and persecution of the people of God, carried on with the 
concurrence and aid of earthly rulers; — all these have been found 
more or less developed in those antichristian systems which have so 
greatly prevailed both in Eastern and Western Europe, to the hindrance 
of the spread of Divine truth, and the ruinous delusion of myriads, 
who, being blinded by error, perish in their sin. 

The fearful errors of this apostasy are not, however, the closing 
scenes of this book. The "wicked" or "lawless one" "the Lord shall 
consume with the spirit of his mouth," 2 Thess. ii. 8. She that did 
corrupt the earth shall be judged, Rev. xix. 2. And this great event, 
which will cause mourning to some on earth, will occasion great joy 
and thanksgiving in heaven, Rev. xviii. 9-19 ; xix. 1-6. Again, and 
again, and again, the cry is heard there, "Alleluia;" and the servants 
of God on earth are summoned to join in the song. 



205. Our work is done. The first chapters of Matthew 
show us Christ in his weakness; of royal descent indeed, and 
receiving the profoundest homage, yet poor and persecuted ; 
the last of Revelation show him with memorials of his suffer- 
ing—for he is a Lamb still— but triumphant, " reigning for 
ever and ever." In Genesis we see Paradise lost, and man 
driven forth from the presence of God; in Revelation more 



716 REVELATION — MODES OF INTERPRETATION. 



than Paradise is regained, men are once more in fellowship 
with God (xxii. 3, 4, 5), a fellowship that shall know no end. 
Malachi had ended with " a curse," the last words of John 
are of blessing (xxii. 21). So characteristic are the various 
portions of the Inspired Vo] ume throughout : so complete the 
whole. 



INDEX. 



Abimelech, kings so called, 184. 

Abner more righteous than Joab, ex- 
plained, 194. 

Abraham, his wanderings, 448 ; promise 
made to him. 448, 479; justified by faith, 
383, 657, 668-9; how to share his bless- 
ing, 369. 

Acts, book of, 640-41; illustrates the deity 
and offices of the Son and of the Spirit, 
641-3. 

A. D., the precise date of, 626. 

Adam, effect of his sin, 357, 445. 

Adoption, two kinds of, 289; privileges 
connected with, 703-4. 

Adultery, figurative meaning of, 348. 

Advocate, meaning of. 73. 

Affliction. 412; sanctified, 416-52; teach- 
ing of Scripture on, with examples, 418. 

Agag, different kings so called, 184. 

Alexander on the two economies, 133. 

Alexander's conquests, 603. 

Alexandrian Platonists, their influence. 
650. 

Allegory, kinds of, 174; rules for inter- 
preting, 313-8; Jewish modes of allego- 
rizing on words and letters; rational- 
istic mode, on facts so as to deny them, 
324; works on allegorical interpreta- 
tion, 337. (See Figures, Types, Para- 
bles.) 

Almond, a symbol, meaning of, 258. 
Alphabetical psalm, 440, 557. 
Ambiguous words in English version, 71. 
Ammon, prophecies on, 534. 
Ammonian sections, 36. 
Amos, book of, 539. 

Analogy, the source of most language on 

spiritual truth, 168; use of, m fixing 

meaning of words, 219-20. 
Analogy of faith, meaning of, and rules 

on, 205-11. 
Ancestors for posterity, 182. 
Angel of Jehovah, 151, 454. 
Ananias, sin and death of, 642. 
Anselm, on knowledge and experience, 

177. 

Antichrist, origin and meaning of. 702. 
Antilegomena, 22, 96; Gambier on, 83. 
Antioch, different cities so called, 185. 



Antiochus subdues Judaea, 604; foretold 

by Daniel, 561. 

Apis, tne Egyptian idol, 454, 581. 

Apocrypha, non-canonicity of, 102; histo- 
rical value of, 103; when declared ca- 
nonical by Rome, 243 ; Augustine on, 83. 

Apostles, their sufferings and travels, 
112, 241-2; their candor, 127. 

Arabia, divisions of, 292; prophecies on, 
534. 

Arabic language, 27; versions, 52; words 
in modern maps, 307. 

Aramaean dialect, 26; words in New Tes- 
tament, 33. 

Aristeas, story of, 46. 

Arnold on the progressive love of Scrip- 
ture, 141 ; on the practical reading of 
Scripture, 408. 

Ascensions to heaven under different 
dispensations, 446. 

Asia, meaning of, in New Testament, 306. 

Asmonseans, their history, 604. 

Ass in the east, passagesexplained, 256. 

Astronomy aids chronology, 253. 

Assyrian empire, silence of Scripture on, 
145; its history, 595; prophecies con- 
cerning, 534. 

Atheism springs from the heart, 676. 

Athens, idolatry in, 241. 

Atonement, idea of, how imparted, 172; 
meaning of, 229; importance of, 359; 
day of, 471. 

Augustus, who; different kings so called, 
184. 

Authenticity of the Scriptures, what, 83: 
proofs of its claim. 84-7; evidences of, 
106, ei seq. (See Genuineness, Eviden- 
ces.) 

Authority, double meaning of, 212. 
Azazel, meaning of, 468. 

Babylon, prophecies fulfilled, 121; cap- 
tivity in, 566-8; deliverance from, a 
type of redemption. 333: its condition 
in the days of Isaiah, 515; prophecies 
concerning, 53 1. 

Bacon, on seeking philosophy in Scrip- 
ture, 141; on interpretation, 313. 

Balaam, his character, 202. 

(717) 



718 



INDEX. 



Balm of Gilead, 258. 

Baptism, its signification, 196. 

Barnabas, history of, 134; his conduct to- 
wards Mark, 135. 

Baxter's rule for the removal of doubts, 
140. 

Beasts, their symbolical meanings, 348. 

Beersheba. lessons connected with, 204-5. 

Belief, how controlled, 14!). 

Benson on Scripture difficulties, 408. 

Bereans, their study of Scripture and its 
results, 150. (ref. Acts xvii.) 

Beverage, eastern, vinegar, etc.; affect- 
ing illustration of our Lord's firmness, 
284. 

Bible, reasons for studying it, 11 ; spirit in 
which it should be studied, 12, 178; 
meaning of the word, 12; Scriptural 
names of, 13; scope of, 197; writers of, 
circumstances in which it was written. 
167; how to be studied, 404; its great 
urpose; influence of, on holiness, 130; 
annonies of, 133, 136; peculiarities of, 
as a revelation, 141 ; general view of its 
books, 425-6; how divided, 428; as a 
history, biography, 442; its threefold 
revelation, 442; to be studied by all; 
opinion of early Christians, 242; has 
Divine authority; the only Divine au- 
thority, 88; the book for the young, 
166. (See Testament, Division, Evi- 
dence, Interpretation, Genuineness, 
Authenticity. Canon.) 
3iblc or Testament, editions of, by Alter, 
39; Athias. 44; Bengel, 38; Beza. 17; 
Birch, 39; Boothrovd. 44; Curcelteus. 
38; De Rossi, 44; Elzevir, 16; Erasmus, 
16, 38; Fell, 38; Griesbach, 39; Hooght 
(Van der), Houbigant, 44; Jahn, 44-5; 
Kennicott, 17,44-5; Koppe, 238; Lach- 
man. 40; Mattheei.39; Mill, 38; Scholz, 
40; Stephens, 16; Tregelles, etc., 40. 
Bickersteth's View of Scripture Prophe- 
cy, 342. 
Bind and loose, 237. 
Birch's Auctarium, 104. 
Birks on the Chronology of the Acts, 
645; on the harmony of different parts 
of the Gospels, 133-5. 
Bishop, universal, when applied to the 

Pope, 243. 
Bitumen, what, 269. 

Blood, different meanings of, 188; why 

offered in sacrifice, 468. 
Boldness in the faith, 411. 
Bombergs Bible, 609. 
Born again, 237. 

Botany of Scripture; list of all plants, 
258-69. 

Bottles, eastern, 291. 

Boyle on Scripture, 11; on Scripture de- 
velopment, 155. 

Bridges on Systematic Divinity, 352. 

Brown's Harmony of the Scripture Pro- 
phecies, 348. 

Burial, eastern, 290. 

Burnt-offerings, 467. 

Burton's Bampton Lectures, 608. 

Bushe on Evidences, 83. 



Business not to interfere with holiness, 
374; Nehemiah an example. 578. 

Butler's Analogy, 133; on Scripture dif- » 
Acuities 400; on the account of Crea- 
tion, 143; on moral and positive pre- 
cepts, 364. 

Car ala, 610. 
Cabalists, 608-10. 
Ciesarea, 185. 

Caiaphas, a Sadducee, 610. 
Caiflan, his place in genealogies, 248 
Calendar of the Jews, lessons taught by, 
310-11. 

Canaan, meaning of, 182; its divisions, 
296; woman of, called a Greek. 306. 

Canaanites, their punishment, its lessons, 
478; some spared, 482; the curse on 
them did not affect the righteous, 182. 

Candor of inspired writers illustrated,, 

Canon, meaning of; books of, 14; how 
preserved. 101; how settled, 94. 95, 99 ; 
catalogues of the books, 98, 100; Deu- 
tero-canonical, 96; or antilegomena, 
22. (See Apocrypha.) 

Capellus, his services in Biblical Criti- 
cism, 44. 

Capernaum, its geographical position, 
133. 

Captivity, its causes and results, 566; pro- 
phecies on, 567; return from, 568. 

Cecil and Jay, models of practical expo- 
sition, 422. 

Cecil on the Connection of the Two Cove- 
nants, 141 ; on the systematic study of 
Scripture, 165; on the richness of 
Scripture, 236. 

Cedar, a symbol of the righteous, 255. 

Celibacy, when made compulsory, 243. 

Ceremonial law, its origin and object, 
459-62. 

Cerinthians, 650. 

Chaldaeans. prophecies concerning, 555-7. 
Chaldee, 27 ; chapters in, 560-9. 
Chariots, meaning of, in visions, 574. 
Cherubim, 349. 

Christ, a chief theme of Scripture, 143; 
of prophecy, 337; his work, how fore- 
told, 329; particulars foretold, 117; pre- 

Sarations made for his coming, 443; 
is death and resurrection, 359 ; psalms 
on his character, 387 ; gradual revela- 
tions of, 151 ; mysteries connected with, 
■ 146; physical cause of his death, 134; 
journeyings on the night of his be- 
trayal, 305; his Divinity, the doctrine 
.of the early church, 242; proved from 
Old Testament, 384 (see Angel): his 
incarnation and dignity, 689; his supe- 
riority to Moses and Aaron, 689; all 
truth in him, 615 ; in the Gospels, 617-18; 
his teaching, 614: his atonement, 359; 
duration of his ministry, 627; his son- 
ship recognized, his death, his first 
miracle, 631; discourse and public act, 
632. 

Christians, peculiar names in New Testa- 
ment, 134; their excellencies, how set 



INDEX. 



719 



forth in Scripture, 163; bound to spread I 
the Gospel, 374. 

Chronicles, books of, 489-90; relations to 
Kings and Samuel, 490. 

Chronology, peculiar difficulty in, from 
modes "of writing, 70: of reckoning, 
251-2; of Old Testament, 217-50; com- 
parative claim of Hebrew, Septuagint, 
and Samaritan, 250; utility of, m teach- 
ing moral truth, 213; different epochs 
of, 215 ; rules for framing a system, 251 ; 
difficulties in, 391-2; ancient, confirms 
the truth of the Pentateuch, 432; of 
the Gospels 626-33; of the Acts and 
Epistles, 614-6. (See Assyria, Egypt, 
Pentateuch.} 

Chronological arrangement of Scripture, 
153, 443-00. 514-17. 

Church, its character and members; its 
discipline, 643; described historically 
in the Acts, 610; duty to ministers, 695 ; 
the Bible, a history of, 143; Abraham's 
seed, 331. 

Classic usage as to New Testament words, 
321-2 

Claude's Essay, 422. 

Climate of Judsea, 307-9. 

Coasts, meaning of, 306. 

Codex, Code, meaning of, 35; Cod. Alex. 
Vati, etc., 17, 34, 41; readings of Cod. 
Alex., 47-58. 

Cognate languages of Scripture, 25; use 
of. in interpretation, 220 

Colossians, Epistle to, 198. 681-3. 

Coming One, the, 225, 338, 344. 

Coming (second) of Christ, 344. 

Commandments, the ten, rules for inter- 
preting, 363; moral and positive, 364-5. 

Comparison, how expressed in Heb , 181; 
of Scripture with Scripture (see Paral- 
lels). 

Coinplutensian New Testament, 16. 
Concordance, Hebrew and Greek, 230. 
Conjectural readings and emendations, 
64. 

Connection (historical), of the two Tes- 
taments, 599-606. 

Constitution, the Jewish, described, 462. 

Context, use of, in fixing sense, 189-92, 
210; in suggesting lessons, 412-13. 
»■ Contradictions (apparent), of Scripture, 
their origin, 71, 171, 183, 1S6, 199, 203, 
251-2, 288, 354; how reconciled (the 
foregoing pages, etc.), 392-8. 

Controversy, difficulty of conducting, 439. 

Conversation, carriage, charity, meaning 
of, 72-3. 

Corinth, its character and importance, 
658. 

Corinthians (the), Epistles to, 658-65. 
Corruptions of Christianity, how met, 

695-70U-1; whence originating, 649-63. 
Cosmogonies, ancient, compared with 

Scripture, examples of, 146. 
Counsel of God agrees with his promises, 

367. 

Covenant, meaning of, 13; the new, the 

old unveiled and completed, 425. 
Covenants, different, mentioned in Scrip- 



ture, 448; with David: himself refers 
them to the Messiah, 485. 
Covetousness condemned. 161, 287, 509. 
Creation, lessons in history of, 445. 
Cretans, their character, 697. 
Cush, 186. 

Customs explain texts, 274, 289; difficul- 
ties in, 391. 

Damascus, its character, 293. 
Daniel, book of, 426. 559; chronology, 
divisions, and spiritual lessons, 560-2; 
Daniel an example to young men, 
562. 

Dates of English Bible, whence taken, 

247; discrepancies of, origin of, 251. 
Daubuz on symbolical language, 348. 
David, a man after God's own neart, 201; 
his righteousness explained, 194; his 
prophecies of Christ, 487; Christ spoken 
of under his name, 329; his character 
and reign, 491; his sin and its chastise- 
ment, 244. 
Davidson's Biblical Crit., 46, etc. 
Davison on Prophecy, 119. 
Day, Jewish, how divided, 287. 
Deacons, their qualifications and duties, 

695. 
Dead Sea, 186. 
Dedication, feast of, 471. 
Deductions from Scripture, authority of, 
357-8. 

Delta on Revelation, 713. 
Depravity, human, 135, 157, 244, 358. 

Deuteronomy, 435. 

Development in Scripture, 150-6; abuse 
of, 156. 

Devils, meaning of, 73; the devil, his per- 
sonality, 445. (See Satan.) 
Difficulties of Scripture, how far to be 
studied, origin of, 378; in words and 
scope, 389-97; in truths, revealed, 398; 
utility of, 402; not all to be removed, 
408. 

Discrepancies, apparent, of Chronicles 
and Kings, 488; of the Gospels, 630. 
(See Contradictions.) 
Dispensations, successive, character and 

duration of each, 151-4. 
Divisions of Old Testament, 13, 78; of New 
Testament; Euthalian sections, 36; 
into chapters and verses, 77; occasion- 
al inaccuracy and rule, 78. (See Am- 
monian, Eusebian.) 
Divisions among Christians, the sin and 

cure of, 665. 
Docetae, 650. 

Doctrine, how illustrated by example, 413. 
Doctrines of Scripture, the foundation of 
morality, 362; to be held consistently, 
356; comparative value of, 358-9; essen- 
tial doctrines the same in all ages, 157; 
interwoven with precepts, 165; sur- 
names, 179; passages proving (see 
Rom.) how systems are framed, 355. 
Dogmatic theology, what, 355. 
Domestic usages among the Jews, 276-80. 
Dress, eastern, "naked" explained, 278. 
Duties of Christians to God, to man, to 



720 



INDEX. 



themselves, 673; duties of justice, ve- 
racity, and love, 674; relative duties, 
675. 

Eagle, habits of, illustrate Divine teach- 
ing. 255. 

Earths mentioned in Scripture, 269-70. 
Ebionites, 239^40. 

Ecclesiastes, book of, true key to, 511-14. 

Ecclesiastical writers, their testimony on 
the genuineness of Scripture, 18; of the 
first four centuries arranged, 107. 

Edoin, prophecies on, 534; fulrilment of, 
120. 

Economy, the old. 689-90. 
Egypt, history of, 145, 595; prophecies 
on. 534; its climate. 308; plagues of, 
238,454; customs of. 431; tendency of 
Jews to rely on, 545-54. 
Egyptian words in Pentateuch, 29; in 
hew Testament, 33; Egyptian versions, 
43. N 
Ekron. prophecies on, 552. 
Election, how taught, 356. 
Eli. how punished", 244. 
Elihu's humility, 439. 
Elijah's miracles, 115, 582-3. 
Elisha's miracles, 115, 582-3; disinterest- 
edness, 286. 
Eminent piety enforced, 698. 
English versions- authorized, what-, 86; 
general accuracy of. 66 ; corrections of, 
67-75: history of. 79-80; Wyolifle's, Tyn- 
daie's, Coverdale's, 79, 80; Genevan, 
Douay, Khemish. etc, 80. 
Englishman's Hebrew and Greek Con- 
cordances, 230. 
Ephesians, Epistle to, 198, 679; warnings 
suggested by history of the Eplresian 
church, 681. 
Epicureans, 239, 608. 
Epistles, how to be studied, 647-51. 
Era of Nabonassar, 545; various eras or 

epochs, 245-6. 
Error, its progress downwards, 450, 676; 

errors of the early church, 649. 
Esdraelon, valley of, 294. 
Essenes. 607, 611. 
Essential truths, what, 179, 359. 
Esther, book of, 576-7. 
Ethics, how taught in Scripture, 149. 
Ethiopic language, 28; and versions, 43. 
Ethnography, use of, 433. 
Etymology. how far a guide, 218. 
Eusebian canons, 36. 
Euthalian sections, 36. 
Evangelists, meaning of name, 617; can- 
dor of, 127. 
Evidences of the truth of Scripture clas- 
sified, H8-9; external and internal, 110; 
moral, 123; literary, 133; spiritual, 135; 
want of faith in. how removed, 140. (See 
Authenticity, Ecclesiastical, Genuine- 
ness, Pentateuch.) 
Evil, how overruled, 452. 
Examples of Scripture, how to be used, 
371; applied to illustrate principles, 
442; intended to promote holiness,374. 
Excuses of the ungodly, 702. 



Exodus, book of, 435. 

Expiation, 226; how taught under the 

law, 407-8. 
Ezekiel, book of. 562-5. 
Ezra, book of, 568-70. 

Fables of Scripture, 175. 

Fabricii Codex Pseud , 104. 

Faith, defined, 190; various uses of the 
word, 187; produces good works, 200, 
361; the gift of God, 150; man's respon- 
sibility for, 356; how produced, 150; 
the principle of obedience and suc- 
cess, 126; examples of, 162, 383; admits 
increase, 417; taught in Old Testa 
merit, ;ss;;. 

Fall, history of, its moral completeness, 
144. 

False teachers, three kinds of, 702. 

Fanciful interpretations, 179. 323-5. 

Fasts, Jewish, 471. 

Felix, his character, 162, 241. 

Fellowship with Christ, 703. 

Festivals, Jewish, 310-11, 4C9-70. 

Figurative language, origin of, 168; cau 
tions on, 170-71, 206; general nature 
of, 173-89; rules for interpreting, 188- 
96-207. (See Allegories, Prophecy.) 

Flesh, meaning of, 187. 

Food, eastern, 28 1-2. 

Foreknowledge, consistent with human 
freedom, 527. 

Forty, peculiar use of, 183. 

Francke on practical reading of Scrip- 
ture, 409. 

Furniture, eastern, 276. 

Furst's Concordance, 230. 

Galatians, the, their origin and charac- 
ter, 656; Epistle to, 658; compared with 
other epistles, 198; various readings 
of. ^3; scope of, 198-9. 

Galilseans, 610. 

Gaza, prophecy on, 532. 

Gehenna, origin of the name, 305. 

Gemara, 608. 

Genealogies of Scripture, use of, 446. 

Genesis, book of, 435. 

Gentiles, effect of Jewish rule, 606; their 
need of the gospel, 636-9; how met by 
the gospel, 636; preparation for receiv- 
ing them into the church, 532-4-43. 

Genuineness explained, 15; effect of 
printing on question of, 16; evidences 
of, 16-25, 106; of Pentateuch, 428-9; of 
Isaiah, 546; of Gospels and Epistles, 
618-19. 

Geography, utility of, 292; difficulties ex- 
plained by, 306; outline of, i!92-304. 
Geology, 432. 
Gerard's Institutes, 221. 
Gibbon on the effects of the gospel, 132. 
Gifts improved are increased, 359. 
Gilgal, lessons connected with, 295. 
Gill's Commentary, 238. 
Glory, the, 463. 
Glossaries, on Scripture, 224. 
Gnostics, 650. 

God, his nature, how revealed, 150; a 



INDEX. 



721 



Spirit, 205: his character; his govern- 
ment, 161; alone honored in Scripture, 
126; illustrated in Genesis, 4-15. 
Gospel adapted to man's wants, 136; 
agreement between it and experience 
of Christians, 137 ; contrasted with false 
systems, 157; its chief excellence, 160; 
influence of, among heathen nations, 
131-2. 

Gospels, the, their canonicity, 95; au- 
thority, 84-5; meaning of, connection 
of the* four, 617-18; chronology, 626-7; 
verbal agreement, 629; harmony of, 
628; apparent discrepancies. 030; topics 
to be noticed in studying. 633. 

Government, Christian duty to, 697. 

Gradual disclosure of truth in Old and 
New Testaments, 614. 

Graves on the Pentateuch, argument of, 
434. 

Grecian, 306. 

Greece, most civilized and most idola- 
trous, 131, 241. 

Greek language, its elements, 31; Hellen- 
istic. 30 ; Lexicons and Grammars with 
special reference to New Testament, 
33, 214; Greek article, importance of, 
69; rules of, 231; books on, 235-6. 

Greek Scriptures, earliest versions of; 
the Septua.2;int, 21; history and com- 
parative value of; chief editions of; 
versions made from, 46-7; MSS of, 16, 
41; quotations from, in Fathers, 18: use 
of, in interpretation. 224; history of the 
text of New Testament, 38; textus re- 
ceptus, 16. (See Aristeas, Origen, Va- 
rious readings.) 

Greeks, peculiar meaning of. 306. 

Grotius on Scripture Evidence a test of 
character, 139-40. 

Groves, worship in, 366. 

Growth, Christian, through the word, 693. 

Habakkuk, book of, 557-9. 

Habit, power of, 162. 

Habitations, eastern, described, 274-7. 

Hagenbach on the spirit in which the 

Scriptures must be studied, 177. 
Haggai, book of; prophecies concerning 

Christ, 571. 
Hagio.^rapha, what, 14. 
Hales' Chronology, 254. 
Hall, Bishop, on virtue, 366; on Ruth's 

history. 483. 
Hand-book, aim of, 11, 12. 
Hands placed on sacrifice, meaning of, 

467. 

Harmony of the Gospels, how framed, 
628. 

Hatred, in what sense enjoined, 181. 
Head-dress, 279. 

Heathenism, influence of, 132; ignorance 

of man's guilt. God's character, and 

future life, 636-S. 
Hebraisms of Scripture, ISO. 
Hebrew language, name, character, and 

history, 25, 28, 29; helps to the study 

of, 213. 

Hebrew Scriptures, earliest printed edi- 
61 



tions, 10: MSS. of. 17, 18: critical edi- 
tions of, 44; Hebrew text modified by 
passages in the New Testament, 380; 
difficulties in, 388-91. (See Targums, 
Masora.) 

Hebrews, Epistle to, 686. 

Hell, meaning of, 72. 

Hellenisms ot New Testament. 30, 225. 

Hellenistic New Testament, 229 

Herculaneum, MSS. found at, 35. 

Heresies in the early church, 650. 

Herod, persons so "called, 184 ; date of 
death of Herod Agrippa, 644; Heroa 
the Great, 605. 

Herodians, 610. 

High priest, 464. 

History, how to be studied, 343; profane, 
its use in interpretation, 240; ecclesi- 
astical, its use, 241. 

History, natural, its use, 254. 

History of the Bible, on what principle 
written, 141; regarded as allegorical, 
172-3. 322; difficulties, 392-5. 

Historical books of Scripture, Jewish, an 
arrangement of; by whom written, 473 ; 
on what principles, 474; religious char- 
acter of Old Testament history, 490-1 ; 
chronological order of, 476-7, 514-23. 

Hody on LXX.. 21. 

Holiness, idea of, how taught, 172; su- 
preme importance, 123-4, 359; promoted 
bv the gospel, 130; the fruit of faith, 
128. 

Holy Spirit, needed in reading the Bible, 
177; how revealed in Old Testament, 
151; his personality and office, 642-3. 

Homologoumena, 22. 

Horeb and Sinai, 186. 

Horn, the little, of Daniel's prophecy, 561. 

Home's Introduction. 46, etc. 

Horsley on the English Bible, 179. 

Hosea, book of, 541-3; marriage of the 
prophet, meaning of, 543. 

Houses, eastern, 274-5. 

Human nature. Scripture teaching on, 
141-58; portraits of, 58; its tendencies 
seen in Jewish sects, 613. 

Humility, idea of, new to the Greeks, 
173; Peter an example of, 693; Elihu, 
439; honor put upon, 359-410; how 
taught by our Lord, 359, 632. 

Idiom, Hebrew and Greek, importance of 
attending to, 69. 

Idolatry, under the law, treason, 463. 

Idumaea (See Edom). 

Immortality believed in by Old Testa- 
ment saints, 383; doubted by heathen, 
637. 

Importance of truths, how ascertained, 

358. 
Incense, 218. 
Inns, eastern, 290. 

Inspiration, Scripture teaching on. 91; 
theories of, 92; what it allows, 93; how 
it modifies interpretation, 404. 

Instills, different kinds. 290. 

Interpretation, rules of, 179-211; sane 
tioned by quotations in New Testament, 



722 



INDEX. 



440; helps to, 236; of Psalms; Song of 
Solomon, 503; Proverbs, 508; Ecclesi- 
astes,511; Joel. 537-8: Zechariah, 572-3. 
' (See particular books.) 

Intoxication, meaning of. in figures. 200. 

Introduction to books of Scripture, best 
expositors, 428. (See different books.) 

Irony, examples of, 194. 

Isaiah, book of, 54 i. 

Israel and Judah, different histories of, 
523-4; spiritual meaning of ''Israel," 
331. 

Isthmian games, 659. 
Italic, the old version, 47. 
Italics, meaning of, in Scripture, 76. 
'It/a, meaning of, 390. 

Jacob's conduct to Esau and its results, 
406. 

Jahn's Archaeology. 287. 

James, Epistle of; his history, 677; rela- 
tion of his Epistle to other Epistles, 
200. 

Japheth, prophecy on, 118. 

Jehoshaphat, 582. 

Jephthah's vow, 398. 

Jeremiah, book of, 553-7; different ar- 
rangement of his predictions, 555-6. 

Jericho, prophecy concerning, 478; its 
history, 295. 

Jeroboam, his character, 524. 

Jerusalem, history of, 301-6. 

Jethro, his different names, 185. 

Jews, prophecies on, 120; their history 
and rites typical, 173, 331; God's pur- 
pose in relation to, 675. 

Job, book of, 436; lessons taught by, 439 ; 
prophecies of Christ in, 447; difficulties 
of. 390: peculiar words in, 30. 

Joel, book of, 537-9. 

John. Gospel of. 624-6; Epistles of, 702-5. 
Jonah, book of, 530-7. 
Jones on the canon, 104. 
Jordan, 293. 

Joseph, his history and character, 416, 452. 
Josephus on the canon, 13; his account 

of Felix, 241; use of, in interpretation, 

324. 

Joshua, the high priest, 574. 

Joshua, book of, 477; relation to the Pen- 
tateuch, 482; lessons taught in the life 
of. 478. 

Jubilee, year of, 472. 

Judaea, heat, seasons of, 307-11. 

Judaizing teachers, their character, 649. 

Jude, Epistle of; connection with 2 Pet., 
701. 

Judges, book of. 481; moral condition of 

the Israelites under, 482. 
Julian era, G27. 

Judgment, the last. 699; qualities needed 
in. 359; shadowed forth in Old Testa- 
ment, 344. 

Justification by faith, Scripture view of, 
672; Paul and James compared, 197-9; 
blessings consequent on, 672. 

Karaites, 608. 

Ceith on prophecy, 121, etc. 



Kennicott, his labors, 17, 44-5. 
Kingdom of heaven, or of God, 237, 410. 
Kingdoms received from Rome, 291. 
Kings, books of, 488-9; to be compared 

with Chronicles, 490-521, 588-9. 
Kings, comparative view of reigns of 

those of Israel and Judah, 524-5. 

Lamentations, book of. 557. 
Lamy's Apparatus Biblicus, 312. 
Lardner, 133. 

Latin words in New Testament, 33. 

Law, -the, its true purpose, 435: outline 
of its provisions, 4G3-73; origin of ce- 
remonial, 459; how to be interpreted, 
363. 

Lebanon, 292-300; smell of, 255. 

Leighton's summary of 1 Pet., 692. 

Leland on Revelation, 132. 

Leslie on Miracles, 113. 

Letters, how to be written, 705; peculiar, 

in Hebrew Scriptures, 610. 
Levites, 404-6. 
Leviticus, book of, 435. 
Lexicons, authority of; Hebrew, 213; 

Greek, 214. 
Liberality, 374 ; its motives and measure, 

664. 

Liberty, spiritual, in things indifferent, 
658, 671. 

Light, meaning of, 171-89; God is light, 
703. 

Lightfoot's Horaj Heb., 238. 
Lion, habits of. 257. 

Lisco on the Parables, 321 ; on the Pro- 
digal Son and the rich man, 419-20. 

Locke on Theology, 170 ; on general truth, 
355: his Common-place Book, 422; on 
the Epistles, 048. 

Lord's Supper, commemorative not sacri- 
ficial, 605; of two kinds, 204; primitive 
practices in, 377; how to be observed, 
665. 

Love, constraining motive of obedience, 
665; sum of the law, 075; Christian, its 
supremacy. 665; God is love, 703. 

Luke, Gospel of, 623-4. 

Luther, his version, 216; on studying 
Scripture history, 375. 

Maccabees, 605. 
Magog, 185. 

Malachi. book of, 579-80. 
Malice, 74. 

Man, how revealed, 141, 162. 

Man of sin, 244. 656. 

Manasseh, his repentance, 588. 

Manuscripts, oldest known, 247; age, 
how fixed. 33-7: materials of, 35; of 
classic authors, 18; number of, 17,43, 
45; circumstances favorable to accu- 
racy of Scriptures, 22; comparative 
value of, 39, 43; classification of He- 
brew, 45; of Greek, by Bentley, Tre- 
gelles, etc., 40; uneial and cursive, 41-3. 
(See Codex. Genuineness, Greek, He- 
brew, Masora.) 

Marginal glosses, 56; readings, 76. 

Mark, Gospel of, 621-2. 



INDEX. 



723 



Marks of the Lord Jesus, 201. 
Marriage, 445-8; ungodly, mischief of, 

160; its duties, 664; meaning of, in 

symbols. 357. 
Marsh's Biblical Criticism, 46, 167. 
Masora. 609; Masoretic text, 43, 45. 
Matthew, Gospel of, 619-21. 
Meals, eastern, 280. 
Measures, Scriptural, 285-6. 
Media, history of, 597-9. 
Mediterranean Sea, 186, 293. 
Melchisedee, 26. 

Messiah, preparations for his coming, 
443. 

Mesopotamia, 292. 
Metals, 272-4. 
Metaphor, 174. 
Metonymy. 174. 
Micah'bobk of, 548-9. 
Michael is' Introduction, 38. 
Mill's Symbology, 348. 
Minerals, 269-70. 

Minister, 218 ; Christian ministers, their 

qualifications and duties, 694. 
Miracles, evidence of, 110; number of, 

111; books on, 110; of our Lord, 633; 

of Elijah, 502. 
Miraculous gifts, their use, 665. (See 

Leslie.) 
Mishna, 608. 
Mizpeh, 185. 
Money, early, 274-87. 
Montfaucon's Palaeographia Grasca, 38. 
Months, Jewish, tables of, 310. • 
Morality, Christian, its peculiarities, 673; 

founded on doctrines, 354. 
Moriah. Mount, 301. 

Moses, his candor, 127 ; how he honors 

God, 126. 
Mothers, their influence, 704. 
Mourning, eastern, 290. 
Myrrh, 258-65. 
Mystery, 74, 191. 

Nahttm, book of, 550-1. 
Naked, meaning of, 278. 
Names, proper, their importance, 202, 
218. 

Nathan, his character, 485. 

Nations taught their duties in the Old 
Testament, 491 ; heathen, how noticed 
in Scripture, 143. 

Natural history, utility of, 254; Botany, 
258-69 ; mineralogy of Scripture, 269-74; 
particular examples, 255-8. 

Neander on the Parables, 320-1; on 
church history, 376; his motto, 177. 

Nebuchadnezzar, his dreams, 591-2. 

Nehemiah, book of, 577; a model of 
patriotism and piety, 577-9. 

Nero, by what name called in Scripture, 
184; honor due to him, 244; Paul be- 
headed by his order, 699. 

New Testament, books of, 426; the ful- 
filment of the Old, 385-426; set forth, 
in Christ, 613; to be studied with com- 
parison, 635-6; sense of doctrine, 358. 
(See Testament.) 

Newton. b?*hop, on prophecy, 110. 



Newton, John, on systems of theology, 
511; on the practical reading of the 
Bible, 585. 

Newton, Sir I., on times of prophecy, 
346. 

Nicolaitanes, some account of, 650. 
Night, how divided among the Jews, 288. 
Nile, 186. 

Nineveh, its history, 595-6; predictions 
concerning, 122, 534; state, in the days 
of Nahum, 550. 

Numbers, book of; scope and contents, 
435. 

Numbers, mis-translations of, 70-1; liable 
to errors, 71; peculiarity in use of, 
183. 

Oaths, how far allowed, 373. 
Obadiah. book of, 565-6. 
Obedience, evangelical, motives to, 673. 
Obsolete words of English Scriptures, 
73-5. 

Offerings under the law, 466. 

Oil, value of; how used as medicine, 258; 
at feast, 282. 

Old Testament — meaning of name, 13; 
various readings of, 24; our Lord's tes- 
timony to, 86, 93; a moral history, 142; 
still instructive, 158; outline of, 425; 
use of, 424; its importance and inferi- 
ority to the New Testament, 427; is the 
New unveiled, 323; its temporal pro-, 
mises how far applicable, 368. 

Olives, Mount of, 395-7. 

Oracles, of God, what, 14. 

Ordain, various meanings of, 72. 

Origen's Hexapla, 48. 

Palestine, its names, 296; extent and 
divisions, 297-8; climate, 300; moun- 
tains. 299-300; population in ancient 
and modern times, 300-1. 

Paley on the Evidences, 107; his Horse 
Paulinas, 134; on devotional virtues, 
163. 

Palm-tree, an emblem of the Christian, 

254. 
Papyrus, 35. 

Parables, defined, 175; how differ from 
figures, 313; when used, 314; how far 
interpetation may be pushed. 318; 
scope, 316; of Old Testament 319; of 
New Testament classified, 31S-22; of 
Good Samaritan and Prodigal Son, 31 6; 
rules on, 315-20: books on, 326; why 
used in our Lord's teaching, 615. (See 
Lisco, Neander, Allegory.) 

Paradise, meaning of, 33. 

Paragraph Bible, 441; Paragraphs, im- 
portance of noting, 77. 

Parallel passages, importance of com- 
paring; verbal parallels, 201-3; paral- 
lels of ideas, 204; influence on text, 
88; suggest important lessons, 411; 
importance of studying illustrated, 
200. 

Parallelism, use of in interpretation 193; 
synonymous, 192; antithetic 193; con- 
structive, 441. 



724 



INDEX. 



Parchment, 34. 
Parenthesis, 195. 

Parents, their duties ; examples of godJy, 
664. 

Pascal on the study of Scripture, 176-7; 
on Scripture difficulties, 408. 

Particles, importance of, 195; different 
meaning of, 67. 

Passover, 455-69-70; when held, 254; cus- 
toms at, 289; type of Christ, 312-19. 

Patience involved in faith, 690. 

Patriarchs, their dispensation, 154; piety 
of, 449; their regard for a future life, 
384. 

Paul, his character, apostolic authority, 
663; last words, 701; his Epistles— 
authority and canonicity of, 85, 95. 
(See Fehx.) 

Peace, the fruit of faith, 672; how culti- 
vated, 675. 

Peace offering, 469. 

Penance 243. 

Penny, 74. 

Pentateuch, its titles; genuineness, 428- 
31; first questioned by Hobbes, 431; 
authenticity, 431-5; various documents 
used in preparing, 434; peculiar words 
in, 29. 

Pentecost, 470. 

Perfection, meaning of, 190. 

Persian words in Scripture, 33; version, 
52; doctrine of evil, 239. 

Peter, honored as the instrument of 
earliest conversions, 204; his humility, 
693; his last written words, 699. 

Petra, history of, 307. 

Pharaoh hardened by mercy, 360, 454; 
kings so called, 184. 

Ph ar i sees— Ph ar i sai sm, 607-8-10. 

Philemon, Epistle to, 683. 

Philippians, Epistle to, 684. 

Philistia, prophecy against, 534-5. 

Philosophy, its influence, 649-59; evil in- 
fluence on the early church, 649-50. 

Phoenician language, 26; customs, 239. 

Pingre's tables, 254. 

Plagues of Egypt, 405; their significance, 

454. 

Platonism, its influence, 650. 
Playfair's choronology, 254. 
Plural, how used, 181. 
Poetry, peculiarities of, 439-41. 
Policy, worldly, often destructive, 524. 
Polyglot, Complutensian, 16-; London, 
38, 44. 

Popery, novelties of, 243; false interpre- 
tations of, 196-204, etc.; adds to Scrip- 
ture, 156; mischievous influence of, 
164. 

Porter, Scott, 46, 66. 

Powel's summary of prophecies, 340. 

Practical reading of Scripture, sugges- 
tions on, 408-44; theology, what, 355. 

Prsetorium, what, 306. 

Prayer of Christians asked for by 
apostles, 664; how offered under the 
gospel, 679; promoted bv promise, 
366. 

Precepts, peculiarity of Scripture, 124-7, 



231; based on doctrines, 362; mora} 
and positive, 365; rules on, 366. (See 
Law.) 

Precious stones of Scripture, 271-2. 

Presumptive evidence, 108. 

Priests, meaning of, 217-18; their duties, 
support, etc., 464-66. 

Promises, a revelation of God's counsel, 
367; universal and particular, absolute 
and conditional, 369 ; differ from invi- 
tations, 369; ought to guide to prayer 
and holiness, 370. 

Proper meaning of words, what, 173-4. 

Prophecy, revives in Samuel. 485 ; grad- 
ual disclosures of, 486; moral lessons 
of, 145, 347; peculiarities of, as to 
time and language, 327-31; the last of 
Old Testament 580; last of the New, 
715; nature of, as evidence, 113; per- 
vades Scripture, 114; all subordinate 
to one end, 116; prophecies concerning 
Christ, 116, 337; pagan nations, 118; 
moral and evangelical, 145; double or 
repeated applications of, 333-4, 386; 
rules of interpretation, 335-7; sanc- 
tioned by ISew Testament, 386; two 
systems, 338; agreement, 345; differ- 
ence, 339; prophecies in historical 
books, 347; symbols of, 348; time in, 
346; books as evidence, 110. 

Prophetical books epitomized, 528-30; 
tabular view of, 530-4. 

Propitiation, what, 226. 

Proselytes, 505. 

Proverbs, book of. 506-11 ; rules for study 
of, 508; examples of exposition, 508-11. 

Providence,— of God illustrated, 438, 578; 
lessons of, 600; mystery of, 416; God 
in history, 126; requires submission, 
416. 

Psalms, name, Jewish division of, 494, 
value, 495; authorship, 494; arrange- 
ment of Townsend, Tholuck, etc., 496; 
chronological arrangement, 497-500; 
their titles, 501-3; rules for studying, 
503; a manual of devotion, 153, 487; 
arranged as such, 496. 

Ptolemy, common name, 184. 

Publicans, 284. 

Purgatory, on what passage it is sup- 
posed to rest, 197. 

Purification under the law, spiritual sig» 
nificance of, 469, 

Purim, feast of, 471. 

Qualities, how expressed in Hebrew, 

180. 

Questions in reading the New Testa- 
ment, 634. 

Quotations in the fathers. 18; influence 
of, on the text of LXX., 58; in New 
Testament, classified. 378; number of, 
from Pentateuch, 379; variations in, 
reasons for, 381; omissions in, 382; 
in Eevelation, 383; truths taught in, 
383. 

Rahab, her faith; an ancestress of the 
Messiah, 478. 



INDEX. 



725 



Rain under God's control. 309; unusual 
in harvest, 311; early and latter, 312. 

Rambach'a " Institutiones Hermeneu- 
ticee, 422. 

Rather, meaning of, 196. 

Rationalism, its evils. 608. 

Rebecca, lessons taught in her history, 
406. 

Reconciliation, meaning of, 226. 
Redemption, meaning of, 227; its source 

God s love. 672. 
Relative duties, how taught and enforced, 

615. 604. 

Religion, objective and subjective, 160; 
meaning of the word in Scripture, 75; 
a natural necessity, 676. 

Repentance, two meanings of, 72; ap- 
plied to God, 171; a gift and a duty, 
356; needed but not efficacious, illus- 
trated by examples, 319, 375 ; by para- 
bles, 420-1. 

Resurrection, doctrine of, 665; of Christ, 
its significance and importance, 359; 
an LMd Testament type ; the first fruits, 
313. 

Revelation progressive. 150 ; unity of. 156. 

Revelation, date and contents, 705; its 
chief theme; three theories of inter- 
pretation, 708-9; lessons revealed in, 
713; closing chapters of. compared 
with other chapters of Scripture, 715. 

Revenue of Juclsea in our Lord's day. 
299: different kinds of, how collected. 
282-3 

Reverence needed in studying Scripture, 
12,177, 408. 

Rhemish Testament, 80. 

Rice, how sown, 391. 

Riddles of Scripture, 175. 

Ridley, the martyr, on Scripture myste- 
ries, 358. 

Righteous, meaning of, 194. 

Righteousness ot God, why justification 
is so called. 676. 

Rock of the church, 204, rocks of Scrip- 
ture, 270-1. 

Roman empire foretold, 118, 561. 

Romans, Epistle to, scope, contents, 
and argument, 666; character of the 
church, 667; various readings, 23; 
scope, 200; reconciled with James, 
396. 

Rossi, De, MSS. of, 17, 44. 

Rules of interpretation, 179*-207; and 

utility of, 208. (See prophecy, Parable, 

etc.) 

Ruth, lessons taught in her history. 483; 

book of, 482; place in history, 516. 
Ryan on the effects of religion, 132. 

Sabbath, when instituted; how to be ob- 
served, 445; law of, mixed, 365; Sab- 
bath-dav's journey, 286. 

Sabbatical year, 469. 

Sacrifice, first mentioned in Scripture, 
446; meaning of, under the law, 172, 
218, 469; essential to salvation, 159. 

Saddncee*, their numbers, tenets, and 
immorality, 607-10. 

6J* 



Salutation, eastern, 290. 

Salvation by law proved hopeless, 42t; 

meaning of. 1S7-9 1-228; man's need of, 

672; by fire. 197. 
Samaria, the crown of pride, 307 
Samaritan language. 27; Pentateuch, 27, 

50; chronology, 247. 
Samaritans, their origin and views, 525 

612. 

Samuel, books of, 484-7. 

Sandals, customs connected with, 279. 

Sanhedrim, how composed, 611. 

Satan, his character and personality, 445; 

his agency, and our duty, 357. 
Satisfaction, doctrine ot; 228. 
Schmidt's Concordance. 230. 
Schoetgenius Hora3 Heb, 249. 
Scholiasts, Greek, use of, 224. 
Scholz. New Testament, 39. 
Schools of the prophets, 582. 
Science, agreement of Scripture with, 

148: exceptions, 149; not to besought 

in Scripture, 146. 
Scope, importance of marking; how 

learned, 197: effect of, in fixing sense, 

198; in correcting discrepancies, 199; 

in teaching lessons, 410. 
Scribes. 611. 

Scripture, study of, 11, 177-8. (See Bible, 
Old Testament, Written Revelation.) 

Sea, meaning of, 3C6. 

Sealing, 291. 

Seasons in Judaaa. 310. 

Sects, enumerated, 003-12; Jewish, illus- 
trate human nature, 613. 

Self-deception, illustrated, 162. 

Sense of Scripture. 166. 

Septuaginfc. (See Greek version.) 

Sepulchres, 291. 

Servants, their duties, 448; may adorn 

the gospel. 664. 
Seven; seventy, 183. 
Shall, double meaning of, 73. 
Sheep, tails of. why offered, habits of, 257. 
Shepherds in Egypt, 240, 432. 
Shcw-bread. 463. 
Sluloh, 295-6. 
Silence of Scripture, 147. 
Simon the Just, 603. 
Simoom. 308. 

Sin punished, as dishonoring God, 126; 
how described and illustrated, 161-3; 
the first, its destructiveness. Ill, V46; 
results. 357, 451; how punished in na- 
tions. 524-5; referred to in Job, 437. 

Sinai, 185. 299. 

Sodom, guilt of. 244. 

Sohar of R. Simeon, 238. 

Solomon, his character and reign, 492-3, 
his sin and its results, 244; prophecies 
concerning. 485. 

Son. the word, how used, 181-3. 

Song of Solomon. eanonieitv and spiri- 
tual, 503-6; significance, abuse in in- 
terpreting, 505. 

Songs of degrees, 198, 502. 

Spirit, Holy, hOW revealed, 151, ..47; Ins 
teaching" needed. 177; given at Pente- 
cost, 313; his personality and work, <,t J 



726 



INDEX. 



Spiritual truth revealed in figurative lan- 
guage, 168. 
Spiritual illumination, limit of, 178. 
Spurious, meaning of, 16. 
Stoics, 239, 608. 
Substitution, 229. 
Sufis, 608. 

Synagogues, origin of, 464. 
Synecdoche, 174. 

Systematic divinity, how framed, 512-19; 
differs from interpretation, 514; evil 
of repudiating, 517; canons on forming, 
521; examples of, 661, 672. 

Tabernacle, the, 463; feast of Taberna- 
cles, 470; custom at, 291. 
Tables of weights, etc., 285-6. 
Talbot's Bible, 422. 
Talmud, what, 609. 

Targums, various, 19; utility, 214, 238; 

origin of, 60S. 
Tarshish, 293. 
Taxation, 283-4. 

Taylor s Hebrew and English Concor- 
dances, 230. 

Temple, the, a type of Christ and of the 
church, 331 ; history of, connected with 
that of the Jews, 493; different names 
of, 72; brief history of, 302-3. 

Ten, usage as to, 183. 

Tenses, translation of, 70. 

Tents, eastern, 274-5. 

Testament, New, 613; connection of 
books of, 426; peculiarities of, 425-7, 
614; chief source of doctrine, 356. (See 
Old.) 

Textus receptus. 16. 

Thank-offerings, 468. 

Then, therefore, 195. 

Theodotion, version of, 21. 

Theology, what, 211; dogmatic and 
practical, 355. (See Systematic Di- 
vinity.) 

Therapeutic, 608. 

Thessalonians, Epistles to, 653-6. 

Thessalonica, its character, 653. 

Tholuck on religious insight, 177; and 
grammatical analysis, 179. 

Thomson on relative importance of 
truth, 359. 

Tiberias, city of. 306. 

Time in prophecy, 345-6. 

Timothy, date and contents of Epistles 
to, 693-5. 

Titus, date, scope, and contents of, 
695-7. 

Towns of Palestine, 277. 
Tradition, questions of, 608. 
Translation of Scripture, early, 19, 45, 
etc. 

Authorized version, 79. 
Armenian version, 20, 49. 
Anglo-Saxon, 49. 
Dutch, 216. 
French. 216. 
Georgian, 49. 
German, 216. 
Gothic, 49. 
Italian, 217. 



Italic, old, 47. 
Latin, modern, 215. 

Sahidic, 20 
Slavonic, 49. 
Spanish, 216. 

(See also Arabic, English, Egyptian, 
Ethiopic, Persian, Greek, Script., 
Syriac, Vulgate.) 
Translations, utility of, for interpretation, 
217. 

Transubstantiation, 156, 243. 
Tregelles, principle of classifying, MSS. 
40. 

Trespass-offerings, 468. 

Trinity, what, how revealed in Old Tes- 
tament, 150. 

Trommius Concordance, 230. 

Tropes, 173-5. (See Figurative.) 

Truth, summaries of. 158-79, 355, 516. 

Types, 172-5, 315-16, 322-5, 464; di- 
visible into (1.) Personal, — Adam, 
Aaron, Joshua, Solomon, etc.; (2.) 
Historical, — The Brazen Serpent; (3.) 
Religious Institutes, — Tabernacle, Mer- 
cy-seat, Sacrifice, Passover, etc. See 
on the general principle, 315, 106, 109, 
332. 

Unbelief, a great sin, 356; illustra- 
ted in the parable of the rich man, 
420-21. 

Uncharitableness, sin of, 439. 
Uncial MSS., 41. 

Untranslated words of Scripture, 75. 

Various readings, number of, 23, 24; ori- 
gin of, 53-61 ; rules for ascertaining the 
value of, 60-66; difficulties created by 
389-93. (See Conjectural.) 

Verbs of action, how used in Scripture 
183. 

Versions (see Translation). 

Vinegar, what, 282. 

Virtues have their counterfeits, 450. 

Visiting the sins of the fathers on the 
children. 361-97. 

Voltaire's abuse of Ecclesiastes, 513; ob- 
jections to Scriptures, 75-154 

Vulgate, history of, 20, 48; errors in text, 
48; utility of, 215. 

Warburtoit on Scripture difficulties, 

408. 

Warfare, the Christian, 681. 

Weights, 284. 

Wells, their value, 309. 

Wemyss' Key to the symbolical language 
of Scripture, 348. 

Wetstein's New Testament, 238. 

Whirlwinds, effects of, 308. 

White stone, 291. 

Will, double meaning of, 73. 

Wisdom.— is with the meek, 178; of our 
Lord, 129. 614-15; man's to be distrust- 
ed, 407; worldly, foil v of, in Jeroboam, 
581; tested by affliction, 413; in Prov. 
and Eceles., 513. 

Word of God, significance of title, 14, 



INDEX. 



727 



Words, common meaning of, 179; to be 

preferred, 210; lessons taught by, 410; 

use of etymology in explaining, 218. 
World. 296; elements of; course of. 191. 
Worship, acceptable, first recorded act 

of, 446; public, among the Jews, 463; a 

duty, 673. 

Written revelation, advantage of, 81; cau- 
tion respecting the use of, 81. 

Year, civil and ecclesiastical, 287; sab- 
batical, of Jubilee, 471-2. 



Zeal, instance of, 312-13; inculcated on 

all, 671. 
Zealots, who. 610. 

Zechariah, the son of Barachinh, 394. 

Zeehariuh, book of, 572-5; Btyle <»f. 29; 
his name confounded with that of Jere- 
miah, 572; Psalms ascribed u>, 575; 
meaning of his predictions. 573. 

Zedekiah. remarkable fulfilment of pro- 
phecy on, 253. 

Zephaniah. book of, 551-3: style of, 29. 

Zerubbabel, an ancestor of Christ, 593. 



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